Publication No.

FHWA-RD-03-053
September 2002

U.S. Department
of Transportation
Federal Highway
Administration

User’s Manual for FESWMS Flo2DH

Two-dimensional Depth-averaged
Flow and Sediment Transport Model
Release 3

Federal Highway Administration

Office of Research, Development, and Technology
Turner-Fairbank Highway Research Center
6300 Georgetown Pike
McLean, Virginia 22101
This page has been left blank intentionally.
 Technical Report Documentation Page
1. Report No. FHWA-RD-03-053 2. Government Accession No. 3. Recipient's Catalog No.

4. Title and Subtitle 5. Report Date

September 2002
User’s Manual for FESWMS Flo2DH
Two-dimensional Depth-averaged Flow and Sediment Transport Model
Release 3 6. Performing Organization Code

7. Author(s) 8. Performing Organization Report No.

David C. Froehlich

9. Performing Organization Name and Address 10. Work Unit No. (TRAIS)
University of Kentucky Research Foundation
211 Kinkead Hall 11. Contract or Grant No.
University of Kentucky
Lexington, Kentucky 40506-0057 DTFH61-91-C-00093

12. Sponsoring Agency Name and Address 13. Type of Report and Period Covered
Federal Highway Administration
Office of Research, Development, and Technology
Turner-Fairbank Highway Research Center
6300 Georgetown Pike
McLean, Virginia 22101 14. Sponsoring Agency Code

15. Supplementary Notes

FHWA Project Manager: Larry A. Arneson; UKRF Research Administrator: Mark Pittman

16. 16. The Depth-averaged Flow and Sediment Transport Model (Flo2DH) is a computer program that simulates movement of water and
sediment in rivers, estuaries, and coastal waters. Flo2DH applies the finite element method to solve steady-state and time-dependent
systems of equations that describe two-dimensional depth-averaged surface-water flow and sediment transport. You can use Flo2DH
to simulate flow in surface-water bodies where vertical velocities and accelerations are small in comparison to those in horizontal
directions. Special emphasis has been placed on modeling highway river crossings where complex hydraulic conditions exist because
conventional analyses based on one-dimensional flow calculations cannot often provide the needed level of solution detail at these
sites.
Release 3 of Flo2DH expands the capabilities of previous releases by adding or improving numerical simulation of the following
phenomena: sediment transport, armoring of channel beds, turbulence-induced shear stresses, combined current and wave shear
stresses, tropical cyclone windfields and barometric pressure fields, coastal storm surge hydrographs, wetting and drying of elements,
pressure flow under bridge decks, flow resistance from bridge piers, local scour at bridge piers, bridge pier riprap sizing flow over
roadway embankments, flow through culverts, flow through gate structures, flow through drop-inlet spillways, and combined one-
dimensional/two-dimensional flow and sediment transport.
The purpose of this document is to enable you to apply Flo2DH in sensible and effective ways. The manual provides theoretical
backgrounds of formulas, algorithms, and numerical methods used to solve equations that describe water motion and sediment
transport. It presents input data formats, describes various output files that Flo2DH can generate, and suggests how to interpret
results of simulations. It does not describe programming details beyond formatting of input data and the organization of output data
files.

17. Key Words 18. Distribution Statement

Bridge hydraulics, depth-averaged flow, open-channel This document is available to the public through the National
flow, sediment transport, finite element analysis, scour, Technical Information Service,
storm surge, tropical cyclone, bridge piers, scour, Springfield, VA 22161 (703) 487-4650
erosion, armoring, riprap

19. Security Classif. (of this report) 20. Security Classif. (of this page) 21. No. of Pages 22. Price
Unclassified Unclassified 203

Form DOT F 1700.7 (8-72) Reproduction of completed page authorized

Table of Contents

Table of Contents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

List of Tables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

List of Figures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

List of Symbols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-1
Applications of Flo2DH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-1
Purpose of the User’s Manual . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-2
Background Knowledge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-2
Licensing and Disclaimer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-2
Contents Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-2

2. Overview of the Finite Element Method and Equation Solution . . . . . . . . . 2-1

Method of Weighted Residuals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-1
Elements and Interpolation Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-2
Numerical Integration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-8
Equation Solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-8
Solution strategy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-9
Frontal solution scheme . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-11
Element Resequencing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-11
Minimum frontgrowth method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-12
Level structure method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-12

3. Hydrodynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-1
Two-dimensional Depth-averaged Flow Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-1
Momentum Flux Correction Coefficient . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-3
Coriolis Parameter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-3
Bed Shear Stresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-3
Water-Surface Shear Stresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-4
Lateral Shear Stresses Caused by Turbulence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-5
Element Wetting and Drying . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-6
Bridge/Culvert Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-8
Two-Dimensional Approximation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-8
Depth-averaged Pressure Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-8
Bridge pier drag force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-9
One-dimensional Bridge/Culvert Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-10
Weir Flow and Roadway Overtopping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-15
Gate Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-16
Drop Inlet Spillways . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-17
Weir Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-18
Orifice Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-18
Conduit Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-18
Channel Links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-18
Cross-section-averaged Flow Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-19
Initial and Boundary Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-20

Depth-averaged Flow and Sediment Transport Model - Flo2DH ii

 Initial Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-20
Hot starts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-20
Cold starts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-20
Closed boundary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-21
Slip condition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-21
No-slip condition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-21
Semi-slip condition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-22
Open boundary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-22
Inflow boundary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-22
Outflow boundary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-22
Weakly-reflecting boundary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-22
Boundary Condition Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-24
Storm Surge and Tropical Cyclones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-25

4. Sediment Transport and Bridge Scour . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-1

Depth-averaged Sediment Transport Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-1
Bed Composition Accounting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-2
Equilibrium Total Load Transport Formulae . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-3
Engelund-Hansen Formula . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-3
Ackers-White Formula . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-4
Ackers-White-Day Formula . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-4
Laursen Formula . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-5
Yang’s Sand and Gravel Formula . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-5
Meyer-Peter and Mueller Formula . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-6
Garbrecht et al. Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-6
Combined Currents and Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-7
Sand Ripples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-8
Surf Zone Sediment Transport . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-9
Cross-section-averaged Sediment Transport Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-9
Bridge Scour . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-10
Clear-water Contraction Scour . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-11
Live-bed Contraction Scour . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-12
Local Scour at Bridge Piers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-12
Pier Rock Riprap . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-14

5. Application Steps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-1

Data Collection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-1
Network Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-3
General Network Layout . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-3
Two-Dimensional Bridges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-5
One-Dimensional Weirs and Culverts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-6
Drop Inlet Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-8
1D/2D Junctions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-9
Model Calibration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-9
Model Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-10
Model Application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-11

6. Solution Responses to Parameter Changes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-1

Longitudinal Depth Changes in a Channel of Uniform Width . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-1
Effect of Roughness Coefficient . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-1
Effect of Eddy Viscosity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-2

Depth-averaged Flow and Sediment Transport Model - Flo2DH iii

 What the Test Shows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-2
Longitudinal Depth Changes in a Channel of Variable Width . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-2
Effect of Roughness Coefficient . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-3
Effect of Eddy Viscosity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-3
What the Test Shows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-3
Effects of Lateral Roughness Variations and Eddy Viscosity . . . . . . . 6-4
What the Test Shows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-5
Effects of Vertical Wall Shear Stress on Velocity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-5
What the Test Shows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-5
Effects of Wind Shear Stress on Water Depth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-6
What the Test Shows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-6

7. Program Operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-1

Input Data Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-2
Control Data File . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-2
Network Data File . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-3
Flow Data File . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-3
Sediment Data File . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-3
Boundary Condition Data File . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-3
Wind Data File . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-3
Wave Data File . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-3
Time-dependent Data File . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-3
Output Data Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-4
Report Data File . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-4
Flow Data File . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-4
Sediment Data File . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-4
Restart-recovery Data File . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-4
Upper and Lower Coefficient Matrix Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-4
Scalar Data File . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-4
Vector Data File . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-5
Profile Data File . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-5
Run Status Data File . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-5
Running Flo2DH from Microsoft Windows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-5
Data Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-6
Some Computational Aspects of Flo2DH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-7
Specifying Boundary Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-7
Boundary conditions at node points . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-7
Boundary conditions at cross sections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-8
Total flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-8
Weakly-reflecting invariant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-8
Water-surface elevation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-8
Assigning Initial Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-9
Cold starts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-9
Hot starts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-9
Achieving Convergence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-9
Incremental Load Strategy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-10
Continuity Norms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-10
Automatic Boundary Adjustment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-10

8. References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1

Depth-averaged Flow and Sediment Transport Model - Flo2DH iv

Appendix A - Flo2DH Input Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A-1
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A-1
List-directed Input . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A-1
Flo2DH Project File . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A-2
Flo2DH Control Data File . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A-2
First Record . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A-3
Comment Records . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A-4
Program Control Data Set . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A-5
Memorandum Data Set . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A-17
Node Data Set . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A-18
Element Data Set . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A-20
Element Properties Data Set . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A-22
Node Data Set (for One-dimensional Flow) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A-26
Element Data Set (for One-dimensional Flow) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A-28
Cross Section Data Set (for One-dimensional Flow) . . . . . . . . . . . . A-30
Flow Initial Condition Data Set . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A-32
Boundary Condition Data Set . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A-33
Boundary Cross Section Data Set . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A-37
Wind Data Set . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A-41
Wave Data Set . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A-42
Tropical Cyclone Data Set . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A-44
Storm Surge Data Set . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A-46
Weir Data Set . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A-47
Culvert Data Set . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A-50
Gate Data Set . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A-54
Drop-inlet Spillway Data Set . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A-56
Channel Link Data Set . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A-58
Rating Curve Data Set . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A-60
Pier Data Set . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A-61
Flux Line Data Set . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A-65
Gage Point Data Set . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A-66
General Sediment Data Set . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A-67
Bed Elevation and Sediment Composition Initial Data . . . . . . . . . . A-72
Sediment Concentration Initial Conditions Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A-73
Resequencing Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A-74
Profile Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A-75
Incremental-Load Data Set . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A-76
Time-dependent Data Set . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A-78
Network Data File . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A-80
Flow Data File . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A-83
Sediment Data File . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A-84
Boundary Condition Data File . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A-86
Wind Data File . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A-87
Wave Data File . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A-88
Time Data File . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A-89
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A-89

Depth-averaged Flow and Sediment Transport Model - Flo2DH v

Appendix B - Tropical Cyclone Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-1
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-1
Barometric Pressure Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-1
Windfield Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-2
Transformation to Cartesian Coordinates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-4
Wind Decay After Landfall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-5
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-6
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-6

Depth-averaged Flow and Sediment Transport Model - Flo2DH vi

List of Tables
Table 3-1. Summary of Culvert Inlet Flow Formula Coefficients. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-12
Table 3-2. Entrance loss coefficients for various culvert types and entrance
conditions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-13
Table 3-3. Culvert Manning roughness coefficients for various culvert barrel
materials and barrel conditions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-13
Table 3-4 Submergence Function Default Coefficientsa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-16
Table 3-5. Possible Boundary Specificationsa for Various Two-dimensional Depth-
averaged Flow Conditions and Boundary Types. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-24
Table 4-1. Critical shear stresses for various protective soil coversa. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-12
Table 4-2. Description of vegetation retardance classesa. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-13
Table 5-1. Summary of data that might be needed to apply the modeling system. . . . 5-2

Depth-averaged Flow and Sediment Transport Model - Flo2DH vii

List of Figures
Figure 1-1. A highway bridge that creates complex hydraulic conditions by
constricting floodplain flows at high stages. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-1
Figure 2-1. Types of two-dimensional elements used by Flo2DH include (A) six-node
triangles, (B) eight-node quadrilaterals, and ©) nine-node quadrilaterals. . . . . 2-4
Figure 2-2. Mapping of triangular and quadrilateral parent elements defined
in natural coordinates to global elements in Cartesian coordinates. . . . . . . . . . 2-4
Figure 2-3. Natural coordinate system and interpolation functions for a triangular
parent element. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-5
Figure 2-4. Natural coordinate system and interpolation functions for a "Lagrangian"
quadrilateral parent element. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-6
Figure 2-5. Natural coordinate system and interpolation functions for a "seredipipity"
quadrilateral parent element. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-7
Figure 2-6. Numerical integration point coordinates and weighting factors for
triangular and quadrilateral parent elements. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-8
Figure 3-1. Depth-averaged velocities are mean horizontal velocities in the x and y
directions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-1
Figure 3-2. Three-dimensional coordinate system and variables. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-2
Figure 3-3. Element storativity coefficient 8b as a function of water surface elevation
zw, storativity depth ., minimum storativity a, and storativity
depth factor 0b. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-6
Figure 3-4. Variation of bed elevation within an element showing storativity depth .. 3-7
Figure 3-5. View of a bridge where two-dimensional flow would likely be modeled
because of the comparatively large width of the opening. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-8
Figure 3-6. Effects of bridge piers can be approximated by distributing the
hydrodynamic drag caused by the piers evenly across the elements that
contain them. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-10
Figure 3-7. Bridges and culverts can be modeled well by one-dimensional flow
approximations when their widths are small in comparison to the channel
and floodplain. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-10
Figure 3-8. Flow through culverts under (A) inlet control and (B) outlet control. . . . 3-11
Figure 3-9. Weir flow over roadway embankments is modeled using an empirical
formula that connects finite element networks on the upstream and
downstream sides the embankments. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-15
Figure 3-10. Drop inlet spillways are overfall structures in which water drops
through a vertical riser connected to a discharge conduit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-17
Figure 3-11. Cross-section averaged flow provides the average water surface
elevation across a section along with the total flow rate through the wetted
area of the section. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-19
Figure 3-12. Approximate representation of cross sections used to simulate one-
dimensional flow in open channels. Exactly eight ground points are
specified for each section. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-20
Figure 3-13. Network boundaries are either “open” or “closed.” Water can flow
only parallel to closed boundaries, but can pass through open boundaries. . . 3-21
Figure 3-14. “Weakly-reflecting” boundary conditions can be applied at tributaries
to bays or estuaries where unsteady tidal elevations are applied along the
open ocean boundary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-23
Figure 3-15. Weakly-reflecting boundary conditions are formed by considering a
fictitious river having constant dimensions, but without frictional resistance,
to extend far upstream from the boundary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-23

Depth-averaged Flow and Sediment Transport Model - Flo2DH viii

Figure 4-1. Schematic of bed composition accounting concept. The active layer
thickness is specified. Material eroding from the active layer is replaced by
an equal volume from the deposition layer, if present, or from the original
bed material. An equal volume of material deposited on the surface is
removed from the active layer and added to the deposition layer. . . . . . . . . . . 4-2
Figure 4-2. The active width of one-dimensional channels is approximated by a
horizontal bed for sediment transport calculations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-10
Figure 4-3. Local scour at a round-nosed bridge pier. Note protective vegetative
cover of surrounding floodplain. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-11
Figure 5-1. Modeling steps usually taken when applying Flo2DH to simulate depth-
averaged surface-water flow. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-1
Figure 5-2. Some rules to ensure one-to-one mapping of two-dimensional
isoparametric finite elements. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-3
Figure 5-3. Aspect ratios of triangular and quadrilateral elements. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-4
Figure 5-4. A finite element network at a bridge where pressure flow within the
bridge opening is modeled. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-5
Figure 5-5. Bridge decks need to begin and end at closed boundaries. When
approach roadways are covered by two-dimensional meshes, you will need
to leave a “vacant” area at the end of the deck to create a closed boundary
there. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-6
Figure 5-6. Modeling one-dimensional weir and culvert flow at roadway
embankments. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-7
Figure 5-7. A roadway embankment with a culvert through it and the top divided
into weir segments. Nodes match on opposite sides of the embankment. Midside
nodes are assigned two-thirds of a weir crest segment length, vertex nodes are
each assigned one-sixth of the length. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-7
Figure 5-8. Meshes need to be designed with consideration of the locations of the
drop inlet spillway entrances and outlets. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-8
Figure 5-9. One-dimensional and two-dimensional meshes join at junctions. . . . . . . . 5-9
Figure 6-1. The horizontal test channel is 800 m long and 100 m wide and is
discretized using nine-node quadrilateral elements each 80 m long and 20 m
wide. Water flows from right to left. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-1
Figure 6-2. Water-surface elevations along the channel are sensitive to changes
in Manning’s roughness coefficient. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-1
Figure 6-3. The effect of eddy viscosity will be greatest where velocity gradients
are largest, which is near the downstream end of the channel. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-2
Figure 6-4. An 800 m long test channel having a width that varies from 100 m
at the upstream and downstream ends, to 20 m in a central section . . . . . . . . . 6-3
Figure 6-5. Water elevations along the channel are very sensitive to changes in
roughness coefficients. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-3
Figure 6-6. Eddy viscosities in the range of reasonable values for the test channel
conditions yield nearly the same results. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-3
Figure 6-7. A test channel similar to the first that has a higher flow resistance of the right
side (n = 0.055) than on the left side (n = 0.035). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-4
Figure 6-8. Effect of lateral shear stresses on velocity across the channel is
pronounced for large values of kinematic eddy viscosity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-4
Figure 6-9. Vertical wall shear is applied by means of the “semi-slip”boundary
condition. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-5
Figure 6-10. Lateral wall shear stress applied by the “semi-slip” condition on closed
boundaries can have a significant influence on velocity. Without lateral shear
stress (that is, with a ‘slip” condition on closed boundaries, velocity is unfirm

Depth-averaged Flow and Sediment Transport Model - Flo2DH ix

 across the test channel. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-5
Figure 6-11. Wind blows from left to right along the channel, creating surface shear
stresses. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-5
Figure 6-12. Wind blowing from left to right creates a water-surface elevation
change of 0.25 m from one end of the channel to the other. The change
increases with wind speed. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-7
Figure 7-1. Contents of a Flo2DH project file. Filenames are terminated before the
forward slashes, which are followed by brief descriptions of the data. . . . . . 7-2
Figure 7-2. Flo2DH runs under Microsoft Windows operating system as a
console application. You will be prompted for the name of the Flo2DH
project file if you have not included it in the command line. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-5
Figure 7-3. The logical flow of data through Flo2DH and the major functions
carried out by the program is shown in the diagram. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-6

Depth-averaged Flow and Sediment Transport Model - Flo2DH x

List of Symbols
Symbol Definition
a bed storativity coefficient formula parameter
ai vector of unknown nodal values at the ith iteration
)ai change of the solution vector ai at the ith iteration
aio coefficient used to prescribe flow normal to an open boundary at
node i
ais coefficient used to prescribe flow normal to a solid boundary at node i
A cross section flow area; dimensionless coefficient in Ackers-White
sediment transport rate formula
AN coefficient in Ackers-White sediment transport rate formula
Ac cross-section area of a culvert; cross section area of a drop inlet
spillway conduit
Ae area of an element
Ao cross section area of a drop inlet spillway orifice
Ap below-water area of a pier projected normal to approaching
streamflow
Aw = uwT/2B orbital amplitude of wave motion at the bed
b bridge pier width; bed storativity coefficient formula parameter
bridge pier width projected normal to approach flow
bis coefficient used to prescribe flow normal to a solid boundary at node i
bio coefficient used to prescribe flow normal to an open boundary at
node i
Bcl channel link width
cf bottom shear stress coefficient
c$ momentum correction coefficient model coefficient
cs, cs1, cs2 wind stress model coefficients
c:1, c:21 kinematic eddy viscosity model coefficients
C Chézy discharge coefficient; dimensionless coefficient in Ackers-
White sediment transport rate formula
Cc culvert discharge coefficient; drop inlet spillway conduit discharge
coefficient
Cd pier drag coefficient
Ces bed mass flux rate coefficient
Ci unknown parameter at node i
Co drop inlet spillway orifice discharge coefficient
Cs weir segment submergence coefficient
Csi = qsi/q discharge-weighted sediment concentration for the ith sediment
particle size class
discharge-weighted equilibrium sediment concentration for the ith
sediment particle size class
Cw weir segment discharge coefficient; drop inlet spillway weir discharge
coefficient
ds local scour depth below mean ambient bed elevation
dsc clear-water contraction scour depth
dsl local pier scour depth
D inside diameter of a pipe culvert or the maximum inside height of a
pipe-arch culvert
DA reference particle diameter used in Ackers-White-Day sediment
transport rate formula

Depth-averaged Flow and Sediment Transport Model - Flo2DH xi

Symbol Definition
Dgr dimensionless grain diameter
Dn sediment particle diameter for which n% of the mixture is finer by
weight, for example D84, D90
Ds tropical cyclone time parameter, Ds = Rmax/Vf
D50 median sediment particle diameter.
e* dimensionless diffusivity
f known function; Darcy-Weisbach friction factor
fw wave friction factor
fws wave friction factor for rough turbulent flow
Fgr grain mobility number used in Ackers-White sediment transport rate
formula
Fr Froude number
Fra Froude number of bridge pier approach flow
g gravitational acceleration = 9.81 m/s2 (32.2 ft/sec2)
H water depth
Hcl channel link water depth
Hsc clear-water contraction scour flow depth
Hw height of water wave
Hws significant wave height
[J] Jacobian matrix
*J* determinant of a Jacobian matrix
k = 2B/L wave number or water waves
ke culvert entrance loss coefficient; drop inlet spillway entrance loss
coefficient
ko drop inlet spillway conduit outlet loss coefficient
K1, K2, K3 local pier scour equation correction coefficients for pier shape, flow
alignment, and bed condition, respectively
Ki coefficient in Laursen sediment transport rate formula
R bridge pier length
‹ differential operator
Lc length of a culvert
Lw length of a weir segment; total length of drop inlet spillway weir crest
m exponent in Ackers-White sediment transport rate formula
mb bed shear-stress adjustment factor to account for slope
mc ceiling shear-stress adjustment factor to account for slope
M coefficient in Yang sediment transport rate formula
Mi linear interpolation function associated with node i
n Manning roughness coefficient; exponent in Ackers-White sediment
transport rate formula
nc Manning roughness coefficient for a culvert barrel
ncl Manning roughness coefficient for a channel link
ncover Manning roughness coefficient for protective soil cover
ndeck Manning roughness coefficient for underside of bridge deck
nsoil Manning roughness coefficient for bare soil
N coefficient in Yang sediment transport rate formula
Ni quadratic interpolation function associated with node i
N*i coordinate interpolation function associated with node i
pa atmospheric pressure
pi fraction of particle size class i in the active layer
P pressure head

