9/1/2020

CIVL 6079
Slope Engineering

Lecture 1: Introduction and

landslide classification
Clarence E. Choi 蔡灝暉
Email: [email protected]
Web: www.cechoi.org

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Course Outline
Key Learning Outcome Topics
1. Describe the main controls for • Landslide classification
landslides, including those in man- • Slope failure mechanisms
made slopes and natural terrain in
Hong Kong • Theory of soil strength
• Slope stability analysis
2. Evaluate and apply slope • Slope stabilization
stability and debris flow methods
with relevant models and material • Loose fill slopes
parameters • Geotechnical control and
slope safety management
3. Execute engineering solution to • Quantitative risk
upgrade man-made slopes, and assessment
devise mitigation strategies for • Debris mobility assessment
natural terrain landslides • Natural terrain landslide
4. Assess and manage landslide risk management
risks within legal and • Design of risk mitigation
administrative frameworks measures
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Expected Outcome and Assessment Approach

Performance Criteria Approach
1. Appreciate landslide science as multi-
disciplinary, encompassing geological, Exam
geotechnical and hydrogeological aspects, and
accept the ground as inherently variable
2. Critically select the methods and material
parameters for slope stability and debris flow Coursework
mobility analysis
3. Show a holistic view of landslides risk and
the frameworks under which it can be Exam
quantitatively assessed

• Exam – Open Book (80%) • Coursework (20%)

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Instructors (Learning & Networking)

Clarence Johnny
Choi Cheuk

([email protected]) ([email protected])

Ken HW
Ho Sun

([email protected]) ([email protected])
Pengjia Song
([email protected])
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Lecture outline
Date Topic Lecturer
3 Sept. 20 Introduction and landslide classification Choi
10 Sept. 20 Landslide trigger and mechanisms Choi
17 Sept. 20 Theory of shear strength Choi
24 Sept. 20 Slope stability analysis Cheuk
1 Oct. 20 National day (holiday) -
8 Oct. 20 Slope stabilization Cheuk
15 Oct. 20 Stabilisation of loose fill slopes Cheuk
(make up class during reading week)

22 Oct. 20 Debris mobility assessment Sun

29 Oct. 20 Geotechnical control and slope safety management Sun
5 Nov. 20 Forensic landslide investigations Ho
12 Nov. 20 Quantitative risk assessment Ho
19 Nov. 20 Natural terrain landslide risk management Ho
26 Nov. 20 Design of risk mitigation measures Ho

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Slope instability and landslide hazards

CIVL6079 Slope Engineering

• Civil engineering
Theory graduates & post- Practice
graduates
• Geo- • Effective
• MHKIE(G) & efficient
science professional assessment
• Idealized • Actual
• Practicing engineers condition
condition

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Reference material
Textbook:
Duncan, J. M., Wright, S. G., & Brandon, T. L. (2014). Soil strength and
slope stability. John Wiley & Sons.

GEO documents:
Geotechnical Manual for Slopes (GCO, 1984): design standard and
recommended good practice mainly for man-made slopes
Geoguide 7 - Guide to Soil Nail Design and Construction (GEO, 2007): for
use of soil nails in slope works
Highway Slope Manual (GEO, 2000): supplementary guidelines for
highway slopes
Geoguide 1 - Guide to Retaining Wall Design (GEO, 1993): for retaining
walls
GEO Report No. 138 - Guidelines for Natural Terrain Hazard Studies, 2nd
Edition (GEO, 2016): for natural terrain

How important is slope engineering in the

geotechnical discipline?

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Natural hillside & Man-made Slope Feature

(Cut Slope, Fill Slope and Retaining Wall)
Natural Hillside
Boulders
Cut
Slope
Platform
Bedrock

Rock Slope
Fill
Slope

Retaining Wall
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Set up of
Geotechnical
Engineering
Office (GEO) Post-1977
Pre-1977 in 1977
(unengineered) (Engineered)
Man-made Slope Man-made slopes

Prescriptive Design
(experience-based)
Geotechnical Design 2018
1900s (based on soil mechanics, only
in the past 40 yrs in HK)
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Prescriptive Design & Construction Rules before 1977

“The Building Authority

will offer no objection to
an angle of slope
 35 for filling and
 50 for cutting”

“Deposited fill in 5 ft
layer and compacted
subjected to approval by
the Engineer as a result 25
of compaction trials” 15
What are wrong with these construction rules? 13

Annual Failure Rate of Man-made Features in HK

Prescriptive Design Geotechnical Design
Type (Built before ~1977) (Built after ~1977)

Retaining
Wall ~1/500 Negligible
(RW)

Cut &
Fill ~1/100 ~1/2000 #
Slope

Notes: (1) Slopes and R/W built after 1977 are supposed to have been
designed and checked to current standard
(2) # Annual failure rate of 1/2000 implies that about 6% of the
slopes would fail in their design life (assumed 120 years)
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Forty years ago, slope safety practice in Hong Kong had much
to learn from the world at large. Today, slope safety practice
in the world at large has much to learn from Hong Kong.