Depth-averaged Flow and Sediment Transport Model - Flo2DH xii

 Symbol Definition
q1 = HU unit flow rate in the x direction
q2 = HV unit flow rate in the y direction
qs volumetric sediment transport rate in the streamwise direction
volumetric equilibrium sediment transport rate in the streamwise
direction
qsx, qsy volumetric discharge-weighted sediment transport rates in the x and y
directions, respectively
qxi, qyi unit flow rates in the x and y directions, respectively, at node i
Qi source/sink (inflow/withdrawal) at a node point
Qc culvert flow rate
Qio flow rate across an open boundary resulting from node i
Qic flow rate across a closed boundary resulting from at node i.
Qs volumetric sediment transport rate
Qw flow over a weir segment
Qxi flow rate through a cross section assigned to node i
ri update vector used in a quasi-Newton solution
R solution domain; residual load vector
Rc hydraulic radius of a culvert flowing full; hydraulic radius of a drop
inlet spillway conduit flowing full
RH continuity equation residual
Rw = uwAw/< wave Reynolds number
Scl channel link bed slope
Se element boundary; energy gradient
S s = D s /D specific gravity of sediment particles
T period of water wave
)t time step or length of time between successive solution time levels
t time
u exact value of a dependent variable; point velocity in the x direction
approximation of a dependent variable
U depth-averaged velocity in the x direction
Un depth-averaged velocity normal to a boundary
Us depth-averaged velocity tangent to a boundary
uw wave orbital velocity amplitude at bed
u* total bed shear velocity or friction velocity
u*s grain-friction velocity
v point velocity in the y direction
V depth-averaged velocity in the y direction
Va depth-averaged velocity of bridge pier approach flow
Vf tropical cyclone forward speed
w point velocity in the z direction
wi numerical integration weighting factor at the ith integration point
ws terminal fall velocity (settling velocity) of a sediment particle in water
W wind speed
Wi weighting function corresponding to node i
Wmin minimum wind speed used to compute surface wind stress coefficient
x Cartesian coordinate (a horizontal direction)
y Cartesian coordinate (a horizontal direction)
ya local pier scour equation approach flow depth
z Cartesian coordinate (the vertical direction)
zb bed elevation

Depth-averaged Flow and Sediment Transport Model - Flo2DH xiii

Symbol Definition
zc crest elevation of a weir segment; ceiling elevation
ze energy head elevation
zinv culvert invert elevation
zw water-surface elevation
z0 total bed roughness height
z0s grain roughness height for hydrodynamically rough flows
z0f bed-form roughness height due to ripples
z0t sediment transport roughness height
" coefficient used to compute time derivatives
$ isotropic momentum correction coefficient
$uv directional component of the momentum correction coefficient
$o momentum correction coefficient model constant
*i update vector used in a quasi-Newton solution
)rc height of ripples generated by currents
)rw height of ripples generated by waves
kinematic eddy diffusivity
, residual
. bed storativity depth
0 natural coordinate
0b storativity depth factor
0s porosity of bed sediment
0x direction cosine between the outward normal to a network boundary
and the x-coordinate direction
0y direction cosine between the outward normal to a network boundary
and the y-coordinate direction
2 time-integration factor
6 von Karman's constant
8b bed storativity coefficient.
8rc wavelength of ripples generated by currents
8rw wavelength of ripples generated by waves
isotropic depth-averaged kinematic eddy viscosity
directional component of depth-averaged kinematic eddy viscosity
kinematic eddy viscosity model constant
> natural coordinate
D mass density of water
Da mass density of air
Ds mass density of sediment
Ft turbulent Prandtl or Schmidt number
total bed shear-stress due to current alone
Jbx, Jby bed shear-stresses in the x and y direction, respectively
bed shear-stresses in the x and y direction, respectively, modified to
account for added resistance from bridge piers
Jc critical bed shear-stress
Jcp critical shear stress of protective soil cover
Jcs critical shear stress of soil
Jcx, Jcy ceiling shear stresses in the x and y directions, respectively
Jsx, Jsy surface shear stresses caused by wind in the x and y directions,
respectively
Jm mean bed shear-stress during a wave cycle under combined wind and
currents

Depth-averaged Flow and Sediment Transport Model - Flo2DH xiv

Symbol Definition
Jxy directional component of lateral shear stress caused by turbulence
Jw amplitude of oscillatory bed shear-stress due to waves
Jws grain shear-stress
Jws* dimensionless grain shear-stress
Jwall wall shear-stress
N angle of latitude; bridge pier shape factor
Nn Manning equation units factor (Nn = 1.0 for SI units, 1.486 for U.S.
Customary units)
Q wave mobility number
T angular velocity
Tr iterative solution over/under-relaxation parameter
S Coriolis parameter
M partial differential symbol

Depth-averaged Flow and Sediment Transport Model - Flo2DH xv

 This page has been left blank intentionally.

Depth-averaged Flow and Sediment Transport Model - Flo2DH xvi

1. Introduction
The Depth-averaged Flow and Sediment Transport Model (Flo2DH) is a
computer program that simulates movement of water and noncohesive sediment in rivers,
estuaries, and coastal waters. Flo2DH applies the finite element method to solve steady-
state or time-dependent systems of equations that describe two-dimensional depth-
averaged surface-water flow and transport of noncohesive sediment by surface waters.
You can use Flo2DH to simulate flows in surface-water bodies where vertical velocities
and accelerations are small in
comparison to those in horizontal
directions. Special emphasis has
been placed on modeling highway
river crossings where complex
hydraulic conditions exist,
because conventional analyses
based on one-dimensional flow
calculations often cannot provide
the needed level of solution detail
at these sites (see Figure 1-1).
Flo2DH is part of the Federal
Highway Administration’s Finite
Element Surface-water Modeling Figure 1-3. A highway bridge that creates complex
System (FESWMS). hydraulic conditions by constricting floodplain flows
at high stages.
Applications of Flo2DH
Water levels and flow distributions at confluences of large rivers, in river bends,
around islands, at highway river crossings with more than one bridge opening, into and
out of river diversion channels at dams and powerplants, in river estuaries, in coastal
marshes, in tidal lagoons and tidal inlets, and in bays and harbors can be calculated using
Flo2DH. Uses of simulation results vary greatly from one application to the next.
Effects and features simulated by Flo2DH include the following items:

# Bottom shear stress or bed friction # Flow through drop-inlet spillways

# Wind shear stress # Live-bed and clearwater
# Coriolis force contraction scour at bridges
# Turbulence-induced shear stresses # Local scour at bridge piers
# Combined current and wave shear # Transport of eight noncohesive
stresses sediment particle size classes
# Barometric pressure gradients # Erosion and deposition of
# Tropical cyclone windfields and transported sediment
barometric pressure fields # Armoring of channel beds
# Coastal storm surge hydrographs # Wave effects on nearshore
# Wetting and drying of elements sediment transport
# Pressure flow under bridge decks # Bridge pier riprap sizing
# Flow resistance from bridge piers # Supercritical flow and hydraulic
# Flow over roadway embankments jumps
# Flow through culverts with or # Combined one-dimensional/two-
without flap-gates dimensional flow and sediment
# Flow through gate structures transport

Depth-averaged Flow and Sediment Transport Model - Flo2DH 1-1

 Flo2DH can simulate both steady and unsteady (that is, time-dependent) surface-
water flows. However, because of the need for initial conditions, and because of
difficulties modeling large areas that periodically are flooded and then drain, the range of
flow conditions that can be modeled with reasonable ease is limited. For example, long
reaches of rivers where water-surface elevations have comparatively large changes
between the upstream and downstream ends require that a series of simulations be carried
out as boundary conditions are incremented in stages from some initial values for which
trivial solutions are easily obtained to the final desired values. Additionally, flooding and
subsequent drainage of large areas such as broad floodplains or marshland generally
requires that small time steps be used, which leads to long solution times. Other
computer models based on different numerical solution techniques may be better suited to
these types of applications.

Purpose of the User’s Manual

The purpose of this document is to help you apply Flo2DH in sensible and
effective ways. The manual provides theoretical backgrounds of formulas, algorithms,
and numerical methods used to solve equations that describe water motion and sediment
transport. It presents input data formats, describes various output files that Flo2DH can
generate, and suggests how to interpret results of simulations. It does not include
programming details beyond formatting of input data and the organization of output data
files.

Background Knowledge
We have designed Flo2DH carefully with emphasis on logical and
straightforward modeling approaches and data needs. However, by itself this user’s
manual will not provide you all the knowledge needed to apply the model effectively or
to decide whether simulation results are reasonable. You need to comprehend thoroughly
pertinent physical principles of surface-water flow and sediment transport before using
Flo2DH. You also need to have a basic understanding of the numerical methods used to
solve the resulting systems of partial differential equations. This manual will not provide
all the background knowledge needed to carry out skillful and effective mathematical
modeling of depth-averaged surface-water flow and sediment transport

Licensing and Disclaimer

FESWMS Flo2DH is a contribution of the Federal Highway Administration and
is not subject to copyright. Although every effort has been made to ensure the accuracy
and correctness of the program and information, the Federal Highway Administration
makes no warranties, either expressed or implied, with respect to the software and
documentation, including but not limited to the implied warranties of suitability and
fitness for a particular purpose. FESWMS Flo2DH may be freely distributed.

Contents Overview
An overview of the finite element method is presented in Chapter 2 of this
manual. Users can gain a fundamental idea of the mathematics and numerical procedures
used to solve the governing partial differential equations describing surface-water flow
and sediment transport. The main point to remember is that solution regions are divided
into assemblies of connected subregions called elements that are in the shape of triangles
and quadrilaterals. An assemblage of elements forms a network or mesh. Position and

Depth-averaged Flow and Sediment Transport Model - Flo2DH 1-2

geometry of the elements in a mesh are defined by node points at the element vertices,
midside points, and for nine-node quadrilaterals, at their centers. Solution variables are
defined at the nodes, and continuous approximations of quantities are made within
elements using interpolation functions and the node point values. The partial differential
equations describing water motion and transport of sediment are approximated by
algebraic expressions using nodal quantities as unknown values for which solutions are to
be found. The system of algebraic equations formed in this way is then solved
simultaneously for values at the nodes using an efficient equation solver based on the
frontal method.
Equations that govern two-dimensional, depth-averaged surface-water flow and
one-dimensional, cross-section-averaged surface water flows solved by Flo2DH are
presented in Chapter 3. Auxiliary expressions used to calculate flow at weir structures,
culverts, drop-inlet spillways, and gate structures are also described.
Sediment transport by two-dimensional depth-averaged flow and by one-
dimensional cross-section-averaged flow is addressed in Chapter 4. For most conditions,
sediment transport is inherently a time-dependent phenomenon, and unsteady flows will
need to be considered. Calculation of streambed erosion at bridges is also discussed in
this chapter.
Steps generally taken when applying Flo2DH to investigate surface-water flow
and sediment transport are presented in Chapter 5. Possible data needed to construct a
mesh and assign boundary conditions are summarized. Network design, which is a
critical stage of any useful simulation, is discussed, and several useful ideas and rules for
constructing reliable meshes are presented.
Results of a few simple numerical experiments are presented in Chapter 6 to
show effects of various element properties and other parameters on solutions.
Knowledge of the possible effects of variations in roughness coefficients and kinematic
eddy viscosities is useful when trying to match solutions to measured flow properties.
Other items that can have significant effects on solutions include conditions applied at
closed boundaries (slip, semi-slip, and no-slip conditions), and the effects of shear
stresses along vertical walls that form closed boundaries. Wind can also have a
significant influence on solutions. Flow calculations carried out using small experimental
channels show some effects of these factors.
Operation of Flo2DH is described in Chapter 7, including the many different
input and output data files that might be used. Flo2DH runs as a console application that
does not require graphics output written to the screen. It looks about the same whether
run on a personal computer, a workstation, or a terminal connected to a mainframe
computer. Output files containing many different items produced by a solution can be
generated and displayed graphically using various computer programs. Several
computational aspects of Flo2DH are also presented in this section.
The references section is followed by two appendices. Appendix A contains
detailed descriptions of all input data file formats and output data files. Data items used
by Flo2DH to control solutions, define finite element networks, assign initial and
boundary conditions, and apply element properties are explained thoroughly. Appendix
B contains a detailed description of the tropical storm model used to calculate windfield
and pressure distributions caused by tropical cyclones.

Depth-averaged Flow and Sediment Transport Model - Flo2DH 1-3

 This page has been left blank intentionally.

Depth-averaged Flow and Sediment Transport Model - Flo2DH 1-4

2. Overview of the Finite Element Method and
Equation Solution
The finite element method is a numerical procedure for solving differential
equations encountered in problems of physics and engineering. Continuous quantities are
approximated by sets of variables at discrete points that form networks or meshes.
Because the finite element method can be adapted to problems of great complexity and
unusual geometry, it is an extremely powerful tool in the solution of problems in heat
transfer, fluid mechanics, and mechanical systems. Furthermore, availability of fast and
inexpensive computers allows problems that are intractable using analytic or mechanical
methods to be solved straightforwardly by the finite element method. A large amount of
literature on the subject has already emerged. Lee and Froehlich (1986) provide an
extensive, although not up-to-date, review of literature on finite element solutions of the
equations of two-dimensional depth-averaged surface-water flow.
Flo2DH uses the Galerkin finite element method to solve the governing system
of differential equations. Solutions begin by dividing the physical region of interest into
subregions, which are called elements. Two-dimensional elements can be either
triangular or quadrilateral in shape, and are defined by node points placed along their
boundaries and interiors. Lists of nodes connected to elements are easily recorded for
identification and use. Dependent variables are approximated within elements using
values defined at element node points along with sets of interpolation functions (also
called shape, basis, or trial functions). Mixed interpolation is used in Flo2DH to help
stabilize the numerical solution (that is, quadratic functions are used to interpolate unit
flow rates based on solution values at all the nodes of an element, and linear functions are
used to interpolate water depths based on solution values at only vertex nodes.)
The method of weighted residuals is then applied to the governing differential
equations to form a set of equations for each element. Approximations of the dependent
variables are then substituted into the governing equations, which generally are not
satisfied exactly, to form residuals. Residuals are made to vanish, in an average sense,
when they are multiplied by weighting functions and integrated with respect to the
solution domain. Weighting functions are chosen to be the same as the interpolation
functions. By requiring summations of weighted residuals to equal zero, the finite
element equations take on integral forms. Coefficients of the equations are integrated
numerically, and all of the element (local) equations are assembled to obtain the complete
(global) system of equations. The global set of algebraic equations is solved
simultaneously in Flo2DH using Gaussian elimination.

Method of Weighted Residuals

The method of weighted residuals is a mathematical technique for approximating
solutions to partial differential equations. Although the technique provides a means of
forming the element equations, it is not directly related to the finite element method.
Applying the method of weighted residuals involves two basic steps. The first step is to
adopt a general functional behavior of the dependent variables so that the governing
differential equations and boundary condition equations can be satisfied approximately.
Substituting initial values of the dependent variables into the governing equations usually
yields errors, which are called residuals. Solutions are obtained by requiring residuals to
vanish, in an average sense, within the solution regions. The second step of the method is
to solve the residual equations for parameters of the functional representations of the
dependent variables.

Depth-averaged Flow and Sediment Transport Model - Flo2DH 2-1

 To be more specific, the differential equation for a problem containing one
dependent variable is written as
(2-1)
where ‹ = differential operator, u = dependent variable, and f = known function. The
dependent variable is represented by , which is defined by some unknown parameters, Ci,
and a set of functions, Ni, as follows:

(2-2)

When is substituted for u in the problem, it is unlikely the equation will be satisfied
exactly. In fact, a trial solution is given by
(2-3)
where g = residual or error of the approximate solution. The method of weighted residuals
is used to solve for the m unknown parameters, Ci, so that the error, g, is as small as
possible within the solution region. One way of reducing g is to form a weighted average
of the error and then equate the average to zero after it is integrated with respect to the
entire solution region. The weighted average is computed as

(2-4)

where R = solution domain, and Wi = linearly independent weighting functions. After the
weighting functions have been specified, a set of m simultaneous equations remain to be
solved for the unknown parameters Ci. The second step in applying the method of
weighted residuals is to solve for Ci to obtain an approximate representation of the
unknown dependent variable u.
Choice of weighting functions used to form the residual expressions is flexible.
Often the weighting functions are chosen to be the same as the interpolation functions used
to approximate u (that is, Wi = Ni, for I = 1, 2,..., m). This finite element approximation to
the differential equation is known as Galerkin's method and is given by

(2-5)

After the interpolation functions Ni are specified, the equations can be evaluated explicitly,
and the solution found in a routine way.

Elements and Interpolation Functions

The basic idea of the finite element method is to divide a solution region into
subregions, called elements. Within each element, values of continuous quantities are
approximated by sets of piecewise smooth functions using values of those quantities at
finite numbers of points. The piecewise smooth functions are known as interpolation or
shape functions, and are analogous to the functions Ni described in the previous section.
Locations at which continuous quantities are defined are called node points, and values of
quantities at node points are analogous to the undetermined parameters Ci.
Approximations of continuous quantities within elements are written as

Depth-averaged Flow and Sediment Transport Model - Flo2DH 2-2

 (2-6)

where Ni(e) = interpolation functions specified for an element, and ui(e) = unknown values of
u at the n node points in the element. This equation applies to a single point in the solution
region, or to any collection of points, such as those comprising an element. Weighted
residuals are then found as sums of integrals for each element as follows:

(2-7)

where R(e) = element domain, and f (e) = defined element function.

Sets of integrals expressions are written for each element in the assemblage or
network. Element (local) expressions are assembled to form the complete set of system
(global) equations in which values of quantities at node points are the unknowns. Behavior
of a solution within an entire assemblage of elements is described by the element
interpolation functions and the node point values, after they have been found.
Before element equations can be assembled, the particular types of elements that
will be used to model a region, and the associated interpolation functions, need to be
specified; that is, the functions Ni need to be chosen. Interpolation functions also need to
satisfy certain criteria so that convergence of numerical solutions to exact solutions of the
governing differential equations can be achieved. The functions depend on the shapes of
elements and the orders of approximation desired. Because the fundamental premise of the
finite element method is that a region of arbitrary shape can be accurately described by an
assemblage of elements, most finite element networks consist of elements that are
geometrically simple. The most commonly used two-dimensional elements are triangles
and quadrilaterals. Although it is conceivable that many types of functions could be used
as interpolation functions, most finite element solutions use polynomials because of their
simplicity.
If polynomial interpolation functions are used, linear variation of quantities within
elements can be described by values provided at the corners (vertices) of triangular or
quadrilateral elements. For quadratic variation of quantities, additional values need to be
defined along the sides, and possibly in the interiors, of elements. Flo2DH uses three types
of two-dimensional elements as shown in Figure 2-1: (1) Six-node triangles, (2)
eight-node “serendipity” quadrilaterals, and (3) nine-node “Lagrangian” quadrilaterals.
Both types of quadrilateral elements use identical linear interpolation functions, but their
quadratic functions differ because of the presence of additional nodes at the centers of
nine-node quadrilateral elements.
Complex geometric features using elements that have curved sides rather than
straight sides, or a combination of curved and straight sides, can be modeled by
transforming elements through coordinate mappings from simple “parent” elements,
defined in natural coordinates, to the desired curved shapes, defined in global Cartesian
coordinates. Coordinate mappings for triangular and quadrilateral elements are illustrated
in Figure 2-2. Transformation from straight to curved sides is accomplished by expressing
the global coordinates (x, y) in terms of the natural coordinates (>, 0) using interpolation
functions in just the same way solution variables are interpolated within elements. Global
coordinates are then computed as follows:

Depth-averaged Flow and Sediment Transport Model - Flo2DH 2-3

 A

B C Figure 2-1. Types of two-

dimensional elements used by
Flo2DH include (A) six-node
triangles, (B) eight-node
quadrilaterals, and (C) nine-node
quadrilaterals.

Vertex node
Center node
Midside node

(2-8)

where the coordinate interpolation function is defined in terms of the natural element
coordinates > and 0. Flo2DH uses quadratic interpolation functions to transform natural
coordinates to global coordinates.
Natural coordinates (> and 0) depend on element shapes (that is, triangular or
quadrilateral). Natural coordinate systems and interpolation functions for parent elements
of triangular and quadrilateral global elements are shown in Figures 2-3 to 2-5. Both linear
and quadratic interpolation functions are given for each element shape because mixed

Figure 2-2. Mapping of

triangular and quadrilateral
parent elements defined in
natural coordinates to global
elements in Cartesian
coordinates.

Depth-averaged Flow and Sediment Transport Model - Flo2DH 2-4

 5
ξ+η=1 Quadratic Interpolation Functions
ξ=0
Vertex node Vertex nodes:
4 N1 = (1 - > - 0)(1 - 2> - 20)
6 Midside node
N3 = >(2> - 1)
N5 = 0(20 - 1)
3
1 2
η=0 Midside nodes:

Linear Interpolation Functions N2 = 4>(1 - > - 0)

Vertex nodes: N4 = 4>0

M1 = 1 - > - 0 N6 = 40(1 - > - 0)

M3 = >
M5 = 0

Figure 2-3. Natural coordinate system and interpolation functions for a triangular parent
element.

interpolation is used to solve the governing differential equations (that is, linear functions
are used to interpolate depth, and quadratic functions are used to interpolate depth-
averaged velocities). When finite element equations contain derivatives of dependent
variables with respect to global coordinates x and y, interpolation function derivatives with
respect to x and y also need to be defined because, for example,

(2-9)

Since the interpolation functions are calculated using natural coordinates, derivatives with
respect to natural coordinates need to be transformed to derivatives with respect to global
coordinates. By the general rules of partial differentiation,

(2-10)

and

(2-11)

where the superscript (e) has been dropped for convenience. However, > and 0 usually
cannot be expressed explicitly by the coordinates x and y. By first considering Ni a
function of x and y, derivatives of Ni with respect to > and 0 can be written in matrix form
as

Depth-averaged Flow and Sediment Transport Model - Flo2DH 2-5

 η = −1 Quadratic Interpolation Functions
4 7 3
Vertex node Vertex nodes
ξ = −1
η Midside node N1 = ¼ >0(1 - >)(1 - 0)
8 6 Center node N2 = - ¼ >0(1 + >)(1 - 0)
9 ξ
N3 = ¼ >0(1 + >)(1 + 0)
ξ=1
N4 = - ¼ >0(1 - >)(1 + 0)
1 5 2
Midside nodes
η = −1
N5 = - ½ 0(1 - >2)(1 - 0)
Linear Interpolation Functions
N5 = ½ >(1 + >)(1 - 02)
Vertex nodes
N7 = ½ 0(1 - >2)(1 + 0)
M1 = ¼ (1 - >)(1 - 0)
N8 = - ½ >(1 - >)(1 - 02)
M2 = ¼ (1 + >)(1 - 0)
Center node
M3 = ¼ (1 + >)(1 + 0)
N9 = (1 - >2)(1 - 02)
M3 = ¼ (1 - >)(1 + 0)

Figure 2-4. Natural coordinate system and interpolation functions for a "Lagrangian"
quadrilateral parent element.