Theory Slope engineering

Practice
Little change practice is improving Major advances
in made in
the past 40 yrs the past 40 yrs

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What is the difference between slope and landslide?

Man Patient
Disease

Cause (predisposing & trigger)

Type (classification & mechanism)

Engineering
problems
Slope Landslide
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The primary objective of slope engineering

is to ‘prevent’ landslides

Sub-vertical
 Wall
Slope = Inclined ground,
man-made or natural Retaining wall
failure is also
denoted as landslide

Failure (detachment or displacement)

 Landslide
= Downward and outward movement
of slope-forming materials

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Slope failure (detachment) Sub-vertical

 Fei Tsui Road Landslide (1995)  Retaining Wall

Slope failure (displacement)

 Shek Kip Mei Landslide (1999)

RW Failure
 Kwun Lung Lau
landslide (1994)
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Landslide Classification (International)

• General classification for grouping and labelling purposes (not
detailed description of the landslide nor its mechanisms, causes, etc.)

• Alignment with international good practice (facilitate better

understanding and communication)

• Debris flow and steep creek hazards lexicon

 https://geohazardassociation.org/committees/debris-flow-and-steep-creek-hazards-
mitigation-lexicon/

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Type (classification & mechanism)

The most widely used landslide classification system

originally by Varnes (1978) and Cruden & Varnes (1996):

Varnes, D.J. (1978). Slope movement types and processes. In

Schuster, R.L and Krizek, R.J. (Editors) 1978: Landslides
Analysis and control. Transportation Research Board Special
Report 176, National Academy of Sciences, Washington, 11-33.

Cruden, D.M. and Varnes, D.J. (1996). Landslide Types

and Processes. In: Turner, A.K. and Shuster, R.L., Eds.,
Landslides: Investigation and Mitigation, Transportation
Research Board, Special Report No. 247, 36-75.

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• Rock • Fall
• Soil • Topple
• Earth Material Type + Movement Type • Slide
• Mud • Spread
e.g. rock fall • Flow
• Debris

by Varnes (1978) extracted from Hungr et (2014) (Note: Total 29 classes)

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Revised in 2014 by a Task Force under JTC-1, and

Published by Hungr et al. (2014).

Available at:
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/263340148_The_Varnes_classificat
ion_of_landslide_types_an_update

Joint Technical Committee on Natural Slopes and Landslides (JTC-1),

formed under the auspices of:
• International Society for Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering
(ISSMGE)
• International Society for Rock Mechanics and Rock Engineering (ISRM)
• International Association for Engineering Geology and the Environment
(IAEG)

Hong Kong plays an important role as a Core Member in JTC-1. HN Wong

served in JTC-1 since the early 2000s. Succeeded by Ken Ho in 2016.
Clarence Choi was appointed a member in 2019.
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JTC-1 Landslide Classification System

(Hungr et al, 2014)

• Based on Varnes (1978) and Cruden & Varnes (1996)

Material Type + Movement Type
 Revised material classification (for better compatibility
with geological and geotechnical terminology)
 Focus on the most significant movement episode (for
landslides that develop through serval stages)
 Continue with the use of relatively simple terms and the
objective of providing a unique label for classification and
communication (accounting for cases where only
preliminary data are available)

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Material Types

The principal type of material that is involved in a landslide

(usually referred to that at the source of the landslide)

• For general landslide classification and

alignment with international usage

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Material Types

Note: Exclude snow avalanche. Extracted from Hungr et al (2014)

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Soil Particle Size Range

Sieve aperture (63 m) (2 mm)

Soils
commonly
have a
combination
of particles
of different
sizes
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Supplementary Terms/Information
based on Geology (if known)

Rock Intrusive (e.g. granite), volcanic, metamorphic,

strong sedimentary and weak sedimentary
Soil Residual, colluvial, alluvial, marine, glacial, fill,
mine tailings, sanitary waste, etc.

e.g. Sand slide (residual soil)

Rock fall (volcanic rock)

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Rock vs. soil

Rock: A rock is any naturally-formed earth material
which cannot or can only partially be broken down by
hand and/or water into its constituent grains. The
constituent grains = mineral particles or pre-rock
fragments.
• Modulus is in order of GPa. Cohesion in order of MPa. Unit
weight is 20 to 27 kN/m3.
Soils: A soil is any naturally-formed earth material or fill
which can be broken down completely by both hand
and/or water into its constituent grains.
• Modulus is in order of MPa. Cohesion ranges from zero to order
of kPa. Unit weight is about 15 to 22 kN/m3.

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Typical unit weight and rock strength parameters

Typical unit weight and soil strength parameters

𝑐′ 𝜙′

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Movement Type

The principal type of movement of the landslide material

(may refer to that at the source of failure, or at the
subsequent debris path, or both, depending on where the
principal type of movement took place)

• For general landslide classification and

alignment with international usage

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Falls: Detachment of soil or rock with

Type of Movements little or no shear displacement takes place
at the detachment surface. The debris then
descends largely by falling, bouncing or
rolling.
Topples: Forward rotation out of the slope
Slides: Downslope movement dominantly
on the surface of rupture or relatively thin
zones of intense shear strain
Flows: Continuous movement in which
shear surfaces are usually transient and not
preserved after the event. The displacing
mass resembles a viscous fluid travelling
downslope for a considerable distance.
Spreads: A spread is an extension of a
cohesive soil or rock mass combined with
a general subsidence of the fractured mass
into softer underlying material. Spreads
may result from liquefaction or flow of the
softer material.
Cruden & Varnes (1996)
+ Slope deformation (Hungr et al, 2014)
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Supplementary Terms/Information
Based on Movement Velocity (if known)
(by Cruden & Varnes, 1996)

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Falls: Detachment of soil or rock with little or no shear

displacement takes place at the detachment surface. The debris
then descends (usually over steep terrain) largely by falling,
bouncing or rolling.

• The detached material

travels (falls) for a
considerable distance
after detachment,
usually with not much
disintegration (e.g.
solid rock/boulder).
• The debris runout may
be assessed by rock
Boulder fall (2013 Taiwan) fall simulation
(Source: (bouncing and rolling).
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TfvmbDOeo70 )
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Falls: Detachment of soil or rock with little or no shear

displacement takes place at the detachment surface. The debris
then descends (usually over steep terrain) largely by falling,
bouncing or rolling.

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Boulder vs. Rock

(a) Rock Fall (b) Boulder Fall

Rock stratum
under prolonged
Water seeps
weathering Boulder
through
joints
Rock
Boulder weathered into
soil, more
significantly
along joints Rock

Boulder Following Rock

ground erosion,
some boulders
either wholly or
partially exposed
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Block Toppling vs Flexural Toppling

(a) Block Toppling (b) Flexural Toppling

Toppling of individual Toppling of continuous

blocks/columns, typically in blocks/columns, typically in
strong rock with: strong rock with:
• a set of discontinuities • a set of discontinuities
dipping steeply into the face, dipping steeply into the
and face, and
• another set of widely spaced • breaking in flexure as the
orthogonal joints that defines blocks/columns bend
the block/column height forward
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Toppling failure (flexural)

𝜙
𝝈
𝝈 𝝈
Stead & Wolter (2011)
Hoek & Bray (1994)
Side elevation
𝜙 : slope face angle
𝛿: dip angle
𝜙: joint friction angle
𝜎: normal stress

Overturning of steeply inclined rock layers

Kinematic test for toppling:
1.  −𝜙 > 90 − 𝛿 38

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Slides: Downslope movement dominantly on the surface of

rupture or relatively thin zones of intense shear strain

• Stability may be assessed

by conventional stability
analysis based on
consideration of shear
failure at surface of
rupture (i.e. failure plane).
• The landslide mass may
disintegrate in the failure
and debris movement.
Debris runout may be
assessed by debris
mobility analyzed.
Soil slide
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Planar vs Rotational vs Compound Slide (Rock/Soil)

(a) Planar Slide (b) Rotational Slide

Failure surface where sliding occurs, Failure surface where sliding
is relatively planar. Typically occurs, is cylindrical or
controlled by pre-existing planes of relatively non-planar (curved).
weakness. The sliding mass moves The sliding mass moves
downslope in a translational manner. downslope in a rotational
manner.
rupture surface has several planes
(c) Compound Slide or a surface of uneven curvature
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Rock Wedge Slide & Rock Irregular Slide

Wedge Slide (Rock) Irregular Slide (Rock)
Rock sliding on a rupture surface Rock sliding on an irregular
formed of two planes with a rupture surface consisting of a
downslope-oriented intersection. number of randomly oriented
joints, separated by segments
of intact rock (‘rock bridges’).
Discontinuities exist (and
contributed to failure) but not
systematic. Complex failure
mechanism. May include
sliding, rock breaking and
toppling, and does not match
other classes of rock failure.