(2-12)

where

(2-13)

is known as the Jacobian matrix. The Jacobian matrix can be evaluated explicitly by the
derivatives of the interpolation function with respect to natural coordinates, and the global
node point coordinates, as

(2-14)

where Ni* = interpolation functions that define coordinate transformations. Global derivatives
are then given by

Depth-averaged Flow and Sediment Transport Model - Flo2DH 2-6

 η = −1
4 7 3
ξ = −1 Vertex node Quadratic Interpolation Functions
η
Midside node
6 Vertex nodes:
8 ξ N1 = - ¼ (1 - >)(1 - 0)(1 + > + 0)
ξ=1 N2 = - ¼ (1 + >)(1 - 0)(1 - > + 0)

1 5 2 N3 = - ¼ (1 + >)(1 + 0)(1 - > - 0)

η = −1 N4 = - ¼ (1 - >)(1 + 0)(1 + > - 0)
Midside nodes:
Linear Interpolation
N5 = ½ (1 - >2)(1 - 0)
Functions
N5 = ½ (1 + >)(1 - 02)
Vertex nodes:
N7 = ½ (1 - >2)(1 + 0)
M1 = ¼ (1 - >)(1 - 0)
N8 = ½ (1 - >)(1 - 02)
M2 = ¼ (1 + >)(1 - 0)
M3 = ¼ (1 + >)(1 + 0)

Figure 2-5. Natural coordinate system and interpolation functions for a "seredipipity"
quadrilateral parent element.

(2-15)

Expanding gives

(2-16)

and

(2-17)

where

(2-18)

is the determinant of [J]. Operations in equations 2-15 through 2-17 depend on existence
of [J] everywhere in elements. In addition, coordinate mappings are one-to-one only if *J*
does not vanish within elements. Poorly constructed elements having overlapping sides
will exhibit this undesirable trait.
Curved-side elements are defined in Flo2DH by prescribing the coordinates of
midside nodes. Ordinarily, coordinates of a midside node are not specified at all. The
midside node is placed halfway between the two adjacent vertex nodes automatically.
However, coordinates are not calculated if they have already been specified. Therefore,

Depth-averaged Flow and Sediment Transport Model - Flo2DH 2-7

 curved element sides can easily be formed when needed by entering appropriate
coordinates for a midside node. Where element sides are not curved, coordinates of the
midside nodes do not need to be specified.
Horizontal areas of elements also need to be expressed using the natural
coordinates > and 0. Sokolnikoff and Redheffer (1966, page 355) show that incremental
element areas can be computed as
(2-19)
Using this relation, functions can be integrated numerically with respect to the areas of
two-dimensional triangular or quadrilateral elements that have straight or curved sides.

Numerical Integration
Numerical integration is used to evaluate the integrals that appear in the finite
element equations. To integrate numerically, the function being integrated is evaluated at
specific locations within an element, the values are then multiplied by weighting factors,
and then summed. The summation process for a two-dimensional element is

(2-20)

where Ae = element area, f = integrated function, k = number of numerical integration

points, wi = weighting factor that applies to the ith integration point, and > and 0 = natural
coordinates of the ith integration point. The natural coordinates, >i and 0i, are invariant
with respect to the shape of the element in the global coordinate system.
Numerical integration schemes need to be accurate enough to assure convergence
of finite element solutions. Strang and Fix (1973) find that convergence will be guaranteed
if integration schemes compute exactly element areas. Formulas providing at least
third-order accuracy are needed to integrate curve-sided elements exactly. However, while
exact integration of element areas might guarantee convergence as the sizes of elements
approach zero, integration formulas that have greater accuracy might be needed to integrate
some terms in governing equations accurately. For this reason, numerical integration
formulas that provide at least sixth-order accuracy are used in Flo2DH. Locations of
numerical integration points and the associated weighting factors are shown in Figure 2-6.

Equation Solution
Many methods can be used to solve the system of nonlinear algebraic equations
that results from a finite element discretization of the governing partial-differential
equations. However, solution methods that work well for one problem might not work at
all for another problem. Solving the nonlinear equation system is the most costly aspect of
the finite element solution carried out in Flo2DH. Computational efficiency dictates that
symmetric equation systems are formed and solved if possible. However, the coefficient

Depth-averaged Flow and Sediment Transport Model - Flo2DH 2-8

 Point Coordinates Integration
η
number weight,
> 0
w
Integration point 1 a a 0.22500000
6
2 "1 $1 (1
3 $1 "1 (1
ξ+η=1
ξ=02 4 4 $1 $1 (1
1 5 "2 $2 (2
6 $2 "2 (2
7 5
3 7 $2 $2 (2
η=0 ξ where "1 = 0.05971587, $1 = 0.47014206,
"2 = 0.79742698, $2 = 0.10128651, (1 = 0.13239415,
and (2 = 0.12593918.

Point Coordinates Integration

number weight,
> 0
η=1 w
1 2 3 1 -" " (1
2 0 " (2
η
3 " " (1
ξ = −1 4 5 6 ξ=1
4 -" 0 (2
ξ
5 0 0 0.19753086
7 8 9 6 " 0 (2
7 -" -" (1
η = −1 8 0 -" (2
9 " -" (1
where " = 0.77459667, (1= 0.07716049, (2=
0.12345679

Figure 2-6. Numerical integration point coordinates and weighting factors for triangular
and quadrilateral parent elements.

matrix that is formed is nonsymmetric because of nonlinear inertia and bottom friction
terms that appear in the governing equations.
Finite element solutions of the governing equations produce sets of global
discretized equations in the form
(2-21)
where K = matrix of assembled element coefficients; a = vector of unknown nodal values;
and f =global load vector. The simultaneous nonlinear system of equations is solved using
a strategy that combines full-Newton iteration, quasi-Newton iteration, and a frontal
solution scheme.

Solution strategy
Full-Newton iteration is written as
(2-22)
where ai+1 = newly computed solution vector; a = known solution vector at the ith iteration;

Depth-averaged Flow and Sediment Transport Model - Flo2DH 2-9

J(ai) = Jacobian (tangent) matrix computed from ai; and R(ai) = K(ai)ai - f = residual load
vector. In practice, the iteration is carried out as
(2-23)
where )ai = incremental solution value. An updated solution is computed as
(2-24)
where Tr = relaxation factor that is allowed to range from 0 to 1 (the default value is 1). A
solution usually converges rapidly when the initial estimate is close to the true solution.
During a full-Newton solution the Jacobian matrix is decomposed into lower and
upper triangular matrices. These factorized matrices can be updated in a relatively simple
manner rather than being recalculated completely at each iteration. Broyden's update
procedure in inverse form (Engleman et al. 1981) is used to update the factored Jacobian
matrix. This quasi-Newton method can reduce significantly the computation time needed
to obtain a solution. Given an initial solution estimate, a0, the LU factorization of its
Jacobian, J0 , and the initial search direction, )a0, the quasi-Newton algorithm proceeds as
follows:

For i = 1 to i
1. Form
2. Compute
3. For j = 1 to i-1
Compute
Next j
4. Form and
5. Compute
Next i

where *'i = transpose of the vector *i.

At each iteration a single linear system is solved for which the triangular factors of
the coefficient matrix are already known, plus the vector operations that are needed to
update the matrix. Two updating vectors (D and r) are created at each iteration and are kept
and used again in subsequent iterations, up to a limit imposed by the user. When the upper
limit is reached, the updating vectors are shifted one position downward (thereby losing the
first pair) and computations continue. If the limiting number of updates is set to zero, the
coefficient matrix is not updated and modified-Newton iteration results.
A choice of solution strategies is provided in Flo2DH. A solution might combine
both full-Newton and quasi-Newton iterations in an attempt to achieve the fastest solution
possible. Usually, several or more full-Newton iterations are used when starting cold (that
is, when initial velocities are set to zero and a constant water-surface elevation is assigned),
or after making substantial changes to boundary conditions or the geometry of a finite
element network. Initial iterations can be followed by one or more quasi-Newton
iterations, or by a combination of full-Newton and quasi-Newton iterations.
The optimal number of update vectors to use in a quasi-Newton iteration will vary
from solution to solution. Beyond a limit, the updating procedure becomes uneconomical.
Maintaining more than about five sets of update vectors in memory has been found to
result in wasted computational effort. The number of update vectors used in Flo2DH is
limited to a maximum of five.

Depth-averaged Flow and Sediment Transport Model - Flo2DH 2-10

Frontal solution scheme
The frontal solution technique is a direct solution scheme that is closely related to
the finite element method. The solution scheme is designed to minimize core-storage
requirements as well as the number of arithmetic operations needed to solve a system of
linear algebraic equations. The main idea of the frontal method is to assemble and
eliminate element equations at the same time. As soon as an equation is formed
completely from the contributions of all relevant elements, it is reduced and eliminated
from the “active” coefficient matrix. An equation that has been eliminated from the active
coefficient matrix is written to a buffer contained in core memory. When the buffer is full,
it is written to an auxiliary storage device. A coefficient matrix usually is never formed in
its entirety. An active matrix contains at any given instant only those equations that have
been partly assembled or are complete but not yet eliminated.
The number of unknowns in a wavefront at any given step in a solution is called
the frontwidth and generally will change continually during a solution. The maximum
frontwidth reached during a solution determines the required maximum size of an active
coefficient matrix. When element assembly is complete, the upper triangular matrix of the
LU decomposition will have been formed and will be ready for back substitution.
A modified version of the frontal solution scheme presented by Hood (1976 and
1977) is used in Flo2DH. Modifications were made to eliminate unnecessary
computations and to save both the upper and lower triangular matrix decompositions if a
quasi-Newton solution is to be carried out. Also, eliminated equations are stored in a
buffer (the size of which depends on available computer storage and storage-device
limitations), which is written to an off-line storage device when full or nearly full. Data
transfer time decreases as the size of the equation buffer is increased.
When solving equation systems by Gaussian elimination, the element along the
diagonal of the coefficient matrix by which other elements are divided is called the pivot
element. The equation solution procedure can be numerically unstable unless pivoting
(exchanging rows and columns as appropriate) is used to make sure that large pivot
elements are used. Partial pivoting is the interchanging of rows only, and full pivoting is
the interchanging of both rows and columns in order to place a particularly “good” element
in the diagonal position prior to a particular operation. Both of these pivoting strategies
can be used in Flo2DH, along with a simple diagonal-pivoting scheme in which equations
that are complete and ready for elimination are scanned, and the equation that has the
largest diagonal element is eliminated next. Partial pivoting is used by default.

Element Resequencing
The frontal technique assembles and reduces the equations on an
element-by-element basis. As soon as the coefficients of a particular equation are
assembled, the completed equation can be eliminated and stored out-of-core. During a
frontal solution, the entire global coefficient matrix is never formed completely in core. At
any given instant, equations contained in core are those that are either not complete
(partially assembled) or those that have just been completed but have not yet been
eliminated.
The degrees-of-freedom that correspond to the equations contained in core are
called the wavefront, or simply the front, because the line of node points at which the
degrees-of-freedom are located moves through the network in the form of a wave as
elements are processed in order. The number of degrees-of-freedom in the front is called
the frontwidth. The frontwidth will vary in size during equation solution and the maximum
frontwidth will determine how much core memory is needed. The sum of
frontwidth-squared as each equation is eliminated is proportional to the number of
arithmetic operations carried out during the solution. The sequence in which the elements

Depth-averaged Flow and Sediment Transport Model - Flo2DH 2-11

are assembled determines the maximum frontwidth and the sum of frontwidths-squared.
Therefore, the assembly sequence also defines the core memory and computational effort
needed to solve a system of equations. An element assembly sequence that keeps the
maximum frontwidth and the sum of frontwidths-squared to a minimum also will keep core
memory requirements and equation solution time to a minimum.
For small networks, a manual determination of an optimal element assembly
sequence is possible, but for large networks the task quickly becomes tedious and
uneconomical to perform by hand. Two methods are available in Flo2DH to develop an
efficient element assembly sequence automatically: (1) the minimum frontgrowth method,
and (2) the level structure method. Because it is usually impractical to investigate all the
combinations of element sequences, the minimum frontgrowth method and the level
structure method provide good, but not necessarily the best, assembly sequences.
The two element resequencing methods are based on different strategies, but both
methods need an initial list of elements (at least one) to begin a resequencing. From a
starting element list, assembly sequences are determined for the remaining elements in a
network. For both methods, several different starting element lists probably need to be
tried to find a good element assembly sequence. An initial starting list that usually will
provide a good assembly sequence consists of all or just some of the elements that form the
most narrow edge of a network.

Minimum frontgrowth method

The minimum frontgrowth method maintains the smallest possible frontwidth at all
times. An initial wavefront is determined from the starting element list and is defined in
terms of nodes rather than degrees-of-freedom. The nodes that form the wavefront form a
boundary between elements that have been assembled and elements that have not been
assembled. A list of unassembled elements that border the front is called the adjacent
element list. The element in the adjacent element list that provides the smallest frontwidth
upon its assembly is chosen to be the next element assembled. If more than one element
provides the same minimum frontwidth, various tie-breaking strategies are used to choose
between them. After an element is assembled, the wavefront is modified and the adjacent
element list is updated. This process continues until all elements have been resequenced.
Sometimes an element in an adjacent element list is passed over for assembly a
great number of times, resulting in excessively large frontwidths. To avoid this
occurrence, the length-of-stay of an element in an adjacent element list is limited. An
appropriate value for the maximum length-of-stay needs to be determined by
trial-and-error, but a value equal to about twice the expected maximum frontwidth (in
terms of nodes) will be a good first try. The maximum frontwidth can be estimated as the
number of nodes in a line that extends across the widest part of a network when the
network is aligned lengthwise.

Level structure method

The level structure method uses a simple layer-by-layer resequencing strategy and
is much faster than the minimum-frontgrowth method, especially for large networks. From
a starting element list, a wavefront and a list of elements adjacent to the wavefront are
determined. Then, the first element in the adjacent element list is assembled and the
unassembled elements adjacent to it are added to the adjacent element list. The adjacent
element list is updated and the process is repeated until all elements have been assembled.

Depth-averaged Flow and Sediment Transport Model - Flo2DH 2-12

3. Hydrodynamics
Equations describing the flow of water in floodplains, estuaries, and other surface-
water bodies are based on the classical concepts of conservation of mass and momentum.
For many practical surface-water flow applications, knowledge of the full three-
dimensional flow structure is not needed. Often it is sufficient to know about depth-
averaged flow quantities acting in two perpendicular horizontal directions only, or about
cross-section-averaged flow quantities acting in the longitudinal channel direction only.
Equations that describe depth-averaged two-dimensional flow, cross-section-averaged one-
dimensional flow, as well as special cases of one-dimensional flow through culverts and
small bridges, one-dimensional flow over weirs and highway embankments, flow through
gate structures, and flow through drop-inlet spillways are presented in this chapter. Initial
and boundary conditions needed to solve the set of governing water flow equations are
described as well.

Two-dimensional Depth-averaged Flow Equations

Depth-averaged velocity components in the horizontal x and y coordinate
directions, respectively, are defined as follows:

(3-1)

where H = water depth, z = vertical direction, zb = bed elevation, zs = zb + H = water-

surface elevation, u = horizontal velocity in the x direction at a point along the vertical
coordinate, and v = horizontal velocity in the y direction at a point along the vertical
coordinate. The coordinate system and variables are illustrated in Figure 3-1, and depth-
averaged velocity is shown in Figure 3-2.
Equations describing depth-averaged surface-water flow are found by integrating
the three-dimensional mass and momentum transport equations with respect to the vertical
coordinate from the bed to the water surface, considering vertical velocities and
accelerations to be negligible. The vertically-integrated mass transport equation or
continuity equation is

U
u
Figure 3-1. Depth-averaged

H velocities are mean horizontal

velocities in the x and y
directions.

zb Datum
Depth-averaged Flow and Sediment Transport Model - Flo2DH 3-1
 Figure 3-2. Three-dimensional coordinate system and
variables.

(3-2)

where q1 = UH = unit flow rate in the x direction, q2 = VH = unit flow rate in the y
direction, qm = mass inflow or outflow rate per unit area, and water mass density D is
considered constant throughout the modeled region. Equations describing momentum
transport in the x and y directions, respecitvely, are as follows:

(3-3)

and

(3-4)

where $ = isotropic momentum flux correction coefficient that accounts for the variation of
velocity in the vertical direction, g = gravitational acceleration, D = water mass density, pa
= atmospheric pressure at the water surface, S = Coriolis parameter, Jbx and Jby = bed shear
stresses acting in the x and y directions, respectively, Jsx and Jsy = surface shear stresses
acting in the x and y directions, respectively, and Jxx, Jxy, Jyx, and Jyy = shear stresses
caused by turbulence where, for example, Jxy is the shear stress acting in the x direction on
a plane that is perpendicular to the y direction.

Depth-averaged Flow and Sediment Transport Model - Flo2DH 3-2

Momentum Flux Correction Coefficient
Vertical velocity profiles can be approximated by the logarithmic function

(3-5)

where = bed shear velocity or bed friction velocity, cf = bed shear-stress

coefficient, 6 = von Karman's constant, and k = roughness height. When vertical velocities
follow the logarithmic profile, the momentum flux correction coefficient is given by

(3-6)

Momentum flux correction coefficients in Flo2DH are calculated as

(3-7)
where $o and c$ are specified coefficients. Comparing the two expressions for $ gives
$o = 1 and c$ = 1/62. For most open-channel flows, the coefficient 6 . 0.4, which gives
c$ = 6.25. Constant momentum flux correction factors can be specified by setting $o to the
desired value, and setting c$ to zero. Default values in Flo2DH are $o = 1 and c$ = 0.
Using these default values means that vertical variations in velocity are considered
negligible.

Coriolis Parameter
Effect of the Earth’s rotation on water movement is taken into account by terms in
the momentum equations that contain the Coriolis parameter S = 2T sin N, where T =
angular velocity of the rotating Earth (7.27 x 10-5 radians per second), and N = angle of
latitude. The sign of N is positive in the northern hemisphere and negative in the southern
hemisphere. A constant value of the Coriolis parameter is used in Flo2DH (that is, the
variation of S within the area covered by a finite element network is considered
negligible). For most shallow flows where the horizontal extent to depth ratio is large (for
example, flows in nearly all rivers and flood plains), the Coriolis effect will be small and
can be safely ignored.

Bed Shear Stresses

Directional components of bed shear stress are computed as follows:

(3-8)

where cf = dimensionless bed-friction coefficient, and

(3-9)

is a factor that accounts for increased shear stress caused by a sloping bed. Bed friction
coefficients cf are given by

(3-10)

where n = Manning’s roughness coefficient, Nn = 1.486 for U.S. Customary units, or 1.0

Depth-averaged Flow and Sediment Transport Model - Flo2DH 3-3

for SI units, and C = Chézy discharge coefficient. Both Manning and Chézy coefficients
can be described by linear functions of water depth in Flo2DH. Variations in flow
resistance with water depth might occur when short vegetation is submerged and possibly
bent by the flow, or where tree branches come into contact with flow at high stages.
Appropriate flow resistance coefficients for natural and constructed channels, and
for floodplains, can be estimated using references such as Chow (1959), Barnes (1967),
and Arcement and Schneider (1984). However, coefficients in these references have been
determined on the basis of one-dimensional flow approximations, and implicitly account
for the effects of turbulence and deviation from a uniform velocity in a cross section.
Because the depth-averaged flow equations directly account for horizontal variations of
velocity and the effect of turbulence, values of cf computed using coefficients based on a
one-dimensional flow might be larger than necessary. Little information is available to
help select coefficients for two-dimensional depth-averaged flow computations. For the
time being, flow resistance coefficients can be estimated on the basis of available
references and experience.

Water-Surface Shear Stresses

Directional components of surface shear stress caused by wind are calculated as
follows:
(3-11)
where cs = dimensionless surface stress coefficient; Da = mass density of air; W =
characteristic wind velocity near the water surface; and R = angle between the wind
direction and the positive x-axis. Surface stress coefficients have been found to depend on
wind speeds and are calculated in Flo2DH by the general relation

(3-12)

where cs1, cs2, and Wmin are coefficients.

For wind speed in meters per second, measured 10 meters above the water surface,
Garratt (1977) finds that cs1 = 1.0, cs2 = .067, and Wmin = 4 m/s. Wang and Connor (1975)
compare several relations for cs and conclude that cs1 = 1.1, cs2 = 0.0536, and Wmin = 0 m/s.
Hicks (1972) suggests the coefficients cs1 = 1.0, cs2 = 0.05, and Wmin = 5.0 m/s. However,
factors other than wind velocity can influence the value of the surface stress coefficient cs.
For example, Hicks et al. (1974) show that as water becomes shallow (less than 2.5 m
deep) long period waves are not able to develop fully. As a result, water surfaces will be
smoother and the value of cs remains close to 0.001 for all wind speeds. Default values of
wind shear stress coefficients in Flo2DH are as follows: cs1 = 1.0, cs2 = 0.0, and Wmin =
0.0 m/s.

Lateral Shear Stresses Caused by Turbulence

Depth-averaged lateral shear stresses caused by turbulence are computed using
Boussinesq's eddy viscosity concept whereby the turbulent stresses, like viscous stresses,
are considered proportional to gradients of the depth-averaged velocities. These stresses
are computed as follows:

(3-13)

Depth-averaged Flow and Sediment Transport Model - Flo2DH 3-4

where <t = depth-averaged kinematic eddy viscosity or turbulent exchange coefficient,
which is considered isotropic.
Eddy viscosity is related to eddy diffusivity for heat or mass transfer 't as

(3-14)

where Ft = an empirical constant called the Prandtl number (for diffusion of heat) or
Schmidt number (for diffusion of mass). Many experiments on spreading of dye in open
channels (Fischer et al., 1979) show dimensionless diffusivity, e* = 't /u*H, to be between
0.1 and 0.2 in straight uniform open channels, and that channel curves and sidewall
irregularities increase e*. Values of e* in natural streams hardly ever are less than 0.4.
Heat and mass transfer experiments show the turbulent Prandtl/Schmidt number to vary
from 0.5 in free shear flows to 0.9 in flow regions near walls (Rodi 1982, page 587).
Considering turbulent exchange of mass and momentum to be similar (that is, Ft = 1.0),
eddy viscosity in natural open channels can be related to the bed shear velocity and depth
by
(3-15)
where larger values are likely to occur if channels have sharp curves or rapid changes in
geometry.
Relating eddy viscosity to the scales of motion being resolved by a mesh and the
local deformation field, Smagorinsky (1963) proposes the following formula:

(3-16)

where " = dimensionless coefficient, and )x, )y = horizontal dimensions of rectangular

computational cells. Numerical experiments show that 0.01 # " # 0.5, and that " . 0.10
provides kinematic eddy viscosities that are consistent with measured values.
Kinematic eddy viscosities are calculated in Flo2DH as

(3-17)

where <t0 = base kinematic eddy viscosity, c:1, c:2 = dimensionless coefficients, *J*=
determinant of the jacobian matrix of element coordinate transformations, which provides
pointwise measures of element area. Comparing expressions for <t shows that c:1 . 0.6 ±
0.3 in natural channels when <t0 = 0 and c:2 = 0 ; and that c:2 . 0.10 when <t0 = 0 and c:1 =
0. Constant eddy viscosities are assigned by specifying c:1 = c:2 = 0 and <t0 > 0. Base
eddy viscosities <t0 = 10 ft2/sec or 1 m2/s for medium to large rivers are within reason.

Element Wetting and Drying

Node points become dry when calculated water-surface elevations are lower than
their bed elevations. Elements that contain at least one dry node are turned off at the start
of an iteration and are not included in calculations. All elements that are turned off are
checked at the start of an iteration to see if they can be turned back on as previously dry
nodes become wet (that is, as the water surface rises above the bed), and boundary
conditions are modified. Adjustment of boundaries in this way allows a finite element
network to be constructed without too much concern for the limits of inundation.
However, solution stability can be affected adversely by elements switching on and off,

Depth-averaged Flow and Sediment Transport Model - Flo2DH 3-5

especially if the elements in transition are comparatively large and only small portions of
those elements are actually dry.
By introducing the concept of element storativity, partially dry elements can be
retained in calculations when solving the governing equations. Bed storativity coefficients,
8b, are ratios of changes in stored water per unit element area with respect to changes in
water elevation and are calculated as follows:

(3-18)

where . = storativity depth, a = minimum element storativity, 0b = storativity depth factor,

and

(3-19)

is the depth below zb at which 8b = a. Element storativity 8b = a for zb - b $ zw $ zb - 0b..

The coefficient 8b represents the ability of elements to store water when water depth is less
than ., and is shown in Figure 3-3 as a function of zw and .,

z
zb+ζ
a
λb
Figure 3-3. Element storativity b 0.5 1
coefficient 8b as a function of
water surface elevation zw
storativity depth ., minimum
storativity a, and storativity
depth factor 0b.

zb-ηζ

Depth-averaged Flow and Sediment Transport Model - Flo2DH 3-6

 Actual
z ground
zb + ζ
ζ

ηζ
zb - ζ
Node

zb - ηζ
x
Figure 3-4. Variation of bed elevation within an element
showing storativity depth ..

Element storativity is implemented in computations by replacing water depth

H = zw - zb with an effective water depth Heff, which is given by

(3-20)

The expression for the bed storativity coefficient 8b assures that Heff = H when zw $ zb + ..
Storativity depth . depends on ground surface variability within an element as shown in
Figure 3-4, and may reasonably range from 0.5 ft (0.15 m) to 3 ft (1 m). Storativity depths
vanish for elements having perfectly planar surfaces. However, non-zero storativity depths
might be assigned even for perfectly planar elements to keep them from being turned off
when only small sections of them are dry. Therefore, use of element storativity is
beneficial because of both physical and computational reasons. Numerical experiments
show that assigning a = 0.01 and 0b = 3 provides a good means of controlling element
transition from wet to dry states.

Depth-averaged Flow and Sediment Transport Model - Flo2DH 3-7

Bridge/Culvert Flow
Flow through bridges and culverts can be simulated as either one-dimensional or
two-dimensional flow. Bridge flow probably needs to be modeled with two-dimensional
elements if the width of the bridge or culvert is large in comparison to the width of the
channel or floodplain on which it is located (Figure 3-5).

Figure 3-5. View of a bridge where two-dimensional flow would likely be

modeled because of the comparatively large width of the opening.

Two-Dimensional Approximation
Two-dimensional flow through a bridge or culvert is modeled exactly as ordinary
free-surface flow when the water surface is not in contact with the top of the bridge or
culvert opening (unconfined flow). When the water surface is in contact with the top or
ceiling of the opening pressure flow conditions exist. Depth-averaged flow equations are
modified at node points where pressure flow occurs, and pressure head rather than depth is
computed. Usually piers will not be modeled directly in a network because their widths
are small in comparison to bridge spans (see Figure 3-5) and because their base areas are
significantly smaller than the areas of elements used to discretize bridge openings.
However, the effect of piers or piles on flow can be taken into account by increasing bed
friction coefficients within elements that contain them. This adjustment is carried out
automatically in Flo2DH.

Depth-averaged Pressure Flow

Depth-averaged pressure flow through a bridge or culvert is modeled by specifying
a ceiling elevation at node points within the opening. When the water surface is in contact
with the ceiling, pressure flow exists and the governing depth-averaged flow equations are
modified. For small bed slopes the momentum equations become

Depth-averaged Flow and Sediment Transport Model - Flo2DH 3-8

 (3-21)

for flow in the x direction, and

(3-22)

for flow in the y direction, where P = pressure head, zc = ceiling elevation, Jcx and Jcy =
directional components of shear stress at the ceiling, and H = zc - zb. The continuity
equation becomes

(3-23)

because water depth can no longer change with time. Dependent variables in the confined
flow case are q1, q2, and P. Increased frictional resistance created by contact between
water and the ceiling is described by the surface shear stress terms which are computed as
follows:

(3-24)

where

(3-25)

is a factor that accounts for increased resistance caused by a sloped ceiling, and cf is the
same dimensionless friction coefficient used to model the bed shear stress. When pressure
flow occurs, surface stresses caused by wind are not considered.

Bridge pier drag force

Total drag force exerted on a bridge pier by the flow is given by

(3-26)

where Cd = pier drag coefficient (dimensionless), and Ap = below-water cross-sectional area

of the pier projected normal to the direction of the approaching streamflow. Added
resistance caused by the pier is taken into account by distributing the drag force evenly
across the element containing the pier as shown in Figure 3-6. Directional components of
the bed shear stress within the element are modified by adding the additional "pier shear
stresses" as follows:

Depth-averaged Flow and Sediment Transport Model - Flo2DH 3-9

 Figure 3-6. Effects of bridge
piers can be approximated by
distributing the hydrodynamic
drag caused by the piers evenly
across the elements that contain
them.

(3-27)

where Ae = area of the element in which the pier is located. Bed shear stress within an
element is increased accordingly for each pier whose center is contained within the
element. Although the bed shear stress adjustment takes into account added flow
resistance created by bridge piers, the effect of piers on flow within bridge openings is only
approximated.

One-dimensional Bridge/Culvert Flow

Culverts are short closed conduits that convey water under roadways, railroads,
canals, or some other type of
flow obstruction (Figure 2-7).
If the width of a bridge or
culvert is small in
comparison to the floodplain
width, and if a detailed
description of flow in the
vicinity of the structure is not
needed, the bridge or culvert
might be modeled accurately
by a one-dimensional flow
approximation. One-
dimensional flow through a
small bridge or a culvert is
calculated using an equation
developed for flow through
culverts.
Figure 3-7. Bridges and culverts can be modeled well by
Rates of flow
one-dimensional flow approximations when their widths
through culverts depend are small in comparison to the channel and floodplain.

Depth-averaged Flow and Sediment Transport Model - Flo2DH 3-10

 primarily on headwater depths
(that is, depths of water above
inverts at their upstream ends).
Other factors that affect culvert
flow rates are tailwater
elevations (that is, the water-
surface elevations at the
downstream ends), and physical
properties of the culverts
including cross-sectional area,
cross-sectional shape, inlet
geometry, length, longitudinal
slope, and roughness. If flow
capacities of culverts are small,
headwater depths may become
Figure 3-8. Flow through culverts under (A) inlet control
and (B) outlet control. large enough to send flow over
embankments or cause flood
damage to surrounding properties.
Culvert flow is classified as being controlled primarily by characteristics of either
the inlet or the outlet of the culvert. Hydraulic capacity is calculated differently for the two
types of control (Figure 3-8). The controlling condition is considered the one that yields
the smallest flow rate for specified headwater and tailwater depths.
Under inlet control, culverts have shallow, high-speed supercritical flow
immediately downstream from their inlets. Hydraulic jumps may form within their barrels
depending on tailwater depths. Culverts will never flow full throughout their lengths when
inlet conditions control, behaving like orifices when their inlets are submerged, or like
weirs when they are not. Flow rates under these conditions depend primarily on headwater
depths and inlet characteristics, with culvert barrel slope affecting submerged flows
slightly. Headwater depth ratios for unsubmerged (weir flow) and submerged (orifice
flow) inlet control discharge are calculated using the FHWA procedure (Norman et al.,
1985) as follows:

(3-28)

where Hw = headwater depth above inlet control section invert; Dc = interior height of
culvert barrel; Q = barrel flow rate; Ac = full cross section area of culvert barrel; g =
gravitational acceleration; So = culvert barrel slope; KN, M, cN, Y = coefficients that depend
on culvert material, barrel cross section shape, and inlet characteristics; and m = 0.7 for
mitered inlets, and -0.5 for all other inlets. Note that the inlet control formulas have been
made dimensionless by inclusion of gravitational acceleration in the formulas given by
Normann et al. (1985). Consequently, the coefficients K and c given in Normann et al.
(1985) differ from the coefficients KN and cN as follows: K = KNgM/2 and c = cNg.
Coefficients KN, M, cN, and Y for various culvert barrel material and inlet combinations are
summarized in Table 3-1.

Depth-averaged Flow and Sediment Transport Model - Flo2DH 3-11

Table 3-1. Summary of Culvert Inlet Flow Formula Coefficients.
Barrel material Barrel shape Inlet description Coefficientsb
KN M cN Y
Concrete Circular Headwall; square edge 0.3153 2.0000 1.2804 0.6700
Concrete Circular Headwall; gooved edge 0.2509 2.0000 0.9394 0.7400
Concrete Circular Projecting; grooved edge 0.1448 2.0000 1.0198 0.6900
Cor. metal Circular Headwall 0.2509 2.0000 1.2192 0.6900
Cor. metal Circular Mitered to slope 0.2112 1.3300 1.4895 0.7500
Cor. metal Circular Projecting 0.4593 1.5000 1.7790 0.5400
Concrete Circular Beveled ring; 45 deg bevels 0.1379 2.5000 0.9651 0.7400
Concrete Circular Beveled ring; 33.7 deg bevels 0.1379 2.5000 0.7817 0.8300
Concrete Rectangular Wingwalls; 30 to 75 deg flares; square edge 0.1475 1.0000 1.2385 0.8100
Concrete Rectangular Wingwalls; 90 and 15 deg flares; square edge 0.2242 0.7500 1.2868 0.8000
Concrete Rectangular Wingwalls; 0 deg flares; square edge 0.2242 0.7500 1.3608 0.8200
Concrete Rectangular Wingwalls; 45 deg flare; beveled edge 1.6230 0.6670 0.9941 0.8000
Concrete Rectangular Wingwalls; 18 to 33.7 deg flare; beveled edge 1.5466 0.6670 0.8010 0.8300
Concrete Rectangular Headwall; 3/4 in chamfers 1.6389 0.6670 1.2064 0.7900
Concrete Rectangular Headwall; 45 deg bevels 1.5752 0.6670 1.0101 0.8200
Concrete Rectangular Headwall; 33.7 deg bevels 1.5466 0.6670 0.8107 0.8650
Concrete Rectangular Headwall; 45 deg skew; 3/4 in chamfers 1.6611 0.6670 1.2932 0.7300
Concrete Rectangular Headwall; 30 deg skew; 3/4 in chamfers 1.6961 0.6670 1.3672 0.7050
Concrete Rectangular Headwall; 15 deg skew; 3/4 in chamfers 1.7343 0.6670 1.4493 0.6800
Concrete Rectangular Headwall; 10-45 deg skew; 45 deg bevels 1.5848 0.6670 1.0520 0.7500
Concrete Rectangular Wingwalls; non-offset 45/ flares; 3/4 in chamfers 1.5816 0.6670 1.0906 0.8030
Concrete Rectangular Wingwalls; non-offset 18.4/ flares; 3/4 in chamfers 1.5689 0.6670 1.1613 0.8060
Concrete Rectangular Wingwalls; non-offset 18.4/ flares; 30/ skewed barrel 1.5752 0.6670 1.2418 0.7100
Concrete Rectangular Wingwalls; offset 45/ flares; beveled top edge 1.5816 0.6670 0.9715 0.8350
Concrete Rectangular Wingwalls; offset 33.7/ flares; beveled top edge 1.5752 0.6670 0.8107 0.8810
Concrete Rectangular Wingwalls; offset 18.4/ flares; top edge bevel 1.5689 0.6670 0.7303 0.8870
Cor. metal Rectangular Headwall 0.2670 2.0000 1.2192 0.6900
Cor. metal Rectangular Projecting; thick wall 0.3023 1.7500 1.3479 0.6400
Cor. metal Rectangular Projecting; thin wall 0.4593 1.5000 1.5956 0.5700
Concrete Horizontal ellipse Headwall; square edge 0.3217 2.0000 1.2804 0.6700
Concrete Horizontal ellipse Headwall; grooved edge 0.1379 2.5000 0.9394 0.7400
Concrete Horizontal ellipse Projecting; gooved edge 0.1448 2.0000 1.0198 0.6900
Concrete Horizontal ellipse Headwall; square edge 0.3217 2.0000 1.2804 0.6700
Concrete Horizontal ellipse Headwall; grooved edge 0.1379 2.5000 0.9394 0.7400
Concrete Horizontal ellipse Projecting; gooved edge 0.3056 2.0000 1.0198 0.6900
Cor. metal Pipe arch (18" corner) Headwall 0.2670 2.0000 1.5956 0.5700
Cor. metal Pipe arch (18" corner) Mitered to slope 0.1702 1.0000 1.4895 0.7500
Cor. metal Pipe arch (18" corner) Projecting 0.4593 1.5000 1.5956 0.5300
Structural plate Pipe arch (18" corner) Projecting 0.3998 1.5000 1.5667 0.5500
Structural plate Pipe arch (18" corner) Headwall; square edge 0.2799 2.0000 1.1613 0.6600
Structural plate Pipe arch (18" corner) Headwall; beveled edge 0.0965 2.0000 0.8493 0.7500
Structural plate Pipe arch (31" corner) Projecting 0.3998 1.5000 1.5667 0.5500
Structural plate Pipe arch (31" corner) Headwall; square edge 0.2799 2.0000 1.1613 0.6600
Structural plate Pipe arch (31" corner) Headwall; beveled edge 0.0965 2.0000 0.8493 0.7500
Cor. metal Arch Headwall 0.2670 2.0000 1.2192 0.6900
Cor. metal Arch Mitered to slope 0.9651 2.0000 1.4895 0.7500
Cor. metal Arch Projecting 0.4593 1.5000 1.5956 0.5700
Concrete Circular Tapered throat 1.3991 0.5550 0.6305 0.8900
Cor. metal Circular Tapered throat 1.5760 0.6400 0.9297 0.9000
Concrete Rectangular Tapered throat 1.5116 0.6670 0.5758 0.9700
a
From Norman et al. (1985, Table 9, pages 147-148)
b
Coefficients KN and cN have been made non-dimensional and, therefore, differ from the coefficients K and c given by Norman et
al. (1985).

Depth-averaged Flow and Sediment Transport Model - Flo2DH 3-12

Table 3-2. Entrance loss coefficients for various culvert types and entrance conditions.

Type of culvert Entrance description Entrance loss

coefficienta, Ke
Concrete pipe Projecting from fill, grooved end 0.2
Projecting from fill, square-cut end 0.5
Headwall or headwall with wingwalls (concrete or cement
sandbags)
Grooved pipe end 0.2
Square-cut pipe end 0.5
Rounded pipe end 0.1
Mitered end that conforms to embankment slope 0.7
Manufactured end section of metal or concrete that conforms
to embankment slope
Without grate 0.5
With grate 0.7
Corrugated metal Projecting from embankment (no headwall) 0.9
pipe or pipe-arch Headwall with or without wingwalls (concrete or cement 0.5
sandbags)
Mitered end that conforms to embankment slope 0.7
Manufactured end section of metal or concrete that conforms
to embankment slope
Without grate 0.5
With grate 0.7
Reinforced concrete Headwall parallel to embankment (no wingwalls)
box Square-edged on three sides 0.5
Rounded on three sides to radius of 1/12 of barrel 0.2
dimension
Wingwalls at 30o to 75o to barrel
Square-edged at crown 0.4
Crown edge rounded to radius of 1/12 of barrel 0.2
dimension
Wingwalls at 10o to 30o to barrel
Square-edged at crown 0.5
Wingwalls parallel to embankment
Square-edged at crown 0.7
a
Summarized from entrance loss coefficients given by Norman et al. (1985) and “Roadway and
traffic design standards” (1998, Index No. 249 “Pipe end treatment application guide”).

Table 3-3. Culvert Manning roughness coefficients for various

culvert barrel materials and barrel conditions.

Culvert barrel Entrance description Manning

material roughness
coefficient, nc
Concrete Good joints, smooth walls 0.012
Projecting from fill, square-cut end 0.015
Poor joints, rough walls 0.017
Corrugated 2-2/3 inch × ½ inch corrugations 0.025
metal or 6 inch × 1 inch corrugations 0.024
structural plate
5 inch × 1 inch corrugations 0.026
corrugated
metal 3 inch × 1 inch corrugations 0.028
6 inch × 2 inch corrugations 0.034
9 inch × 2-½ inch corrugations 0.035

Depth-averaged Flow and Sediment Transport Model - Flo2DH 3-13

 Under outlet control, culverts either flow full for their entire lengths, or flow in
subcritical states without being completely filled. Outlet control flow is calculated based
on a straightforward energy balance between the upstream and downstream ends of a
culvert as follows:

(3-29)

where Ho = max{Tw, (dc + Dc)/2}, Tw = tailwater depth above the barrel invert, dc = critical
depth at the outlet, Ke = entrance energy loss coefficient, Lc = barrel length, nc = Manning
roughness coefficient of the culvert barrel, and Nn = units conversion factor (1.0 for SI
units, 1.486 for US customary units.) The energy balance considers channel velocities
both upstream and downstream from the culvert barrel to be small in comparison to the
barrel velocity, and that the outlet energy loss coefficient is unity. Entrance loss
coefficients Ke are summarized in Table 3-2 for various inlet configurations. Manning
roughness coefficients for different barrel materials are summarized in Table 3-3.
Based on (3-28) and (3-29), culvert flow rates are found as follows:
(3-30)
where Nb = number of identical barrels, Cc = discharge coefficient that depends on the flow
control (inlet or outlet) and culvert characteristics,

(3-31)

is culvert head, zsh = water-surface elevation at the upstream end of a culvert (that is, the
headwater elevation), zst = water-surface elevation at the downstream end of the culvert
(that is, tailwater elevation); and zinv = invert elevation at the culvert entrance. For inlet
control flow,

(3-32)

where Hh = zsh - zinv is headwater depth. The first inlet control discharge coefficient is used
when the culvert entrance is submerged and functions like an orifice; the second coefficient
applies when the entrance is not submerged and acts as a weir. Discharge coefficients for
outlet control flow are calculated as follows:

(3-33)

Depth-averaged Flow and Sediment Transport Model - Flo2DH 3-14

Weir Flow and Roadway Overtopping

Depth-averaged flow equations are derived by considering velocity in the vertical

direction to be negligible. However, flow over weirs, or weir-like structures such as
roadway embankments (Figure 3-9), can have significant vertical motion and might not be
simulated accurately using depth-averaged flow approximations. Weir flow likely will be
modeled more accurately using an empirical equation to calculate discharge over a
horizontal weir.
Flow over a weir segment, Qw, is calculated as

(3-34)

where Kw = weir coefficient; z wu = water-surface elevation at the upstream node; and zwc =
crest elevation of the weir segment. Weir coefficients, Kw, are given by

(3-35)
where Cs = weir submergence factor used to adjust Kw when flow over a weir segment is
affected by tailwater; Cw = dimensionless discharge coefficient for free (that is, not
submerged) weir flow (usually about 0.54); and Lw = length of the weir segment.
Submergence coefficients, Cs, are calculated as

(3-36)

where

(3-37)

is the submergence ratio, z wu = upstream water-surface elevation, and z wd = downstream

water-surface elevation, and asub, bsub = dimensionless submergence factor coefficients.
Unless specified, default values of weir segment coefficients Cw, asub, and bsub will be used

Figure 3-9. Weir flow over

roadway embankments is
modeled using an empirical
formula that connects finite
element networks on the
upstream and downstream
sides of the embankments.

Depth-averaged Flow and Sediment Transport Model - Flo2DH 3-15

 Table 3-4 Submergence Function Default Coefficientsa
Weir segment description Cw asub bsub
Undefined 0.544 16.4 0.432
Paved roadway 0.544 16.4 0.432
Gravel roadway 0.544 15.4 0.608
Single railroad track 0.577 7.25 0.500
Double railroad track 0.520 7.25 0.500
Sharp-crested weir 0.544 1.5 0.385
Broad-crested weir 0.544 7.25 0.500
a
Weir coefficients are based on formulas and charts presented by
King and Brater (1963, page 5-19) and Hulsing (1976, page 27).

based on the assigned weir segment type as summarized in Table 3-4.

Gate Structures
Gate structures are movable barriers that can be used to control the flow of water
through or over a dam or embankment. Two general types of gates are considered here: (1)
underflow gates, and (2) overflow gates. Underflow or submerged gates act as orifices and
include vertical lift gates and radial gates. Overflow or crest gates act as weirs and include
sector gates, flap gates, and roller gates.
Discharge through underflow gates is calculated as (Novak et al. 1996, pages 232-
233)

(3-38)

where

(3-39)

is a discharge coefficient,

(3-40)

is a contraction coefficient, wgu = underflow gate width, hgu = underflow gate height,
z wu = upstream water-surface elevation, zgu = underflow gate bottom elevation, and 2 =
angle of gate inclination.
The underflow gate formulas apply to gates having planar and cylindrically shaped
skin plates with free flow conditions and a downstream horizontal apron. Outflow edges of
the gates are inclined at angle 2 to the flow (2 < 90° and varies according to the gate
position).
Overflow gate discharge is calculated as

(3-41)

Depth-averaged Flow and Sediment Transport Model - Flo2DH 3-16

 where Cgo = overflow gate discharge coefficient (dimensionless), wgo = overflow gate
width, and zgo = overflow gate crest elevation. Only unsubmerged flow conditions are
considered.
Gate structures are modeled in the same way as culverts and weir segments. Each
gate structure is described by either one or two nodes, a set of coefficients, and physical
parameters. Two nodes are needed, one at the upstream side and one at the downstream
side, if the areas on both the upstream and downstream sides of the weir are included in the
finite element network, otherwise only the upstream node is needed.