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Plane failure

𝛿
Stead & Wolter (2011)

: slope face angle

 𝛿: dip angle
Hoek and Bray (1981)
𝜙: joint friction angle

Sliding along an inclined plane of weakness

Kinematic test for sliding:
1.  > 𝛿 wedge daylights into slope face
2. 𝛿 > 𝜙 dip angle greater than joint friction angle
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Wedge failure

: slope face angle

𝛿: wedge plunge angle
 𝜙: joint friction angle
Hoek & Bray (1981)
Side elevation

Tetrahedral block sliding along two intersecting planes of weakness

Kinematic test for sliding:
1.  > 𝛿 wedge daylights into slope face
2. 𝛿 > 𝜙 wedge plunge angle greater than joint friction
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angle

Flows: Continuous movement in which

shear surfaces are usually transient and Debris flow
not preserved after the event. The
displacing mass resembles a viscous • Very to extremely
fluid travelling downslope for a rapid flow of
considerable distance saturated debris
travels along a
drainage channel
or topographic
depression, usually
together with
mixing with water.
• The debris runout
may be assessed by
debris mobility
analysis.
Debris flow (2008 Yu Tung Road)
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Increasing water content

Debris Flood Debris Flow Debris Avalanche

• Very to extremely
rapid, shallow flow
partially or fully
saturated debris on a
steep slope, with little
confinement (e.g. on
an open slope instead
of drainage channel).
• May become debris
flow when debris
avalanche enters a
channel.
Debris flow (2008 Yu Tung Road)
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Debris flow (2008 Yu Tung Road)

Debris
avalanche
1 Debris
avalanche

2
Debris Debris avalanche
flow

Debris
flow

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Source
Debris flow
(2008 Shek Pik)

Debris
flow

Source

Debris entered
Debris drainage channel
and turned into
avalanche debris flow

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Debris flow
(with erosion in
upstream
portion of the
debris path)

Shek Pik Reservoir

Debris flow
(with deposition
in downstream
portion of the
debris path)

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Debris avalanche Rock avalanche

Jasper National Park, Canada 1903 Frank slide, Alberta, Canada

(Hungr et al, 2014)
51

Increasing water content

Debris Flood Debris Flow Debris Avalanche

• Very rapid flow of water that is

heavily charged with debris (typically
from landslide) down a steep channel.
• Many incidents that are commonly
denoted as ‘flash flood’ are debris
flood events.

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Characterisation of flows based on sediment concentration

Newtonian Bingham Shear thickening

DEBRIS FLOOD AND MUD FLOOD?

ANDDEBRIS FLOWS
WATER FLOW AND FLOOD

MUDAND
MUD
4% 60%

Pierson (2007) 53

Debris flood
(June 2008 North Lantau Expressway)

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Flowslide Flow slide –

liquefaction of loose fill slope
• Very to extremely (1972 Sau Mau Ping landslide; 71 fatalities)
rapid flow of sorted or
unsorted granular
material on moderately
steep slopes, involving
excess pore water
pressure or
liquefaction of material
originating from the
landslide source.
• The material may
range from loose sand
to loose debris (fill or
mine waste), loess and
silt.
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Liquefaction of loose-fill slope

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Before flowslide After flowslide

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Flow slide – liquefaction of coal spoil tip

(1966 Aberfan landslide, South Wales; 144 fatalities)

Before flowslide

After flowslide

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Sensitive clay flowslide

• Very to extremely rapid flow of liquefied sensitive clay,
due to remolding and significant loss of strength
during a multiple retrogressive slide failure at, or close
to, the natural water content (i.e. not due to mixing
with water during debris movement).
• The sensitive clay, commonly known as ‘quick clay’
was typically originally deposited in a marine
environment. When the ground became uplifted, the
clay was no longer subject to salt water condition. The
chemical change resulted in significant weakening of
the electric charge between the clay particles,
rendering the clay structure meta-stable. When the
clay is disturbed (e.g. subject to stresses), it could
significantly lose its strength and becomes liquefied.
59

Sensitive Clay Flowslide

(1978 quick clay landslide at Rissa, Norway; 5 million m3 & 1 fatality)

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Mud Flow
• Very to extremely rapid flow of saturated plastic (i.e.
clayey) debris, involving significantly water content
relative to the source materials due to significant mixing
with water (and entrained materials that have a high fines
content) in the flow path.