Drop Inlet Spillways

Drop inlet spillways are overfall structures in which water drops through a vertical
riser connected to a discharge conduit (“Design and construction” 1996), and are often
used in reservoirs to convey flow past a dam as shown in Figure 3-10. Water flows over
the horizontal crest of the riser (the weir), drops through a vertical or sloping shaft (the
transition), and then flows to the downstream exit through a horizontal or nearly horizontal
closed channel or tunnel (the conduit). Three possible flow conditions can exist in a drop
inlet spillway depending on the relative discharge capacities of the weir, the transition, and
the conduit. The controlling hydraulic feature is the one that limits the flow through the
structure. As the hydraulic head at the spillway increases, control shifts from weir flow
over the crest to orifice flow through the transition and then to full pipe flow in the conduit.
Flow through a drop inlet spillway is modeled by specifying two node points, one
at the entrance and one at the exit, and a set of parameters that describe the structure. If
flow leaves the finite element network through the inlet and does not return to the network
only the entrance node point is specified. Water-surface elevations and velocities at the
entrance and exit nodes are used to compute the flow rates over the weir, through the
transition, and through the conduit. The smallest computed flow rate is the one that is
selected for the spillway.

Figure 3-10. Drop inlet spillways are overfall structures in which water drops through a
vertical riser connected to a discharge conduit .

Depth-averaged Flow and Sediment Transport Model - Flo2DH 3-17

 Weir Flow
Weir flow over a drop inlet crest is computed as follows:

(3-42)

where Cdw = dimensionless weir discharge coefficient, Ldw = total weir crest length of the
drop inlet, zwh = water-surface elevation at the entrance node point, and zdw = weir crest
elevation of the drop inlet. Dimensionless weir discharge coefficients for semicircular
shaped drop inlet crests are usually about 0.67.

Orifice Flow
Discharge through the vertical shaft of a riser is given by an orifice flow formula
as

(3-43)

where Cdo = dimensionless orifice flow discharge coefficient, zdo = orifice elevation, and
Ado = cross sectional area of the orifice.

Conduit Flow
Flow through the outlet conduit of a drop-inlet spillway is calculated by
considering the conduit to flow completely full its entire length using the following
formula:

(3-44)

where

(3-45)

is a dimensionless conduit flow discharge coefficient, Kde = entrance loss coefficient

(usually about 0.2), ndc = drop-inlet conduit Manning roughness coefficient, Ldc = drop-
inlet conduit length, Rdc = hydraulic radius of the conduit, Kdo = outlet loss coefficient
t
(usually 1.0), Adc = cross-sectional area of the conduit, and z de = conduit exit tailwater
elevation.

Channel Links
Channel links represent short sections of comparatively flat ground across which
water movement can be approximated as uniform flow using Manning’s formula as
follows:

(3-46)

where ncl = Manning roughness coefficient, Bcl = constant width of the channel link, Hcl =
average water depth calculated based on water-surface elevations at the two ends of the
link, and Scl = constant bed slope of the link.
Modeled in the same way as culverts and weir segments, each channel link is

Depth-averaged Flow and Sediment Transport Model - Flo2DH 3-18

 described by either one or two nodes, a set of coefficients, and physical parameters. Two
nodes are needed, one at either end of, if the areas on both the upstream and downstream
sides of the link are included in the finite element mesh, otherwise only the upstream node
is needed.

Cross-section-averaged Flow Equations

Sometimes areas in which two-dimensional depth-averaged flow is modeled are
connected by long channels of comparatively small width. Many two-dimensional
elements might be needed to model these channels which would increase computation time
significantly. As an option, areas modeled using two-dimensional elements can be
connected by “one-dimensional” channels in which cross-section averaged flow is
simulated (Figure 3-11) if two-dimensional descriptions of flow in these channels are not
needed. The one-dimensional cross-section averaged continuity and momentum equations
are as follows:

(3-47)

and

(3-48)

where B = cross-section flow area topwidth, zw = water-surface elevation (considered

constant across the section), t = time, Q = volumetric water flow rate through the cross
section, x = longitudinal channel direction (positive in a downstream direction), qR = lateral
inflow rate of water, $ = momentum flux correction factor, A = cross section flow area, g =
gravitational acceleration, Sf = friction slope derived from Manning’s resistance equation,
Js = wind shear stress in the positive longitudinal channel direction, D = water mass
density, and vx = longitudinal velocity of lateral inflow. Bridge, culverts, and weir
structures are not included in channels modeled by one-dimensional cross-section averaged

Figure 3-11. Cross-section averaged flow provides the average water

surface elevation across a section along with the total flow rate through the
wetted area of the section.

Depth-averaged Flow and Sediment Transport Model - Flo2DH 3-19

 flow.
Cross section
approximations are defined by
exactly eight ground points as
shown in Figure 3-12. The
third and sixth points represent
channel banks, the four and
fifth points are consider to be
limits of the “active bed”,
within which sediment can be
transported. Three roughness
coefficients are assigned to Figure 3-12. Approximate representation of cross sections
each section, one representing used to simulate one-dimensional flow in open channels.
the left overbank region (from Exactly eight ground points are specified for each section.
points one to three), one
representing the main channel (from point three to point six), and one representing the right
overbank region (from point six to point eight).

Initial and Boundary Conditions

From a mathematical viewpoint, the governing depth-averaged flow equations
form a mixed initial value/boundary value problem. Both initial conditions and boundary
conditions need to be specified that make the problem well-posed (that is, stable). A well-
posed problem is one in which increasingly smaller changes to boundary conditions
produce increasingly smaller changes in the solution at points not located on the boundary.
When an incorrect number of boundary conditions or boundary conditions of the wrong
type are specified, small changes to the boundary conditions might result in large solution
changes in the interior of the modeled region. Systems of equations that exhibit this kind
of unstable behavior are said to be ill-posed.

Initial Conditions
Water depth H, and unit flow rates in the x and y directions, q1 and q2, need to be
specified as initial conditions of the problem throughout the entire solution region for both
steady and time-dependent flows.

Hot starts
When results from a previous simulation are available they may be used as initial
conditions for a subsequent run even if the boundary conditions have changed from those
of the previous simulation or the network has been modified slightly. Using results from a
previous run as initial conditions is referred to as a hot start. However, solutions might not
converge if changes in boundary conditions are large or if networks are modified
significantly.

Cold starts
When models have just been constructed and previous solutions are not available,
initial conditions are unknown and cold starts are made. During cold starts, the same
water-surface elevation is assigned to every node point in the finite element network, from
which the bed elevation is subtracted to obtain water depth, and unit flow rates are set to
zero everywhere, that is

Depth-averaged Flow and Sediment Transport Model - Flo2DH 3-20

 (3-49)

Boundary Conditions
Certain values called boundary conditions need to be specified around the entire
boundary of a network for the duration of a simulation. Boundary condition data consist of
either the normal mass flux (normal flow) or the normal force (normal stress), in addition
to either the tangential mass flux (tangential flow) or the tangential force (shear stress) at
all points on the boundary of a network. Needed boundary information depends on
boundary type and flow conditions. Physically, two types of boundaries are encountered in
surface-water flow problems as shown in Figure 3-13: (1) a closed or zero-flux boundary;
and (2) an open boundary.

Closed boundary
Closed boundaries defines a geometric feature such as natural shorelines, highway
embankments, jetties, or seawalls. Generally, no flow passes through closed boundaries,
that is, the normal flow rate qn = 0 everywhere along a closed boundary. Additionally,
either tangential unit flow rates, the tangential shear stresses, or relations between
tangential unit flow rates and tangential shear stresses need to be specified on closed
boundaries by applying one of the following three types of conditions: (1) a slip condition,
(2) a no-slip condition, or (3) a semi-slip condition.

Slip condition. A slip condition allows flow in a direction that is tangent to the
boundary at a node point and imposes zero tangential shear stress at the boundary. The
tangential direction at a boundary node is determined by requiring that the net flow across
the closed boundary resulting from velocities at the node be zero. Slip conditions are
usually applied when the closed boundary represents an imaginary vertical wall where flow
depths are shallow and lateral shear stresses are negligible.

No-slip condition. A no-slip condition is specified at a closed boundary node by

setting the velocities equal to zero; therefore, the requirement of zero net flow across the
boundary will be satisfied automatically. No-slip conditions are usually applied when
velocities along a boundary are known to be very small and a network of closely-spaced
node points is constructed to resolve any large velocity gradients that might exist near the
boundary.

Figure 3-13. Network

boundaries are either “open”
or “closed.” Water can flow
only parallel to closed
boundaries, but can pass
through open boundaries.

Depth-averaged Flow and Sediment Transport Model - Flo2DH 3-21

 Semi-slip condition. A semi-slip condition is imposed on a closed boundary by
allowing flow in a direction that is tangent to the boundary just as for a slip condition, and
by prescribing a non-zero tangential shear stress caused by friction generated by flow
against a vertical wall. Vertical wall friction Jw is computed as

(3-50)

where cf = friction coefficient (dimensionless) used to calculate bed shear stresses within
an element, and Uw = velocity tangent to the wall (that is, at the boundary node where a
vertical wall is considered to exist). Semi-slip conditions are usually applied when the
closed boundary represents an actual physical boundary such as a wall that is vertical or
nearly vertical. Increased frictional resistance caused by the wall will then be considered.

Open boundary
An open boundary, which is exactly what the name implies, defines an area along
the boundary of a finite element network where flow is allowed to enter (an inflow
boundary) or leave (an outflow boundary). The values that need to be specified at an open
boundary depend on the type of boundary (inflow or outflow) and the type of flow
(subcritical or supercritical). Boundary flow is subcritical if U 2 + V 2 # gH, or
supercritical if U 2 + V 2 $ gH.

Inflow boundary. If flow at an inflow boundary node is subcritical, then one of the
following combinations needs to be specified in addition to tangential shear stress:
(1) velocities normal and tangent to the boundary, (2) unit flow normal and tangent to the
boundary, or (3) water-surface elevation and the flow direction. If the flow at an inflow
boundary node is supercritical, unit flow normal to the boundary, unit flow tangent to the
boundary, and water-surface elevation need to be specified at the node. Tangential shear
stresses acting on an open boundary are automatically set to zero if unit flow tangent to the
boundary is not specified. Velocity rather than unit flow can be specified at an open
boundary node. However, the ability to prescribe velocity directly at a node point seems to
offer no practical advantages.
Usually unit flow in both the x and y directions will be specified at inflow
boundary nodes, and water-surface elevation (from which depth is determined by
subtracting the ground elevation) is specified at outflow boundary nodes of a channel/flood
plain model. Total flow at a cross section composed of nodes lying on the network
boundary can also be specified. Assigning open boundary inflows using this feature of
Flo2DH greatly simplifies the specification of unit flows at upstream boundaries of
channel/flood plain models (outflows can be specified as well). Water-surface elevations
along a cross section composed of boundary nodes can also be specified. Water-surface
elevations might be constant across the section, or slope from one side of the cross section
to the other.

Outflow boundary. Tangential shear stresses are automatically set to zero at all
outflow boundary nodes. Therefore, only water-surface elevation needs to be specified at
an outflow boundary node if the flow is subcritical If the flow is subcritical no values
need to be specified. However, the fact that a node is a supercritical outflow boundary
node still needs to be made known.

Weakly-reflecting boundary. Assigning boundary conditions at the upstream

limits of tributary streams to estuaries or bays in which flow is controlled primarily by
tides (see Figure 3-14) presents a problem if the tributary boundary is influenced by the
tidal variations. During and immediately after flood tide the water surface will usually be

Depth-averaged Flow and Sediment Transport Model - Flo2DH 3-22

Figure 3-14. “Weakly-
reflecting” boundary
conditions can be applied at
tributaries to bays or
estuaries where unsteady
tidal elevations are applied
along the open ocean
boundary.

rising at the tributary boundary, while during and immediately after ebb tide the water
surface will usually be falling. Inflows and outflows at the tributary boundary are also
affected by the tidal variation in water-surface elevation. All of these responses are part of
the solution of the governing equations and cannot be specified in advance. One way of
addressing this problem is to extend the boundary of the tributary upstream to a location
that is not influenced by tidal variations at the mouth of the estuary or bay. However, tidal
effects can extend long distances inland from coastal waters, requiring a large network
extension.
Another way of handling the problem is to not to move the tributary boundary and
apply a condition that allows a tidal wave to pass through the boundary without being
reflected, or at least only weakly reflected. The mathematical statement for this boundary
condition is found from the characteristic solution of the depth-averaged flow equations by
imagining a fictitious river having constant dimensions, but without frictional resistance, to
extend far upstream from the boundary as shown in Figure 3-15. At a weakly-reflecting
boundary use is made of an invariant condition that stipulates
(3-51)
where Un = normal outward velocity at the open boundary, Un4 = normal outward velocity
in the fictitious river at an upstream location not affected by tides, and H4 = depth in the
fictitious river far upstream. Some reflection of outgoing waves will occur at the boundary
because the frictionless condition in the fictitious river causes a roughness change at the

Figure 3-15. Weakly-

reflecting boundary
conditions are formed by
considering a fictitious river
having constant dimensions,
but without frictional
resistance, to extend far
upstream from the
boundary.

Depth-averaged Flow and Sediment Transport Model - Flo2DH 3-23

boundary. Weakly-reflecting boundary conditions are best applied where incoming and
outgoing waves enter and leave networks in directions that are approximately normal to the
boundaries.

Boundary Condition Summary

Types and combinations of boundary conditions that can be specified are
summarized in Table 3-5. In general, conditions specified along the boundary of a network
cannot depend on what occurs inside the network. In other words, boundary conditions
need to be known in advance. Usually common sense along with an understanding of the
physical processes that are being modeled will allow appropriate boundary conditions to be
selected.
If boundary conditions are not known exactly then they need to be estimated as
closely as possible. Boundaries can be extended further away from areas where accurate
solutions are needed to reduce the likelihood of inexact boundary conditions having an
adverse effect on the solution. Also, if the wrong type of boundary condition is specified,
or if insufficient boundary conditions are specified, an accurate solution might still be
obtained where needed. For example, the open boundary of a network that represents an
estuary will be an inflow boundary during flood tide and an outflow boundary during ebb
tide. Strict compliance with mathematical stipulation of boundary conditions means that
two items need to be specified on this open boundary during flood tide, and only one item
during ebb tide. Normally, all that is known and all that will be specified, even during
flood tide, is water-surface elevation based on tide gage records or estimated tidal
elevations at the ocean entrance. However, lack of one boundary condition during flood
tide at an open boundary subject to tidal variations has not seemed to damage simulations,
especially if areas of interest lie far from the open boundary. Nonetheless, care needs to
taken in apply the proper number and type of boundary conditions.

Table 3-5. Possible Boundary Specificationsa for Various Two-dimensional Depth-

averaged Flow Conditions and Boundary Types.

Type of boundary Flow condition

Subcritical Supercritical

Closed, Un = 0 Un = Un* (usually Un* = 0)

Inflow, Un < 0 Un = Un* and Us = Us*, or Un = Un*, Us = Us*, and H = H*, or

qn = qn* and qs = qs* , or qn = qn*, qs = qs*, and H = H*
H = H* and Us = Us*, or (usually Us = qs = 0).
H = H* and qs = qs*
(usually Us = qs = 0).

Outflow, Un > 0 H = H* nothing

Weakly-reflecting

a
Un = outward normal velocity, Us = tangential velocity, qn = UH = outward normal unit
flow rate, qs = UH = tangential unit flow rate, Un4 = outward normal velocity in a
fictitious river far upstream from the boundary, H4 = depth in a fictitious river far
upstream from the boundary.

Depth-averaged Flow and Sediment Transport Model - Flo2DH 3-24

 Application of boundary conditions in Flo2DH can be simplified by specifying
values along cross sections that form part of the network boundary. Cross sections usually
represent channel/flood plain transects where either total flow, water-surface elevation, or
the invariant quantity at a weakly-reflecting boundary can be specified. Total flow is
distributed between the cross sections that comprise the boundary based on a one-
dimensional flow approximation using the concept of cross-section conveyance.

Storm Surge and Tropical Cyclones

Storm or tidal surge is an abnormal elevation in sea level along a coast caused by
strong onshore winds in combination with low atmospheric pressure. Storm surges
typically have periods from 12 to 24 hours, and can produce changes in sea level of several
meters. Surges are particularly destructive to low-lying coastal areas if the peak of the
storm is coincident with a high astronomical tide. When wind stresses dissipate, sea levels
can exhibit damped oscillations called seiches that may last for several days. Maximum
water depths and velocities in estuaries and tidal inlets in the United States are likely to
occur during storm surges.
The most destructive storm surges are caused by strong cyclonic tropical storms or
hurricanes, which produce winds with speeds of 75 mi/h (120 km/h) or more. A mature
tropical cyclone is characterized by a circular pattern of storm clouds and torrential rains,
accompanied by winds that may reach speeds of 100 to 180 mi/h (160 to 300 km/h) within
a radius of 6 to 60 mi (10 to 100 km) from the storm center or core. Winds diminish
rapidly with increasing distance from the core. At a radius of 300 mi (500 km), wind speed
is usually less than 18 mi/h (30 km/h). Tropical cyclones move with the large-scale wind
currents in which they are embedded with average speeds of 16 mi/h (25 km/h). Although
some storms may travel at twice the typical speed, others can remain stalled in the same
location for several days.
Simulating tropical storms and resulting surges in detail is a complex and time-
consuming effort. Therefore, storm surge elevations on ocean boundaries can be
calculated using a simple approach suggested by Edge et al. (1998) in which a surge stage
hydrograph is synthesized from tropical storm windfield parameters and a known peak
stage as

(3-52)

where Ds = Rmax /Vf is storm duration, Rmax = radius of maximum storm winds, Vf = forward
speed of the storm, t = time since start of the storm, and Sp = peak storm surge height for a
selected annual exceedance probability. Combining surge stage with astronomical tide
elevations gives total storm surge stage
(3-53)
where Ht = astronomical tide stage. Radius of maximum winds Rmax and forward speed Vf
can be obtained from Ho et al. (1987) in which probability distributions of tropical storm
parameters can be found. Edge et al. (1998) find that 50 percent probability (that is, mean
values) of Rmax and Vf produce storm durations Ds that are similar to durations obtained
from analyses of historical storm surge hydrographs. Mean estimates are the most likely
values given a surge height of any recurrence interval. The 100-year storm surge
hydrograph, for example is developed using the 100-year peak surge height Sp and 50
percent values of Rmax and Vf.
Peak heights of 50-, 100-, and 500-year storm surges can be obtained for 346
locations along the Atlantic and Gulf coasts of the United States from a database prepared
by Scheffner et al. (1994). The storm surge database was formed through simulation of a

Depth-averaged Flow and Sediment Transport Model - Flo2DH 3-25

series of 134 historical hurricanes spanning a period of 104 years, and is therefore not
linked to a specific design storm or return period. All storm surges were simulated without
tides and are relative to mean sea level. Therefore, peak stages need to be combined with
various phases of astronomical tides to find the needed hydraulic conditions at bridges.
Wind is the primary driving force in cyclonic storms, transferring momentum from
the atmosphere to water by shear stress at the water surface. Surface wind shear stress Jw
and atmospheric pressure pa act across large distances, creating complex forces that can
persist for days after a storm has passed. Empirical expressions for horizontal pressure
profiles and resulting windfields associated with hurricanes have been developed from
measured pressure distributions. The tropical storm model used by the Federal Emergency
Management Agency (FEMA) in their Coastal Surge Model (“Coastal flooding” 1988),
which is an extension of the National Weather Service (NWS) windfield model described
by Ho et al. (1987), is used in Flo2DH to calculate appropriate wind shear stresses
corresponding to applied storm surge hydrographs. The model of tropical cyclone winds
requires the following parameters to describe a storm: (1) location of the storm center, (2)
radius of maximum winds, (3) forward storm speed, (4) storm track angle, (5) atmospheric
pressure at the storm’s center, and (6) ambient atmospheric pressure outside the storm. A
good source for these data is NOAA Technical Report NWS-38 (Ho et al. 1987). A detailed
description of the tropical storm model used in Flo2DH is presented in Appendix B.
Initial location of a tropical cyclone can be specified directly, or calculated based
on specification of landfall coordinates, and by considering forward speed and track angle
to remain constant. Additionally, a simple empirical model for predicting the decay of
tropical cyclone winds after landfall (Kaplan and DeMaria 1995) can be applied as an
option.

Depth-averaged Flow and Sediment Transport Model - Flo2DH 3-26

4. Sediment Transport and Bridge Scour
Sediment is a fragmental material, ranging in size from clay particles to boulders,
that originates from mechanical and chemical breakdown of rocks that comprise the earth’s
crust. When water is the principal means of transportation, the fragmental material is
called fluvial sediment. Fluvial sediment moves by being suspended in water (suspended
load) and by sliding or rolling along a streambed (bedload). Some sediment particles are
interchangeably transported in both ways. Transport of sediment in river channels is
simulated as an option in Flo2DH. Equations governing sediment motion for both two-
dimensional depth-averaged flow and one-dimensional cross-section averaged flow are
described in this chapter. Additionally, local scour at bridge piers can be calculated by
Flo2DH as part of a solution. Formulas used to estimate local scour are also described.

Depth-averaged Sediment Transport Equations

Changes in bed levels from erosion or deposition of sediment by two-dimensional
depth-averaged flows are given by the sediment continuity equation

(4-1)

where 0s= porosity of bed material, and qs1, qs2 = discharge-weighted volumetric total
sediment transport rates (that is, bedload and suspended load combined) in the x and y
directions. Sediment is considered to move in the same direction as water (that is, the
streamwise direction denoted by s), consequently, sediment continuity can be described by

(4-2)

where = volumetric sediment transport rate in the streamwise direction.

Transport rates of mixtures of particles of different sizes are calculated as

(4-3)

where qsi = volumetric transport rate of a single sediment size class characterized by
particles of diameter Di. Bed elevation changes are then given by

(4-4)

Discharge-weighted sediment concentration for the ith particle size class

Csi = qsi /q, expressed in volume per unit volume, is described by the following transport
equation:

(4-5)

where = equilibrium discharge-weighted sediment concentration, =

equilibrium volumetric sediment transport rate, and Ces = bed mass flux rate coefficient
calculated as

Depth-averaged Flow and Sediment Transport Model - Flo2DH 4-1

 (4-6)

where Kes = sediment erosion rate coefficient, and ws = terminal fall velocity or settling
velocity of a sediment particle in still water. Appropriate values of Kes depend on sediment
and flow properties and are not yet well-defined, although some guidance is available. For
example, for sediment particles transported in suspension, Armanini and Di Silvio (1988)
calculate Kes as follows:

(4-7)

where Ta = thickness of the surface or active layer. Sediment erosion rate coefficient need
to be specified in Flo2DH. As an option, Kes can be calculated automatically by (4-7).
However, Kes = 1.0 is assigned by default.
Sediment fall velocities are found from the graphical relations given in “Some
fundamentals of particle size analysis” (1957) for a particle shape factor of 0.7 using
tabulated values developed by Stevens and Yang (1989). The relations apply to particle
diameters up to 10 mm, and water temperatures less than 40° C.
Bed sediments can be divided into as many as eight particle size classes by
Flo2DH. One transport equation is needed to account for each size class. Streamline
balancing diffusion terms (Zienkiewicz and Taylor 1991, page 456) are added to the
transport equation to negate artificial diffusion created by numerical approximations of
spatial derivatives.

Bed Composition Accounting

The conceptual model of streambed erosion and deposition used in Flo2DH is
based on the ideas of Bennett and Nordin (1977). Beds are divided into two or three layers
depending on whether net erosion or net deposition has occurred previously (Figure 4-1).
The upper bed layer is called the active layer and is always present. Thickness of the
active layer is constant. Sediment is added to the active layer from above when deposition

Active Layer Ta Active Layer

Deposition Figure 4-1. Schematic of bed composition

Td
Layer accounting concept. The active layer
thickness is specified. Material eroding
from the active layer is replaced by an
Original equal volume from the deposition layer, if
Bed present, or from the original bed material.
Material Original An equal volume of material deposited on
To Bed the surface is removed from the active
layer and added to the deposition layer.
Material

Depth-averaged Flow and Sediment Transport Model - Flo2DH 4-2

 occurs, and composition of the active layer is immediately recalculated. An equal amount
of sediment is then subtracted from the active layer and added to the deposition layer
below. Thickness of the deposition layer is unlimited. When sediment is eroded from the
active layer an equal volume of material is subtracted from the deposition layer if it exists,
or the original bed material layer otherwise, and added to the active layer. Each of the bed
layers is considered homogeneous and to have the same porosity as the original bed
material. However, composition of the active and deposition layers depends on the
cumulative effects of scour and deposition over time.
Material within the active layer is immediately available for transport by
streamflows. Bed armoring is simulated by the process of selective entrainment of surface
particles, and by limiting erosion of sediment size classes during a single time step to the
amounts contained in the active layer. Conceptually, the active layer represents the
thickness of the channel bed that can be worked or sorted through by the action of flowing
water during a single time step to provide the material eroded. Thickness of the active
layer, therefore, is related to the height of sedimentary ripples and dunes that form on the
bed, their speed of movement, and the computational time step. Active layer thickness
equals one-half the height of bed forms when the time step is large enough to allow
translation distances that exceed bed form lengths. Because time steps will often be small
in comparison to translation times of bedforms for many flow problems, specification of a
nominal active layer thickness based on average bed material grain size will usually be
appropriate. Active layer thickness of two times the median bed material particle diameter
may be justified, with a minimum thickness of 0.05 ft (0.015 m).

Equilibrium Total Load Transport Formulae

Total load transport formulae presented by Engelund and Hansen (1967), Ackers
and White (1973), White and Day (1983), Yang (1973, 1984), Laursen (1958), and Meyer-
Peter and Mueller (1948) are used to model movement of cohesionless sediments. Each of
these formulas provides discharge-weighted sediment concentrations that apply strictly to
equilibrium conditions (that is, conditions in which all acting influences are canceled by
others, resulting in a stable river bed that is unchanging.) Some formulas do not explicitly
account for beds composed of more than one size class. For these relations, equilibrium
total sediment concentrations of a particular particle size class are found by multiplying the
estimate given by the selected transport formula times the fraction of the size class
contained in the active layer as follows:

(4-8)

where pi = fraction of the ith particle size class in the active layer, and
sediment transport capacity of the ith particle size class.

Engelund-Hansen Formula
Total sediment load is given by Engelund and Hansen (1967) as

(4-9)

where Ss = Ds/D = specific gravity of the sediment, Di = diameter of the ith particle size
class, Us = depth-averaged velocity in the streamwise direction, and

Depth-averaged Flow and Sediment Transport Model - Flo2DH 4-3

 (4-10)

is dimensionless bed shear stress or Shields’ parameter (Sedimentation engineering 1977,

page 96) based on total bed shear-stress .

Ackers-White Formula
The sediment transport formula originally presented by Ackers and White (1973)
for uniform sediments is applied to individual particle size classes to obtain

(4-11)

where

(4-12)

is a dimensionless grain mobility number, u*s = skin- or grain-friction velocity, and C, n, A,

m = coefficients that depend on a dimensionless grain diameter Dgr defined as follows:

(4-13)

For fine sediment particles with 1 < Dgr < 60 coefficients are as follows:

For coarse particles with Dgr $ 60 the following coefficients apply:

The original formula given by Ackers and White (1973) sets AN = A.

Ackers-White-Day Formula
A modification of the Ackers-White formula to account for individual size
fractions proposed by White and Day (1983) gives

(4-14)

where

Depth-averaged Flow and Sediment Transport Model - Flo2DH 4-4

 (4-15)

is a reference particle diameter, D50 = particle diameter for which 50 percent of the
sediment mixture is finer by weight (the median bed material diameter), D84 = particle
diameter for which 84 percent of the sediment mixture is finer by weight, and D16 =
particle diameter for which 16 percent of the sediment mixture is finer by weight.

Laursen Formula
Laursen (1958) correlates measured total sediment loads obtained from laboratory
flume experiments with hydraulic variables to obtain the following relation:

(4-16)

where Ki = function based on the ratio u*s /wsi, wsi = fall velocity of particles in the ith size
class, u*s = grain-friction velocity calculated as

(4-17)

which gives shear stress acting on sediment grains , and

(4-18)
is grain shear stress needed to displace particles of diameter Di. The graphical relation for
Ki given by Laursen (1958) is closely approximated by the following expressions
developed by Stevens and Yang (1989):

(4-19)

Yang’s Sand and Gravel Formula

Relating total bed-material load to the rate of energy dissipation per unit weight of
streamflow or unit stream power, Yang (1972, 1973, 1984) develops the following relation
for equilibrium transport of sands and gravels:

(4-20)

where energy gradient, M and N are coefficients, Uci = depth-

averaged velocity at which particles of the ith size class are set in motion, and J0 = total
bed shear stress. Coefficients M and N are calculated differently for sand and gravel as
follows:

Depth-averaged Flow and Sediment Transport Model - Flo2DH 4-5

 (4-21)

and

(4-22)

Critical depth-averaged velocity is found from the following expression:

(4-23)

Yang’s sand transport relation is used when Di < 2 mm; otherwise, the gravel equation is
used. Yang (1984) suggests that the gravel transport formula be limited to particle
diameters of 10 mm or less.

Meyer-Peter and Mueller Formula

A relation developed by Meyer-Peter and Mueller (1948) based on extensive
experiments with coarse sediment gives discharge-weighted concentrations as

(4-24)

The formulation used in Flo2DH considers all flow resistance to be from grain roughness;
a reasonable premise for coarse-bed channels for which the Meyer-Peter and Mueller
formula was developed.

Garbrecht et al. Approach

A combination of sediment transport capacity formulas found by Garbrecht et al.
(1995) to provide optimal estimates of total load can be used to calculate equilibrium
concentrations based on particle size class diameter. Laursen’s formula is used to estimate
sediment load capacity when Di < 0.25 mm, Yang’s sand and gravel formula is used when
0.25 mm # Di < 8.0 mm, and the Meyer-Peter and Mueller formula is used when Di $ 8.0
mm. A shortcoming of this approach is that unreasonably large differences in transport
rates might be calculated for consecutive particle size classes when two different formulas
are used.

Depth-averaged Flow and Sediment Transport Model - Flo2DH 4-6

Combined Currents and Waves
Wave action can have a large effect on sediment motion in coastal waters and
estuaries. When combined with currents, waves provide a stirring mechanism that keeps
sediment grains mobile, while currents add to the stirring and produce net transport
(McDowell and O’Connor 1977, page 111). Consequently, when waves are present some
sediment transport will occur even in the smallest of currents because of sediment that has
been entrained by wave-induced oscillatory water motion near the bed.
Sediment transport in combined current-wave flows is found by replacing J, the
bed shear stress due to current alone, by Jm, the mean bed shear stress during a wave cycle
under combined waves and currents, which is calculated as (Bijker 1966, Bijker and de
Bruyn 1988)

(4-25)

where Jw = amplitude of oscillatory bed shear stress due to waves. Wave bed shear stress
is obtained from the bottom orbital velocity uw created by wave motion as

(4-26)

where fw = wave friction factor. Amplitudes of orbital velocities just above beds due to
monochromatic (single frequency) waves of height Hw and period T are given by

(4-27)

where k = 2B/L = wave number, and L = wave length.

Wave friction factors fw depend on whether flows are laminar, smooth turbulent, or
rough turbulent, which in turn depend on wave Reynolds number Rw = uw A /<, the semi-
orbital excursion A = uw T /2B, kinematic viscosity <, and total bed roughness. Wave
friction factors are calculated as (Soulsby 1997, page 79)

(4-28)

where z0 = total bed roughness height. Laminar flow prevails when Rw # 2 ×105. When
Rw > 2 ×105, fw = larger of the smooth and rough turbulent flow values.
Total bed roughness height needed to estimate rough turbulent flow friction factors
is found as (Soulsby 1997, page 59)
(4-29)
where

(4-30)

is grain roughness height for hydrodynamically rough flows,

Depth-averaged Flow and Sediment Transport Model - Flo2DH 4-7

 (4-31)

is bed-form roughness height due to ripples, )r = ripple height, 8r = ripple wavelength, and
(4-32)

is the sediment transport contribution due to momentum extracted by the flow to move
sand grains, where

(4-33)

is dimensionless grain shear stress,

(4-34)

and

(4-35)

is the wave friction factor for rough turbulent flows.

Sand Ripples
Apart from surf zones, ripples form on the beds of most coastal waters, although
there may be dunes or sandwaves present, also. When ripples, dunes, or sandwaves occur
they create form drag due to the distribution of dynamic pressure across their surfaces.
Current-generated ripple wavelengths and heights are calculated as 8rc = 1000 D50 and
)rc = 8rc /7, respectively. Wave-generated ripple heights and lengths are calculated as
follows (Nielson 1992):

(4-36)

and

(4-37)

where

(4-38)

is a wave mobility number. Ripple heights and wavelengths used to calculate grain
roughness height for hydrodynamically rough flows are taken as the larger of current and
wave-generated values.

Depth-averaged Flow and Sediment Transport Model - Flo2DH 4-8

 Surf Zone Sediment Transport
The most intense sediment transport in coastal zones often takes place beneath
breaking waves, either in surf zones, on beaches, or over sandbanks (Kraus and Horikawa
1990). Because surf-zone processes are complicated and difficult to simulate, sediment
movement is modeled just as for non-breaking waves. Support for this approach is
provided by the experiments of Deigaard et al. (1991) who show that bed shear-stresses in
surf zones are not on average much different from those where waves have not broken,
although they exhibit greater wave-to-wave variability. Random waves break on a beach
in water of depth H when significant wave height Hws = (H, where ( takes the value 0.55
for a horizontal bed, and increases with wave period and beach slope. Monochromatic
waves break in shallow water when wave height Hw = 0.78 H. Bed shear-stresses used to
calculate sediment transport rates within surf zones (that is, where H < Hw/() are found
using Hw = (H, where ( = specified ratio (usually about 0.8).

Cross-section-averaged Sediment Transport Equations

Transport of sediment in one-dimensional river channels is simulated as an option
in Flo2DH in a manner similar to two-dimensional flow. Changes in bed levels from
erosion or deposition of sediment by one-dimensional cross-section-averaged flows are
given by the sediment continuity equation as follows:

(4-39)

where = topwidth of the active bed, = average elevation of the active bed, Qs = total
volumetric sediment transport rate, and qs = lateral inflow rate of sediment. Active beds
are portions of cross sections within which sediment is transported, no sediment is carried
in other parts of a section. For sediment transport calculations, the active portion of a cross
section is approximated as horizontal (see Figure 4-2), and the average active bed level
rises and falls as sediment is eroded or deposited uniformly across the active bed width.
Discharge-weighted sediment concentration for the ith particle size class
Csi = qsi /q, expressed in volume per unit volume, is described by the following transport
equation:

(4-40)

where = cross sectional flow area above the active bed, = total flow rate within the
active bed, = equilibrium discharge-weighted sediment concentration, =
equilibrium volumetric sediment transport rate, and Ces = bed mass flux rate coefficient.
Total transport rate of a mixture of particles of different sizes is calculated as

(4-41)

where m = number of particle size classes, and Qsi = volumetric transport rate of a single
class characterized by characterized by particles of diameter Di. Total sediment flow rate
of a size class is given by

(4-42)

where pi = fraction of the ith particle size class in the active layer, and

Depth-averaged Flow and Sediment Transport Model - Flo2DH 4-9

 Figure 4-2. The active width
of one-dimensional channels
is approximated by a
horizontal bed for sediment
transport calculations.

(4-43)

where = unit sediment transport rates found as for two-dimensional depth-averaged

flow using average velocity and depth in the active width portion of the channel.

Bridge Scour
Stream crossings are usually designed to satisfy all engineering and environmental
constraints at the lowest possible cost. As a result, roadway approach embankments
leading to bridge crossings often constrict flood flows at high stages, creating large
velocities within and near bridge openings. Erosion of channel beds near bridges is a
common result. Many bridge failures, both benign and catastrophic, have been caused by
excessive erosion or scour of bed materials surrounding footings of piers and abutments
[see Shirole and Holt (1991) for a summary of bridge failures in the United States and their
causes]. Therefore, predicting expected depths of scour is a critical element of bridge
design needed to assure a safe and reliable transportation link.
Total depth of scour (that is, the vertical distance a streambed is lowered by
erosion below a reference elevation) at a bridge results from several causes and can be
divided into the following three additive components: long-term degradation and lateral
migration, general scour, and local scour (“Highway drainage” 1992, page VII-39;
Richardson and Davis 1995, page 6). Degradation and lateral migration, which usually
take place over a long time, may be natural trends of the stream or result from artificial
modifications to the stream or catchment. General or contraction scour results from
constriction of streamflows by roadway approach embankments when the capacity of flow
to remove or transport bed material from a bridge waterway exceeds the rate at which
replacement materials are supplied. Local scour in the immediate vicinity of a bridge pier
is caused by the influence of the obstruction on approaching streamflow (see Figure 4-3).
The pier causes flow to accelerate as it passes by, and three-dimensional vortices will form
that further increase erosion. Although bed scour near abutments is often described as
local in character, observation and experiment indicate the primary cause of abutment
scour to be increased velocity and bed shear resulting from flow contraction by approach
roadway embankments.
For either general or local scour, if no sediment is being carried by the approach
flow (that is, if clear water conditions exist), erosion will continue until the bed shear

Depth-averaged Flow and Sediment Transport Model - Flo2DH 4-10

stress reduces to a value that is
unable to entrain any more
material (that is, the critical
shear stress). However, if
sediment is actively being
transported by the flow (that is,
if live bed conditions exist)
erosion will continue until a
balance exists between the rates
at which sediment is transported
into and through the scoured
area. Only clear-water general
scour and local scour at bridge
piers are calculated in Flo2DH.

Clear-water Contraction
Scour
Nearly 500 years ago Figure 4-3. Local scour at a round-nosed bridge pier.
Leonardo DaVinci noted that Note protective vegetative cover of surrounding
“where the river is constricted, it floodplain.
will have its bed stripped bare of
earth, and the stones or tufa will remain uncovered by the soil” (MacCurdy 1938, page 84).
This phenomenon is well illustrated at bridges where flow constrictions created by
roadway approach embankments produce large velocities during floods that scour channel
bed and bank materials.
A simple calculation of clear-water contraction scour is provided in Flo2DH.
Basically, unit flow rates are unaffected by scour that may develop. However, velocity
and shear stress may be reduced as a result of a deepening scour hole. Clearwater
contraction scour depths are found by calculating the flow depth needed to reduce bed
shear stress to a critical value Jc at which erosion will cease. If bed shear stress does not
exceed the critical value, no scour will occur. Deposition of sediment from upstream
erosion is not accounted for in this simple treatment of scour.
Bed shear stress acting in a streamwise directions is given by Manning’s relation
as

(4-44)

where D = water mass density, n = Manning’s roughness coefficient for total flow
resistance, Nn = units conversion factor (1.0 for SI units, 1.486 for US customary units), H
= flow depth, and U, V = depth-averaged velocities in the x and y directions, respectively.
Effective stress acting on erodible soil particles is found as (Temple et al. 1987)

(4-45)

where nsoil = roughness coefficient of bare soil. Equating Jbe to Jc and rearranging gives
equilibrium flow depth as

Depth-averaged Flow and Sediment Transport Model - Flo2DH 4-11

 (4-46)

where q = unit flow rate in the streamwise direction. Considering q and nsoil to remain
constant as contraction scour develops, clear-water contraction scour depth dsc = Hsc - H is
given by

(4-47)

Two critical shear stresses can be specified: one for soil Jcs, and one for a protective soil
cover Jcp, where Jcp > Jcs. Protective soil covers are considered to have negligible
thickness. No scour takes place when protective soil covers are present and Jb # Jcp.
However, when Jb > Jcp protective
covers are completely removed and
Table 4-1. Critical shear stresses for various
general clear-water scour depth is protective soil coversa.
calculated with Jc = Jcs. Critical shear
stresses for several types of protective Protective soil cover Critical shear stress Jcp
soil covers are given in Table 4-1. 2 2
in lb/ft in N/m
b
Live-bed Contraction Scour Vegetation :
Live bed contraction scour Class A 3.7 180
can be found as part of a general Class B 2.1 100
Class C 1.0 48
sediment transport simulation.
Class D 0.60 28
Erosion of river beds within Class E 0.35 17
constrictions created by bridge Woven paper 0.15 7.1
crossings will take place as velocities Jute net 0.45 22
and depths increase. For given Single fiberglass 0.60 29
channel flow rates and water depths, Double fiberglass 0.85 41
live bed contraction scour will Straw mulch with net 1.5 69
decrease as sediment concentration Curled wood mat 1.6 74
increases. Synthetic mat 2.0 96
Straw mulch without
netc:
Local Scour at Bridge Piers 0.025 lb/ft2 (0.12 kg/m2) 0.012 0.6
Local pier scour can be 0.05 lb/ft2 (0.24 kg/m2) 0.063 3.0
calculated automatically in Flo2DH 0.10 lb/ft2 (0.49 kg/m2) 0.29 14
by computing approach flow velocity, a
Unless otherwise noted, all data are from Chen
approach flow depth, and the degree and Cotton (1988).
of alignment of the pier and approach b
See Table 4-2 for a description of vegetation
flow at the center of a pier. Using classes.
the equation suggested by Richardson c
Foster (1982)
and Davis (1995) in the FHWA
Hydraulic Engineering Circular 18
(HEC-18), depth of local scour below the ambient bed elevation around a bridge pier is
calculated as

(4-48)

Depth-averaged Flow and Sediment Transport Model - Flo2DH 4-12

Table 4-2. Description of vegetation retardance classesa.

Retardance Vegetal cover

Class
Type Condition
A Weeping lovegrass Excellent stand, tall (average height = 0.75 m)
(very high) Yellow bluestem ischaemum Excellent stand, tall (average height = 0.9 m)
B Kudzu Dense growth, uncut
(high) Bermuda grass Good stand, tall (average height = 0.3 m)
Native grass mixture including Good stand, unmowed
little bluestem, bluestem, blue
gamma, and other short and
longstem Midwest grasses
Weeping lovegrass Good stand, tall (average height = 0.6 m) or
mowed (average height = 0.3 m)
Lespedeza sericea Good stand, not woody, tall (average height =
0.5 m)
Alfalfa Good stand, uncut (average height = 0.3 m)
C Crab grass Fair stand, uncut (height = 0.25 to 1.2 m)
(moderate) Bermuda grass Good stand, unmowed (average height = 0.15
m)
Common lespedeza Good stand, uncut (average height = 0.3 m)
Grass-legume mixture: summer Good stand, uncut (height = 0.15 to 0.2 m)
(orchard grass, redtop, Italian
rye grass, and common
lespedeza)
Centipede grass Dense cover (average height = 0.15 m)
Kentucky bluegrass Good stand, headed (height = 0.15 to 0.3 m)
D Bermuda grass Good stand, cut to a height of 0.06 m
(low) Common lespedeza Excellent stand, uncut (average height = 0.1 m)
Buffalo grass Good stand, uncut (height = 0.08 to 0.3 m)
Grass-legume mixture: fall, Good stand, uncut (height . 0.1 m)
spring (orchard grass, redtop,
Italian rye grass, and common
lespedeza)
Lespedeza sericea Good stand (height = 0.05 m)
E Bermuda grass Good stand (height = 0.04 m)
(very low) Bermuda grass Burned stubble
a
After “Handbook of channel design” (1954)

where K1 = pier shape factor, K2 = flow alignment factor, K3 = bed condition factor, K4 =
bed armoring factor, b = pier width, ya = approach flow depth, = approach
flow Froude number, and Va = depth-averaged velocity of the approach flow. Local pier
scour depth given by the HEC-18 equation represents a conservative estimate that can be
used for design, not the actual scour depth expected for the given pier and approach flow
parameters. Heights of dunes in sand-bed channels needed to assign the bed condition
factor K3 can be calculated using Yalin’s (1964) formula as follows:

(4-49)

where = 0.045 = dimensionless critical shear stress,

Depth-averaged Flow and Sediment Transport Model - Flo2DH 4-13

 (4-50)

is dimensionless shear stress, = shear stress acting on sediment grains, and u*s =
grain-friction velocity calculated as

(4-51)

As an option, expected local pier scour depth and a design scour depth can be
calculated using Froehlich’s (1988) expression

(4-52)

where

is a pier shape factor, = pier width projected normal to the approach flow, and D50 =
median diameter of bed material surrounding the pier. Scour depths given by Froehlich’s
(1988) equation are expected responses to the specified pier, approach flow, and bed
material parameters, and, consequently, are uncertain estimates. However, scour depths
that have small probabilities of being exceeded might be wanted to design pier foundations
that are unlikely to fail. Therefore, an upper prediction limit of scour depth is also
calculated for a specified confidence level. The default design confidence level is 99%
(that is, there is a 99% probability that the scour depth would be less than the predicted
value). However, either larger or smaller confidence levels yielding larger or smaller
design scour depths can be specified.