Earthflow
• Rapid or slower, intermittent flow-like movement of
plastic (i.e. clayey) soil, facilitated by a combination of
sliding along multiple discrete shear surface, and internal
shear strains. Typically with long periods of relative
dormancy alternative with more rapid ‘surges’.
• Usually on relatively gentle slopes (otherwise, not with
long dormant periods). Movement may be reactivated
by slope cutting or other construction works. 61

Peat Flow
• Rapid flow of liquefied peat in undrained failure
• Peat is light, organic materials with varying degree of
fibrous texture. The presence of organic fibres and
mineral grains gives peat a fairly high friction angle
(often > 30). However, the high compressibility and
high water content make peat susceptible to liquefaction
failure (i.e. generation of high excess pore water pressure
and significant loss of shear strength) in undrained
loading/shearing

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Spreads: A spread is an extension of a soil or rock mass

combined with a general subsidence of the fractured mass
into softer underlying material. Spreads may result from
liquefaction or flow of the softer material.

Sand/Silt
Liquefaction
Spread
• Extremely rapid
lateral spreading
of a series of soil
blocks, floating
on a layer of
saturated (loose)
granular soils
liquefied, say, by Liquefaction spread in 1964
earthquake Alaska Earthquake (M9.2)
shaking.
63

Slope deformation: Displacement of ground without

total detachment and with limited mobility. Usually
associated with deep-seated failure.

Mountain Slope Deformation

(Ma On Shan, due to mining activities)
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Soil Slope Deformation

(1999 Shek Kip Mei landslide;
700+ permanent evacuation)

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Natural terrain in HK often shows signs of shallow slope deformation

Tension crack
Open & > 100 m long
in-filled joint
300 mm wide
(indicating slope Yi O, Lantau after
deformation) June 2018 rainstorm

Some
Tension crack locations with
~ 0.5 to 1 m
displacement

Source of 2008 Shek Mun Kap

debris flow
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Soil creep

• Extremely slow movement of surficial soil layers

(typically less than 1 m) on a gentle slope (say, ~ 5
gradient) slope, as a result of climate-driven cyclical
volume changes (e.g. wetting and drying, and frost heave)
or other factors (e.g. animal burrowing)

• For this general classification purpose, ‘soil creep’ is

unrelated to the mechanistic meaning of the term ‘creep’
(deformation/movement under sustained loading). It is
adopted due to its long-established used in the past.

67

Soil creep
Pole tilted

Tension cracks
on road Tree bended
downslope
Terrace formed
on slope
Expansion
(wetting or Contraction
freezing) (drying or
thawing)
Soil piled up Break in wall
behind wall due to pressure

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Solifluction
solifluction lobes
• Very slow shallow soil creep
involving the active layer in
Alpine or polar permafrost
(ground below freezing point
of water). It forms distinct
feature ‘solifluction lobes’
• ‘Soil creep’ is intensified (e.g. velocity increases
by an order of magnitude) by the presence of
seasonal ground ice in the surficial soil due to:
 Ice is has true ‘creep’
 During thawing season, the active layer overlying the
impervious permafrost table become charged with
water and hence subject to additional sliding movement
69

Movement Material Type

Type Rock Soil
Fall 1. Rock/ice fall 2. Boulder/debris/silt fall
Topple 3. Rock block topple 5. Gravel/sand/silt topple
4. Rock flexural topple
Slide 6. Rock rotational slide 11. Clay/silt rotational slide
7. Rock planar slide 12. Clay/silt planar slide
8. Rock wedge slide 13. Gravel/sand/debris slide
9. Rock compound slide 14. Clay/silt compound slide
10. Rock irregular slide
Spread 15. Rock slope spread 16. Sand/silt liquefaction spread
17. Sensitive clay spread
Flow 18. Rock/ice avalanche 19. Sand/silt/debris dry flow
20. Sand/silt/debris flowslide
21. Sensitive clay flowslide
22. Debris flow
23. Mud flow
24. Debris flood
25. Debris avalanche
26. Earthflow
27. Peat flow
Slope 28. Mountain slope deformation 30. Soil slope deformation
deformation 29. Rock slope deformation 31. Soil creep
32. Solifluction 70