Pier Rock Riprap

Sizes of rock riprap needed to resist scour at bridge piers are calculated
automatically if pier scour is evaluated. Median rock diameter is found as (Richardson and
Davis, page 199)

(4-53)

where

Depth-averaged Flow and Sediment Transport Model - Flo2DH 4-14

5. Application Steps
The steps generally taken to simulate surface-water flow and sediment transport
using Flo2DH are as follows: (1) Data collection, (2) network design, (3) model
calibration, (4) model testing, and (5) model application. These five steps, illustrated in
Figure 5-1, are common to the operation of almost any type of numerical model and are
described in this section. Notice that direction lines suggesting modification or control of
the application process are shown in the diagram. For example, during model calibration
you might find that additional data topographic data are needed to simulate flow more
accurately in one or more areas covered by your mesh. Or while testing your model further
you might decide that additional calibration is needed to improve simulation results.

Data Collection
After a surface-water flow problem has been defined, the first step in the operation
of the modeling system consists of gathering data. Needed data are classified as either
topographic or hydraulic data. Topographic data describe the geometry of the physical
system and include an evaluation of surface roughness to be used in estimating bed friction
coefficients. Hydraulic data include measurements of stage and flow hydrographs; spot
measurements of stage, flow, and velocity; high-water marks left by floods; rating curves;
limits of flooding; and wind measurements. Hydraulic data are used to establish model
boundary conditions, and to calibrate and test a model. Data needs are summarized in
Table 5-1.
The type and amount of data needed to design a network properly and to apply a
model mainly depend on the purpose of the model. The more data that can be obtained the
better, and all of the data can be
used to improve the quality of a
model's output. Theoretically,
any surface-water flow can be
simulated as accurately as
wanted provided the important
physical processes are
represented adequately by the
governing equations. However,
the purpose of a model needs to
be considered when deciding
what and how much data is
needed to provide results of the
desired accuracy. For example,
a computational resolution of
centimeters (or less) might be
needed to provide the desired
results for a model of a
laboratory flume. On the other
hand, a model of a tidal estuary
might require a computational
resolution of a kilometer or more.

Figure 5-1. Modeling steps usually taken when applying

Flo2DH to simulate depth-averaged surface-water flow.

Depth-averaged Flow and Sediment Transport Model - Flo2DH 5-1

 Table 5-1. Summary of data that might be needed to apply the modeling system.

Data item Use of data Source(s) of data

Ground-surface elevations Assignment of ground- Topographic and
surface elevations to node hydrographic charts, maps,
points; layout of a finite and surveys.
element network.
Bridge, culvert, weir, pier, Layout of a network; Design drawings and surveys.
and drop inlet structure assignment of bridge, culvert,
dimensions. weir, pier, and drop inlet
structure parameters.
Channel and floodplain Evaluation of bed friction Aerial and ground
surface characteristics, coefficients and eddy photographs, topographic
vegetative cover, and viscosity. maps, and on-site inspection.
sediment composition.
Water-surface elevations. Establishment of boundary On-site measurements, high-
conditions, calibration of water marks, and
model coefficients, and streamgage records.
testing model accuracy.
Current velocity and flow Establishment of boundary On-site measurements,
rate. conditions, calibration of indirect estimates based on
model coefficients, and measured high-water marks,
testing model accuracy. and streamgage records.
Wind velocity. Calculation of wind stresses On-site measurements and
at the water surface. weather station records.
Water temperature and Calculation of water density. On-site measurements and
salinity. streamgage records.
Latitude. Calculation of the Coriolis Map.
force.
Astronomical tide stages. Boundary conditions for NOAA tide tables and
time-dependent simulations computer programs.
affected by ocean levels.
Tropical cyclone windfield Calculation of storm surge NOAA Technical Report
parameters. and generation of surface NWS-38 (Ho et al. 1987) and
shear stresses caused by historic records.
tropical cyclone winds.
Bed material size and Initial and boundary Onsite samples and boring
gradation. conditions for sediment logs from nearby construction
transport solutions. projects such as bridges.

Minimum data needs for a particular application are difficult to estimate in

advance. Objectives of the study and the available time, personnel, and funding need to be
considered before model construction (that is, network design, calibration, and testing) and
subsequent application. Because time, personnel, and funding always have finite limits,
decisions need to be made regarding how much detail to be represented by the model and
the extent of a calibration and testing to be carried out. If a high level of detail is provided
by a network, risk of not representing a physical system properly will be reduced, but
difficulty (in time and expense) of obtaining a solution will be increased. On the other

Depth-averaged Flow and Sediment Transport Model - Flo2DH 5-2

 hand, if a simple network is designed, the risk of not accurately representing a physical
system will be increased, but the difficulty of obtaining a solution will be reduced.
Knowledge of important physical processes that govern the response of a system under
study is needed to evaluate the tradeoff between risk of not accurately representing the
system and difficulty of obtaining a solution. Sometimes constraints on time, human
resources, or funding will predetermine how much detail can be included in a model and
the amount of calibration and testing to be carried out. Consequently, a larger amount of
risk would be accepted than would otherwise be wanted.

Network Design
The next step in applying Flo2DH is to design a finite element network. Network
design can be defined simply as the process by which the surface-water body being
modeled is subdivided into an assemblage of finite elements. The basic goal of network
design is to create a representation of the water body that provides an adequate
approximation of the true solution of the governing equations at a reasonable cost. No set
rules exist for achieving this goal because of the many different conditions encountered
from one problem to the next. Design of a satisfactory finite element network depends
largely on the use of sound engineering judgment gained from previous modeling
experience. However, some helpful guidelines are presented in this section.

General Network Layout

Decisions as to the number, size, shape, and pattern of elements used to provide an
adequate representation of the water body that is to be modeled need to be made when
designing a finite element network. If the elements obey some basic requirements for a
convergent solution, the accuracy of the solution will improve as the size of the elements in
a network is reduced. However, increasing the number of elements in a network also
increases computational expenses. Elements need to be made small enough to provide a
solution of sufficient detail and accuracy, yet large enough to obtain the solution at a
reasonable cost.
Next, the limits of the area to be modeled are defined. As a rule, model boundaries
are placed where water-surface elevations and flows can be specified accurately. The
effect that boundary condition errors will have on a solution needs to be considered. If the
accuracy of boundary conditions is not certain, the limits of a model can be placed as far
away as possible from areas of primary interest so that any errors introduced at the
boundaries will have little influence at the points of interest.
After boundaries have been defined, subdivision of the solution domain continues
by dividing the area to be modeled into large regions that have similar topographic and
surface cover characteristics. Subdivision lines between the regions are placed, as much as
possible, where abrupt changes in topography or surface cover occur. The large regions
then are divided into elements, the size and shape of which will depend on the desired level
of detail in that particular area.
Flo2DH will accept any combination of six-node triangular, eight-node
quadrilateral, or nine-node quadrilateral elements that have straight or curved sides so that
complex geometries can be modeled in detail. Curved-side elements are created by simply
specifying the coordinates of the midside node of sides that are curved. If midside-node
coordinates are omitted, element sides are considered straight and the midside node
coordinates are interpolated halfway between the two adjacent vertex nodes.
Some conditions regarding the shape of an element need to be satisfied so that the
determinant of the Jacobian matrix will not vanish within the element (that is, the
isoparametric mapping between a global element and its parent element needs to be

Depth-averaged Flow and Sediment Transport Model - Flo2DH 5-3

one-to-one). It is a good idea to make
sure that a midside node is placed
within the middle third of the curved
element side that it defines as shown
in Figure 5-2. Also, it is suggested
that internal angles of quadrilateral
elements be kept between 60o and
120o as shown in Figure 5-2. For
triangles, well-shaped elements can
be assured by keeping interior angles
between 5o and 120o, which means
avoiding long, thin elements that
come to a sharp point, especially
when curved sides are used.
Networks in which all the
elements have about the same size
and shape throughout might be easy
to construct but will usually not be
practical. The ability to vary the size
and shape of elements within a single
network is a major advantage of the Figure 5-2. Some rules to ensure one-to-one
finite element method. In regions mapping of two-dimensional isoparametric finite
where the gradients of dependent elements.
variables are expected to be large,
small elements will provide a more
accurate solution than large elements. Locations where gradients of velocities and depth
might be large include stream channels, constrictions, and areas near large inflows or
outflows. Small elements also need to be used to model boundaries that have irregular
shapes. In regions where the solution variables are expected to change very slowly, or in
areas of the model that are of minor interest, large elements can provide a solution of
sufficient accuracy. Transition between a section of a network composed of large elements
and a section of a network composed of smaller elements needs to be gradual; that is, it is
best if very large elements are not connected to very small elements. Also, it is a good idea
to position nodes at locations where point inflows or outflows are to be applied.
The question of which type of element to use to construct a network (that
is, a six-node triangle, an eight-node quadrilateral, or a nine-node quadrilateral) is not
answered easily. The ease of approximating a two-dimensional region with an assemblage
of arbitrary triangular elements has been shown in many applications. The two kinds of
quadrilateral elements are similar except for the presence of an internal node in the
nine-node Lagrangian element. The additional node in a nine-node quadrilateral element
creates a little more computational effort, but provides a more accurate solution than an
eight-node quadrilateral element. For most networks, mixtures of six-node triangular
elements and nine-node quadrilateral elements will provide the best representation of the
water bodies being modeled.
Another characteristic of network design that affects a finite element solution is the
aspect ratio of elements used in the network. The aspect ratio of a two-dimensional
element is the ratio of the longest element dimension to the shortest element dimension as
shown in Figure 5-3. A well-designed network will usually be composed of elements that
have a variety of shapes, sizes, and a wide range of aspect ratios. However, elements that
have aspect ratios that are much greater than unity need to be designed cautiously. The
optimal aspect ratio for a particular element depends on the local gradients of the solution

Depth-averaged Flow and Sediment Transport Model - Flo2DH 5-4

 variables. If the gradients can
be estimated in advance,
aligning the longest element
dimension to the direction of
the smallest gradient and the
shortest element dimension to
the direction of the largest
gradient is best. For example,
in stream channels where the
longitudinal variation of
velocity and depth is gradual
and the transverse variation is
large, elements can be much
longer in the longitudinal
Figure 5-3. Aspect ratios of triangular and quadrilateral
direction than in the transverse
elements.
direction. If the interior angles
of triangular elements are kept
between 5o and 120o, the maximum aspect ratio that can result is about 12.5. For most
networks it is probably a good idea to keep the aspect ratio of both triangular and
quadrilateral elements below 12.5.

Two-Dimensional Bridges
Two-dimensional flow through a bridge or a culvert is modeled exactly as ordinary
free-surface flow when the water surface is not in contact with the top of the bridge or
culvert opening. However, when the
water surface is in contact with the
top of an opening pressure flow
exists. When pressure flow
conditions can occur at a bridge or
culvert, special consideration needs to
be given to the design of a finite
element network near the structure.
Elements need to be constructed to
conform to the two-dimensional plan
of the bridge deck as shown in Figure
5-4. The elevation of the ceiling (that
is, the underside of the bridge deck)
also needs to be specified for each of
the vertex nodes contained in
elements that conform to the bridge
deck. More than two rows of
elements within an opening might be
needed to model pressure flow
accurately. Increased resistance to
flow caused by shear along the
underside of bridge decks is included
when pressure flow occurs.
To avoid ambiguous
definition of bridge deck elements
when two parallel bridges are Figure 5-4. A finite element network at a bridge
separated by a single row of where pressure flow within the bridge opening is
modeled.

Depth-averaged Flow and Sediment Transport Model - Flo2DH 5-5

 Figure 5-5. Bridge decks need to
begin and end at closed
boundaries. When approach
roadways are covered by two-
dimensional meshes, you will
need to leave a “vacant” area at
the end of the deck to create a
closed boundary there.

uncovered elements, you also need to specify the element property type applied to bridge
deck elements as potential pressure flow elements. Consequently, when assigning property
types to elements you will want to create property types that are applied only to bridge
deck elements.
Bridge decks need to begin and end at closed boundaries, which usually represent
the bridge abutments, as shown in Figure 5-4. When flow over approaching roadway
embankments is modeled as one-dimensional weir flow (see the following section “One-
dimensional Weirs and Culverts”), this condition will be satisfied. However, if an
approach roadway is completely level with the surrounding floodplain, and a mesh is
constructed on the roadway to model depth-averaged flow over it, you will need to leave a
small vacant area next to the end of the bridge deck so that the deck will terminate at a
solid boundary as shown in Figure 5-5.
Combined pressure flow through a bridge opening and weir flow over the bridge
deck can be modeled by specifying weir segments that define the top of a bridge deck.
Bridge openings can be either completely or partially submerged. The two nodes on either
side of a weir segment that defines the top of a bridge deck will be the nodes on the
upstream and downstream sides of the bridge that correspond to the location of the weir
segment. These nodes will always be internal nodes, except where the bridge deck
intersects a network boundary. However, weir flow over a bridge deck is treated as a
source/sink term in the continuity equation, even when the upstream and downstream
nodes are boundary nodes.
While simulating the effect of a bridge pier by constructing the network around it
might be possible, usually elements would be needed that are much smaller than those in
the surrounding network, requiring more work to construct the network and greater
computational expense. However, the effect of drag forces on bridge piers can be
accounted for indirectly by distributing the force evenly across the surface of the element
containing the pier. If a pier occupies more than one element, the drag force is applied to
the element at the center of the pier. More than one pier can occupy an element.
Therefore, the total pier drag force distributed on an element might be an accumulation of
drag forces acting on several piers.

One-Dimensional Weirs and Culverts

One-dimensional weirs and culverts are described by a set of parameters and two
node points, one on either side of a weir or on either end of a culvert. Flow over weirs or
through culverts is calculated based on the water-surface elevations and velocities at the
two node points and the specified parameters. The node points may be placed on the

Depth-averaged Flow and Sediment Transport Model - Flo2DH 5-6

boundary or in the interior of the
finite element network. If water is
allowed to leave a network at a weir
or culvert and not return, then only
one node point is needed.
Flow over roadway
embankments is modeled best as one-
dimensional weir flow. To model
weir flow over roadway
embankments, a finite element
network needs to be designed so that
solid boundaries are positioned on
both sides of an embankment as
shown in Figure 5-6. The
embankment is divided into weir Figure 5-7. Modeling one-dimensional weir and
segments, and appropriate parameters culvert flow at roadway embankments.
assigned to each segment. The
number of segments to use depends on the variation of the roadway elevation along the
embankment and the spacing of node points on the solid boundaries that define the
embankment. Node points that define the sides of a weir segment need to be placed at
approximately the center of the weir segment. Flow will be allowed to leave the network
at the upstream node (that is, the node with the highest water surface elevation) and reenter
the network at the downstream node. If water flows over the weir segment and does not
return to the network, only the upstream node needs to be specified. The location of a weir
segment needs to be considered during initial design of a finite element network near a
roadway embankment. It is a good idea to match up node points on opposite sides of the
roadway that define the two sides of a weir segment. Also, a single node point can be used
to define the side (end) of more than one weir segment (culvert). The same two node
points can be used for both a weir segment and a culvert as shown in Figure 5-7.
When assigning weir segment lengths two-thirds of the side length of an element is
assigned to the midside node, and one-sixth of the side length is assigned to each vertex
node of that side. This apportionment will provide equal amounts of flow across the
network boundary at each node if the water-surface elevation is constant along the element

Figure 5-7. A roadway

embankment with a culvert
through it and the top
divided into weir segments.
Nodes match on opposite
sides of the embankment.
Midside nodes are assigned
two-thirds of a weir crest
segment length, vertex nodes
are each assigned one-sixth
of the length.

Depth-averaged Flow and Sediment Transport Model - Flo2DH 5-7

side. Following this rule, the resulting weir segment lengths assigned to adjacent nodes
will not be equal but will alternate in size. If all elements along a boundary that defines
one side of a roadway embankment over which water can flow have sides of length L, then
all midside nodes along that boundary will be assigned weir segment lengths of bL, and
all vertex nodes will be assigned weir segment lengths of aL (one-half of which is
assigned from each element containing the vertex node).
One-dimensional flow modeled at weirs, culverts, and small bridges is treated as
either a point flow on the boundary of a finite element network when the nodes defining
the structure are network boundary nodes, or a sink/source term when the nodes defining
the structure are interior nodes. A point flow is the total flow that crosses the network
boundary because of flow at a single node point. However, if one node at a weir or culvert
is wet, and the other node in an element that is dry and, therefore, has been excluded from
the network (at least temporarily), computational difficulties may arise. Therefore, both
nodes are best placed in locations that will be wet if they are expected to convey flow for
reasons of numerical stability.

Drop Inlet Structures

Flows through drop inlet structures are treated as point flows on the boundary of a
finite element network when the nodes defining the structure are placed on the network
boundary, or as sink/source terms when the nodes are placed in the interior of the network.
Drop inlet structures are described by a set of parameters and two node points, one at the
entrance of the drop inlet and one at the outlet of the conduit. Therefore, when laying out
the network, node points need to be positioned close to the entrance and outlet of each drop
inlet structure as shown in Figure 5-8. Flow rates through the structures are computed
based on the water-surface elevations and velocities at the two node points and the
specified parameters. Tailwater elevation is specified at conduit outlets if flows are
allowed to leave the networks through the drop inlet and not return. The same node point
can be used to define more than one drop inlet structure and weir segments and culverts.

Figure 5-8. Meshes need to be

designed with consideration of
the locations of the drop inlet
spillway entrances and outlets.

Depth-averaged Flow and Sediment Transport Model - Flo2DH 5-8

 1D/2D Junctions
One-dimensional channel elements can be used to connect separate sections of
two-dimensional meshes. One-dimensional sections of meshes join two-dimensional
sections at “junctions” as shown in Figure 5-9. Junctions are specified at single nodes in
the BOUN data set, and for entire boundary cross sections in the BSEC data set. Water-
surface elevations will be the same at all nodes forming a junction, and mass continuity
will be assured there (that is, the rate at which water or sediment leaves/enters the two-
dimensional mesh will equal the rate at which water enters/leaves the one-dimensional
mesh).

Figure 5-9. One-

dimensional and two-
dimensional meshes join at
junctions.

Model Calibration
Finite element models are simplified, discrete representations of complex and
continuous physical flow systems. Three-dimensional topographic features are represented
by two-dimensional elements, and the physics of flow are considered to obey differential
equations in which several empirical coefficients appear. When models produces useful
results, they need to be calibrated if enough data are available. Model calibration is the
process of adjusting the dimensions of simplified geometric elements and empirical
hydraulic coefficients so that values computed by a model reproduce as closely as possible
measured values.
The ability of a model to reproduce and predict measured values depends on the
amount and quality of topographic, topologic, and hydraulic data collected. Although
model parameters can be adjusted to obtain close agreement between computed and
measured values, an adjustment may not be extended beyond physically reasonable values.
For example, if good agreement can be obtained only by using Manning roughness
coefficients three times as large as estimated initially, the finite element network probably
is a poor representation of the physical region being modeled. The purpose of model
calibration is to obtain an accurate mathematical representation of reality, not a forced fit
of a poorly constructed model.
Model calibration proceeds by adjusting parameters systematically so that
computed and measured values agree as closely as possible. Measured values of
water-surface elevation, total flow rates, and velocities can be used to calibrate a model.
An impression of the sensitivity of computed values to changes in model data can be
obtained from initial adjustment runs. Sensitivity of results to changes in model data
suggests a need to measure more accurately those parameters for which small changes
affect model output.

Depth-averaged Flow and Sediment Transport Model - Flo2DH 5-9

 Roughness (or discharge) coefficients are empirical coefficients that affect a
solution the most. Roughness coefficients estimated during the initial design of a network
will not have to be adjusted much if sufficient and accurate topographic data have been
collected. Changes to roughness coefficients need to be made carefully so that adjusted
values are appropriate for the bed material, channel slope, and vegetative cover that exist in
the area covered by a particular element. For example, two channel reaches that have
about the same bed material and cross section shape, or two flood plains that have about
the same vegetative cover and topographic characteristics, need to be assigned roughness
coefficients of approximately the same value.
Eddy viscosity coefficients usually affect a solution much less than roughness
coefficients. The influence of eddy viscosity is greatest in a finite element network where
velocity gradients are large. Increasing eddy viscosity coefficients will cause velocity
gradients to be reduced, and the horizontal velocity distribution will become more uniform.
Reducing eddy viscosity coefficients will cause velocity gradients to increase.
If close agreement between measured and computed water-surface elevations, flow
rates, and velocities cannot be obtained using roughness and eddy viscosity coefficients
that are within reasonable ranges, then model discretization and the accuracy of
topographic and hydraulic data need to be examined. However, if a model cannot
reproduce measured values satisfactorily, one or more of the following reasons might be
the cause of discrepancies:

# The time step or element sizes might be too large to resolve short
wave components in unsteady flow simulations. Time steps need
to be made small enough to model time-dependent boundary
conditions accurately. The only definite way to decide whether
the time step is too large is to simulate the same event using
successively smaller time steps. If the size of the time step
significantly affects calculated water depths and unit flow rates,
the time step is too large and needs to be reduced.

# The data measurement techniques or frequency of observations

could be inaccurate. Errors might be caused by inaccurate
leveling, incorrect high-water marks, or faulty gauges.

# Tributary inflows might be significant and may need to be

measured or estimated.

# Phenomena that affect the flow significantly might not be

accounted for in the model. Possibly surface wind stresses, bed
variation caused by erosion or sedimentation, or seasonal variation
of roughness resulting from changes in vegetative cover need to be
considered.

Model Testing
Testing a calibrated model to see if computed values compare favorably to
measured values used to adjust coefficients is a useful, but not always possible, step in the
modeling process. If a model reproduces the additional measured values closely without
any further adjustment of model parameters or redesign of the finite element network, the
model can be used to simulate conditions outside the range of a calibration with more
confidence than if no additional testing were carried out. However, often model testing is

Depth-averaged Flow and Sediment Transport Model - Flo2DH 5-10

 not possible because of insufficient data or because of time or funding constraints.
Nevertheless, if even limited data are available, models need to be tested to make sure that
results are reasonable.

Model Application
After preliminary steps have been completed, models can be used to simulate a
variety of flow conditions. Models still need to be applied with care, especially if they are
used to evaluate conditions far outside ranges of calibration and testing. However, if a
model has been calibrated and tested properly, it can be used to gain valuable insights to
the response of a surface-water flow system to natural or artificial changes.

Depth-averaged Flow and Sediment Transport Model - Flo2DH 5-11

 This page has been left blank intentionally.

Depth-averaged Flow and Sediment Transport Model - Flo2DH 5-12

6. Solution Responses to Parameter Changes
Several simple test channels are used to show the effects of changes in Manning’s
roughness coefficients and kinematic eddy viscosities on water-surface elevations and flow
distributions in this chapter. Understanding the effects of changes in these parameters
helps to make reasonable and prudent adjustment of model parameters needed to improve
agreement between calculated and measured water-surface elevations and velocities.