32 landslide classes based on Hungr et al (2014)

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Movement Material Type

Type Rock Soil
Fall 1. Rock/ice fall 2. Boulder/debris/silt fall
Topple 3. Rock block topple 5. Gravel/sand/silt topple
4. Rock flexural topple
Slide 6. Rock rotational slide 11. Clay/silt rotational slide
7. Rock planar slide 12. Clay/silt planar slide
8. Rock wedge slide 13. Gravel/sand/debris slide
9. Rock compound slide 14. Clay/silt compound slide
10. Rock irregular slide
Spread 15. Rock slope spread 16. Sand/silt liquefaction spread
17. Sensitive clay spread
Flow 18. Rock/ice avalanche 19. Sand/silt/debris dry flow
20. Sand/silt/debris flowslide
21. Sensitive clay flowslide
22. Debris flow
23. Mud flow
24. Debris flood
25. Debris avalanche
26. Earthflow
27. Peat flow
Slope 28. Mountain slope deformation 30. Soil slope deformation
deformation 29. Rock slope deformation 31. Soil creep
32. Solifluction 71
landslide classes commonly found in Hong Kong highlighted in yellow

Landslide Classification (International)

• Focus on landslide
classes that are common
in Hong Kong
• More detailed as necessary
to meet local needs (+
information available)

Landslide Classification (Hong Kong)

 Suit local needs in identifying, describing and
classifying landslides
 Local terminology affected by past and prevailing
usage; not necessarily the same as the
international one (which was updated in 2014)
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Landslide Source vs Path/Trial

Debris Path/Trail Landslide

(Type of Debris Movement) (with scale of failure)

Slope type
Debris Slope
Mobility Stability
Analysis to Analysis to
assess the debris assess the
runout and margin of safety
mobility against the
relevant types of
failure
Landslide Source
(Material Type and Type of Failure)

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Landslide Classification (Hong Kong)

Material :
• Slope Type
• Material Type

• Scale of failure
Movement :
• Type of failure (at landslide source) Mechanism
of failure
• Type of debris movement

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天然山坡 人造斜坡
Natural Hillside vs Man-made Slope

Natural
hillside

Man-made slopes

Slope Type

Cut slope
 Man-made slope features Fill slope
Retaining wall
 Natural terrain Natural terrain (landslide)
Boulder/rock (fall)
 Quasi-natural hillside Disturbed terrain
Hillside pocket
Boulder/rock (fall)
 Other (e.g. seawall, reclamation, landfill, etc.)

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Scale of failure

Small Major Massive

( 50 m3) (>50 to 500 m3) (> 500 m3)
 88%  8%  4%

Note: % of this type among all reported landslides

(total ~ 300 nos/yr)

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• Rock cut slope

Material Type • Soil cut slope
• Soil & rock cut slope
• Boulder/rock (fall)

• (Soil) Fill slope

• Rock fill slope
• Reinforced fill slope

• Masonry R/W
• Concrete R/W
• R.C. R/W, etc.

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Type of Debris Movement (Natural Terrain)

Debris slide

Debris avalanche Debris flow

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Slope Type of Failure (at source) Type of Debris Movement

• Fall (rock/boulder)  Rolling and bouncing
Rock -
cut & fill • Topple (rock/boulder)
slopes • Slide  Debris slide/avalanche
• Wash-out  Wash-out
• Slide  Debris slide/avalanche
Soil -
cut & fill
slopes • Wash-out  Wash-out
• Fall (rock/boulder)  Rolling and bouncing
Natural
terrain  Debris slide
• Slide
 Debris Avalanche
Note: R/W and quasi-natural hillside  Debris Flow
not listed for simplicity.
 Debris Flood
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Example A Fei Tsui Road Landslide (1995)

Slope Type Cut slope

Material Type Soil and rock
(weathered volcanics)
Scale 14 000 m3
Type of Failure Slide
Type of Debris Debris slide
Movement

Landslide classification:
unengineered along a kaolinite-rick discontinuity
Massive cut slope failure, soil and rock slide,
resulting in debris slide with travel angle = 24
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Example B Yu Tung Road Debris Flow (2008)

Slope Type Natural terrain

Material Type Soil (colluvium)
Scale 3 000 m3
Type of Failure Slide
Type of Debris Debris flow
Movement

Landslide classification:
colluvium above weathered volcanics
Massive natural terrain landslide, soil slide,
resulting in debris flow Extremely rapid,
with travel angle = 17
channelized
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