Longitudinal Depth Changes in a Channel of Uniform Width

A test channel 800 m long and 100 m wide that has a level bottom is discretized
using five rows of elements, each 20 m wide and 80 long, that span the channel width is
shown in Figure 6-1. All elements are nine-node quadrilaterals. A water depth of 1.0 m is
applied at the left end of the channel as an essential boundary condition, and an inflow rate
of 100 m3/s is applied at the right end. Semi-slip conditions are applied along all closed
boundaries. A single element type is applied to the entire channel.
Effect of Roughness Coefficient

100 m

800 m
Figure 6-1. The horizontal test channel is 800 m long and 100 m wide and is discretized
using nine-node quadrilateral elements each 80 m long and 20 m wide. Water flows from
right to left.
Effects of changes in Manning’s roughness coefficient on longitudinal variation of
water-surface elevations were studied by carrying out steady-state simulations with
roughness coefficients n = 0.015, 0.025, 0.035, 0.045, and 0.055 and kinematic eddy
viscosity < = 1.0 m2/s. Since semi-slip conditions are applied along the sides of the
channel (that is, the vertical sides provide no resistance to flow), water depths and
velocities are uniform across the channel. Water-surface profiles along the center of
channel for each simulation are shown in Figure 6-2. Not surprisingly, larger roughness
coefficients lead to higher water-surface elevations along the test channel. Water depth at

1.9
1.8
n = 0.055
1.7
1.6 0.045
1.5 0.035 Figure 6-2. Water-surface
1.4 elevations along the channel
1.3 0.025 are sensitive to changes in
1.2 0.015 Manning’s roughness
1.1 coefficient.
1.0
0.9
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800
CHANNEL DISTANCE (M)
Depth-averaged Flow and Sediment Transport Model - Flo2DH 6-1
 the upstream end varies from 1.14 m when n = 0.015 to 1.77 m when n = 0.055. Even
comparatively small changes in Manning’s n can produce significant changes over the 800
m length of the channel.

Effect of Eddy Viscosity

With n = 0.035, steady-state simulations were carried out with kinematic eddy
viscosity <t = 1, 10, and 100 m2/s. The two largest values are unreasonable for the
dimensions of the test channel and the water depths and velocities that occur. The
resulting longitudinal water-surface profiles are shown in Figure 6-3. Because turbulent
shear stresses depend on velocity gradients as well as eddy viscosity, the effect of eddy
viscosity will be greatest where velocity gradients are largest. Consequently, differences
caused varying eddy viscosity are apparent only near the downstream end of the channel
where velocity gradients are largest.
What the Test Shows

1.5
1.4

1.3 Figure 6-3. The effect of

νt = 100 m2/s
eddy viscosity will be
1.2
greatest where velocity
1.1 gradients are largest, which
νt = 1 and is near the downstream end
1.0 10 m2/s of the channel.
0.9
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800
CHANNEL DISTANCE (M)
Results from this test show that large increases in eddy viscosity raise upstream
water-surface elevations far less than large increases in roughness coefficients. This
finding is true in general based on numerous applications in rivers where high-water marks
were available and compared to calculated values. Therefore, reasonable adjustments to
roughness coefficients will likely improve agreement between calculated and measured
water-surface elevations far more than changes to eddy viscosities that are kept within
sensible limits.

Longitudinal Depth Changes in a Channel of Variable Width

A second test channel also 800 m long having a width that varies from 100 m at
the upstream and downstream ends, to 20 m in a central section is shown in Figure 6-4.
The channel has a level bottom and is again discretized using five rows of elements.
However, elements widths vary, ranging from 20 m at the ends to 4 m within the narrow
central portion of the channel. All elements are nine-node quadrilaterals. A water depth of
1.0 m is applied at the left end of the channel as an essential boundary condition, and an
inflow rate of 100 m3/s is applied at the right end. Semi-slip conditions are applied along
all closed boundaries. A single element type is applied to the entire channel.

Depth-averaged Flow and Sediment Transport Model - Flo2DH 6-2

 100 m

800 m
Figure 6-4. An 800 m long test channel having a width that varies from 100 m at the
upstream and downstream ends, to 20 m in a central section .

Effect of Roughness Coefficient

Solutions were obtained for Manning roughness coefficients n = 0.015, 0.035, and
0.055 with <t = 1.0 m2/s. Water-surface profiles along the center of channel for each
simulation are shown in Figure 6-4. Again, larger roughness coefficients lead to higher
water-surface elevations along the test channel. Water depth at the upstream end varies
from 2.4 m when n = 0.015 to nearly 3.0 m when n = 0.055.

3.0
n = 0.055
2.5
n = 0.035
2.0
Figure 6-5. Water
1.5
elevations along the channel
1.0 are very sensitive to changes
n = 0.015 in roughness coefficients.
0.5

0.0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800
CHANNEL DISTANCE (M)

Effect of Eddy Viscosity

Because of the constriction in the central portion of the channel, longitudinal and
transverse velocity gradients are larger than in the previous test. Consequently, eddy
viscosity has a larger effect on water depth as shown by the profiles in Figure 7. With n =
0.035, little difference exists between solutions with <t = 1 and 10 m2/s. However, water
depths are significantly larger at the upstream end when <t = 100 m2/s, and unreasonably
large value for flow conditions in the channel.

What the Test Shows

Although large increases in eddy viscosity raise upstream water-surface elevations
as much or more than increases in roughness coefficients, eddy viscosities in the range of
reasonable values for the test channel conditions yield nearly the same results. Therefore,
changes in eddy viscosity that are kept within sensible limits still have much less influence
on water-surface elevations than do changes in roughness coefficients. When trying to
match calculated water-surface elevations to measured highwater marks, make sure that
eddy viscosities values are reasonable for the flow conditions, then make prudent changes
to flow resistance coefficients.

Depth-averaged Flow and Sediment Transport Model - Flo2DH 6-3

 3.5
3.0 νt = 10 m2/s
2.5 νt = 100 m2/s
2.0 Figure 6-6. Eddy viscosities
in the range of reasonable
1.5 values for the test channel
1.0 νt = 1 m2/s conditions yield nearly the
same results.
0.5
0.0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800
CHANNEL DISTANCE (M)

Effects of Lateral Roughness Variations and Eddy Viscosity

A third test channel with the same dimensions and boundary conditions as the first
test channel, but with two different roughness coefficients dividing it, a large roughness
coefficient (n = 0.055) on the right side representing a more flow resistant surface cover,
and a smaller roughness coefficient on the left side (n = 0.035), is shown in Figure 6-7.

100 m

800 m
Figure 6-7. A test channel similar to the first that has a higher flow resistance of the right
side (n = 0.055) than on the left side (n = 0.035).

Distribution of velocity laterally across the channel at its midsection for several
values of constant kinematic eddy viscosity ranging from 0.1 m2/s to 100 m2/s is shown in
Figure 6-8. Eddy viscosity clearly has a large effect on lateral velocity distribution. Small
values of eddy viscosity produce the smallest lateral shear stress, and velocity across the
channel is affected most by the variation in bed roughness coefficients. Flow on the right

LATERAL VELOCITY DISTRIBUTION AT

CHANNEL DISTANCE 400 M
0.9
2
νt = 0.1 m /s
2
0.8 2
0.5 m /s
10 m /s 2
1.0 m /s Figure 6-8. Effect of lateral
2 shear stresses on velocity
5 m /s
0.7 50 m2/s across the channel is
100 m2/s pronounced for large values
of kinematic eddy viscosity.
0.6

0.5
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
DISTANCE FROM LEFT BANK (M)

Depth-averaged Flow and Sediment Transport Model - Flo2DH 6-4

 side of the channel is slowed because of the higher resistance. Even though a large
velocity gradient exists in a transverse channel direction, lateral shear stresses are functions
of both velocity gradients and eddy viscosity. Effect of increased kinematic eddy viscosity
becomes noticeable for values of <t > 1.0 m2/s, as the lateral shear stress tends to make
velocities more uniform across the channel. However, when viscosities appropriate for the
physical channel are considered (<t # 1.0 m2/s), differences in velocity profiles are
comparatively small.

What the Test Shows

This test shows the effect of kinematic eddy viscosity on velocity distribution in
shear flows (flows with large velocity gradients). Using unrealistically large eddy
viscosities makes velocity more uniform across the channel, but likely does not reflect true
physical conditions. When modeling flow through constrictions, such as bridge openings,
accurate depictions of velocity variation across the openings will depend largely on
applying reasonable values of eddy viscosity.

Effects of Vertical Wall Shear Stress on Velocity

The next test channel has the same dimensions and inflow and outflow boundary
conditions as the firs; however, vertical wall shear is applied to closed boundaries (that is,
the “semi-slip” condition is applied) as shown in Figure 6-9.
Lateral velocity distribution at the channel midpoint with <t = 1.0 m2/s both with

Vertical wall shear

100 m

800 m
Vertical wall shear
Figure 6-9. Vertical wall shear is applied by means of the “semi-slip”boundary condition.

lateral wall shear (a “semi-slip” boundary condition) and without lateral wall shear (a
“slip” boundary condition) are shown in Figure 6-10. The effect of wall shear is clearly
significant. With a slip condition applied, velocity is uniform across the channel, Wall
shear retards flow along the sides of the channel, causing a peak velocity to occur at the
center.

What the Test Shows

When modeling flows in channels that have vertical or nearly vertical side walls,
semi-slip boundary conditions will likely be needed to capture the effect of shear stresses
along the channel sides. Accurate simulation of velocities in lateral directions will
probably not be possible if these effects are ignored.

Depth-averaged Flow and Sediment Transport Model - Flo2DH 6-5

 LATERAL VELOCITY DISTRIBUTION
AT CHANNEL DISTANCE 400 M
0.78
Slip condition
0.77
Semi-slip condition
0.76
0.75
0.74
0.73 ν = 1.0 m2/s
t
0.72
0.71
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
DISTANCE FROM LEFT BANK (M)
Figure 6-10. Lateral wall shear stress applied by the “semi-slip” condition on closed
boundaries can have a significant influence on velocity. Without lateral shear stress (that is,
with a ‘slip” condition on closed boundaries, velocity is unfirm across the test channel.

Effects of Wind Shear Stress on Water Depth

A test channel with the same dimensions as the first, but with closed boundaries all
around, is shown in Figure 6-11. Wind blows in the longitudinal channel direction from
left to right (that is, in the positive x direction) at a constant speed. Water-surface
elevations along the center of the channel for applied wind speeds ranging from 10 m/s to
50 m/s are shown in Figure 6-12. From one end of the 800 m channel to the other, a wind
speed of 50 m/s produces a water-surface elevation difference of 0.25 m. Sustained winds
blowing across large distances can raise water surfaces considerable heights. Velocities are
affected as well, as large volumes of water can be moved by the applied surface forces.

100 m

800 m
Figure 6-11. Wind blows from left to right along the channel, creating surface shear stresses.

What the Test Shows

Wind shear can have a significant influence on water-surface elevations and
velocities in open channels. Sustained winds caused by tropical cyclones, for example, can
push large volumes of water upstream in an estuary or river, which is in addition to
upstream flows caused by coastal storm surge.

Depth-averaged Flow and Sediment Transport Model - Flo2DH 6-6

1.15
W = 50 m/s
1.10
40 m/s
Figure 6-12. Wind blowing
1.05 30 m/s from left to right creates a
1.00 water-surface elevation
10 m/s 20 m/s change of 0.25 m from one
0.95 end of the channel to the
other. The change increases
0.90
with wind speed.
0.85
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800
CHANNEL DISTANCE (M)

Depth-averaged Flow and Sediment Transport Model - Flo2DH 6-7

 This page has been left blank intentionally.

Depth-averaged Flow and Sediment Transport Model - Flo2DH 6-8

7. Program Operation
Operation of Flo2DH, which is the same on any computer system, is as follows:
(1) the program is executed, (2) it reads input data files at the start and possibly during a
simulation, (3) it carries out the requested calculations, and (4) it writes output data files
during and at the end of a simulation. Names of all input and output data files are
contained in a Flo2DH project file, which is usually given the filename extension .fpr (for
example Alexander.fpr). Project file formats are explained in Appendix A. A typical
Flo2DH project file is shown in Figure 2-1. Data file names are terminated by a slash in
each line, and short descriptions of the data follow.

Flo2DH,3
Alexander.dat /Control data
Alexander.net /Network data
Alexander(01).flo /Flow input data
Alexander(01).sed /Sediment input data
Alexander.bcs /Boundary condition data
Alexander.wnd /Wind data
Alexander.wve /Wave data
Alexander.tim /Time-dependent data
Alexander.rpt /Report data
Alexander(02).flo /Flow output data
Alexander(02).sed /Sediment output data
Alexander.rsr /Restart-recovery data
Alexander.upp /Upper coefficient matrix
Alexander.low /Lower coefficient matrix
Alexander.scl /Scalar output data
Alexander.vec /Vector output data
Alexander.pro /Profile output data
Alexander.sta /Run status data
Figure 7-1. Contents of a Flo2DH project file. Filenames are
terminated before the forward slashes, which are followed by brief
descriptions of the data.

Input Data Files

Several data files may be read by Flo2DH during a simulation. The number and
type of input files depends on the information you need and how you organize your data.
A control data file is needed for every simulation. All other input data files are optional.
Input data files read by Flo2DH are described briefly in the following sections. Detailed
data format descriptions are presented in Appendix A.

Control Data File

All information needed to run Flo2DH for an application can be entered in a
control data file. However, because large amounts of data are usually required, control data
files most often contain only program options, general parameter values, boundary
conditions, and modifications to other data. Other input data are placed in separate files
that are read by Flo2DH as they are needed. These data include network geometry, initial
flow and sediment transport solutions, boundary conditions, wind parameters, wave
parameters, and time-dependent data.

Depth-averaged Flow and Sediment Transport Model - Flo2DH 7-1

Network Data File
Finite element network data consisting of two-dimensional node and element data,
and one-dimensional node, element, and cross section data can be read from a network data
file. Although all network data can be entered in an application’s control data file, the
amount of information will typically be large. Therefore, the preferred approach to storing
network data is to place them in a separate network data file.

Flow Data File

Flow data files contain depth-averaged flow solution values at node points. Flow
solution values consist of water depth, depth-averaged velocities in the x and y coordinate
directions, and time-derivatives of these quantities. Calculated flow variables are written
to flow data files after the last iteration of steady-state solutions, and after the last iteration
of selected time steps of time-dependent simulations. Time-derivatives are not written for
steady-state simulations. Flo2DH can read flow data files to obtain initial conditions.
Flow data files may be created in either text or binary format.

Sediment Data File

Sediment data files contain depth-averaged sediment transport solution values at
node points consisting of bed elevation, time-derivative of bed elevation, thicknesses of
bed sediment layers (active, deposition, and original), number of particle size classes for
which concentrations and composition fractions are provided, discharge-weighted
concentrations by particle size class, time-derivatives of concentrations by particle size
class, and bed layer fractional compositions by particle size class. Calculated sediment
transport variables are written to sediment data files after the last iteration of selected time
steps. Flo2DH can read sediment data files to obtain initial sediment concentrations, bed-
layer thicknesses, and bed-layer compositions. Sediment data files may be created in either
text or binary format.

Boundary Condition Data File

Boundary condition data files contain specifications of water flow and sediment
transport variables along finite element network boundaries. Data files for time-dependent
simulations contain sequential specifications of updated boundary conditions. Boundary
condition data files may be in either text or binary format.

Wind Data File

Wind data files contain wind speed and direction angle at all node points. Data
files for time-dependent simulations contain sequential specifications of updated wind
parameters. Wind data files may be created in either text or binary format.

Wave Data File

Wave data files contain wave height, period, and direction angle at all node points.
Data files for time-dependent simulations contain sequential specifications of updated
wave parameters. Wave data files may be created in either text or binary format.

Time-dependent Data File

Boundary, wind, and wave data may be updated periodically during time-
dependent simulations. When reading from Flo2DH control data files, all time-dependent
data sets need to appear in chronological order at the end of the data streams. Optionally,
these data sets can be placed in other files called Time Data Files. Time Data Files can be
in only text format.

Depth-averaged Flow and Sediment Transport Model - Flo2DH 7-2

Output Data Files
Several output files may be created by Flo2DH during a run. Only the report data
file, coefficient matrix files, and run status data file are created automatically. All other
output files are optional.

Report Data File

Report data files contain a printed reports of all control data, network data reports
(optional), solution convergence parameters, and solution reports (optional). Several types
of solution reports can be requested. Report data files are generated automatically;
however, sizes of report data files can vary significantly depending on the optional items
requested.

Flow Data File

Output flow data files contain the same data in the same format as input flow data
files. They are optional, but will almost always be created during a simulation. Results
from the final iteration of steady-state solutions, and the final iteration of selected time
steps during time-dependent solutions, are saved to the data file in either binary or text
format. Output flow data files can be used as input flow data files for subsequent runs.

Sediment Data File

Output sediment data files contain the same data in the same format as input
sediment data files. They are optional, but will almost always be created during a sediment
transport simulation. Results from the final iteration of selected time steps during time-
dependent solutions are saved to the data file in either binary or text format. Output
sediment data files can be used as input sediment data files for subsequent runs.

Restart-recovery Data File

Restart-recovery data files contain results from the last completed iteration only,
and are overwritten at the end of each iteration. The files are used to store intermediate
results that can be used to restart a solution in case calculations are halted by a power
outage or some other reason. Use of restart-recovery files is optional, but might be of
value when many iterations that require long computation times are needed to achieve
solution convergence.

Upper and Lower Coefficient Matrix Files

The linear system of algebraic equations formed by applying the finite element
method to the governing hydrodynamic and sediment transport equations are solved by a
process known as Gaussian elimination. During the solution the coefficient matrix is
factored into a product of upper and lower triangular matrices. Decomposition of the
coefficient matrix is useful because the solution of triangular matrices is easily
accomplished by successive substitution in the corresponding linear equations. Files are
created automatically for each of the triangular matrices during a run. Because they can be
used in subsequent runs if a modified-Newton iteration strategy is applied, upper and lower
coefficient matrices can be saved as an option.

Scalar Data File

Many values having only magnitude, but not direction, can be calculated from the
basic solution variables and other mesh parameters and be written to a scalar data file at the
end run. Scalar data files can be read by the Surface-water Modeling System (SMS) pre-

Depth-averaged Flow and Sediment Transport Model - Flo2DH 7-3

 and post-processing computer program (SMS reference manual, 2002) to display solution
results.

Vector Data File

Several values having both magnitude and direction can be calculated from the
basic solution variables and other mesh parameters and be written to a vector data file at
the end run. Vector data files can be read by the Surface-water Modeling System (SMS)
pre- and post-processing computer program (SMS reference manual, 2002) to display
solution results.

Profile Data File

Profiles along designated lists of connected nodes can be calculated and stored at
the end of a steady-state simulation, or at the end of printed time steps during unsteady
flow and sediment transport simulations. Profile data files can be read directly by
spreadsheet and other computer programs, and the data can be plotted to help illustrate the
solution.

Run Status Data File

Solution convergence parameters are written to a run status data file at the end of
every iteration during a run. You can read run status data files at any time during a run to
check on convergence.

Running Flo2DH from Microsoft Windows

Flo2DH runs as a console application that does not require screen graphics output.
It looks about the same whether run on a personal computer, a workstation, or a terminal
connected to a mainframe computer. When running under the Microsoft Windows
operating system (Figure 2-2), you can execute the program using the Windows Run
command or by double-clicking the file in Windows Explorer. When using the Run
command, you can include the name of the Flo2DH project file on the command line
separated from the executable file name by a space. Flo2DH will prompt you for the

Figure 7-2. Flo2DH runs under Microsoft Windows operating system as a console
application. You will be prompted for the name of the Flo2DH project file if you have not
included it in the command line.

Depth-averaged Flow and Sediment Transport Model - Flo2DH 7-4

 project file name if you do not enter one on the command line. The default project file
name is shown in brackets.

Data Flow
The logical flow of data through Flo2DH from the entry of input data to the
generation of output data and the major functions of the program is illustrated in Figure
7-3. Program control data records are read first, and then network data, initial condition
data, boundary condition data, and wind data files are read if needed. Any remaining input
data records for an initial solution then are read. Data entered on data records will override
information that was previously read from data files. Preliminary computations and an
initial flow check are made next. A degree-of-freedom array that relates every nodal
variable to an equation number is constructed, and solution parameters (number of
equations, and maximum and root-mean-square frontwidth) are computed.

Figure 7-3. The logical flow of data through Flo2DH and the major
functions carried out by the program is shown in the diagram.

Depth-averaged Flow and Sediment Transport Model - Flo2DH 7-5

 A steady-state solution is carried out next. Intermediate solution results are written
to a restart/recovery file (if requested) after every iteration. If a run terminates abnormally,
the run can be restarted using the intermediate results stored in a restart/recovery file. The
computed flow data (depth-averaged velocities and the flow depths at node points) can be
printed after selected iterations. The results of the final iteration of a steady-state solution
are written to a flow data file. A flow check is made and element continuity norms are
computed.
A time-dependent solution, if one is requested, follows. Preparations are made and
boundary conditions are updated to the current time. Time-dependent data can be read from
data records or from data files. If time-dependent data records are read, they need to be
arranged in chronological order at the end of the input stream. Results can be printed at the
end of every iteration or only at the end of selected iterations for every time step or only
for selected time steps. Results are written to a flow data file at the end of each time step.
Intermediate results are written to a restart/recovery file (if requested) at the end of every
iteration. A flow check is made and element continuity norms are computed at the end of
every time step.

Some Computational Aspects of Flo2DH

Several computational aspects of Flo2DH operation are discussed in this section
including automatic boundary adjustment, assigning initial conditions, possible steps to
take if you experience convergence problems, and assignment of boundary conditions.

Specifying Boundary Conditions

Boundary conditions need to be specified at all node points that form the boundary
of a network. Slip, no-slip, or semi-slip conditions are specified automatically at all closed
boundary node points of a network. Boundary conditions can be specified on open
boundaries at each node or at groups of nodes that form a boundary cross section.

Boundary conditions at node points

Water-surface elevation, velocity, unit flow rate, or total flow normal to a
boundary are the values that can be specified as boundary conditions for flow solutions.
Although all boundary conditions except total flow can be specified at any node point in a
finite element network, generally boundary conditions will be specified only at node points
that actually form part of the network boundary. The two types of boundaries (closed and
open) and boundary conditions that are appropriate for each type of boundary are described
in Chapter 3.
Codes are used to define the type(s) of boundary condition(s) that is (are) specified
at a node point. Slip (tangential flow), no-slip (zero flow), or semi-slip (tangential shear
stress) conditions can be applied automatically to all closed-boundary node points. Slip
and no-slip conditions can be overridden by specifications in the boundary condition data
set.
Special consideration needs to be given a node point where a closed boundary and
an open boundary meet (a boundary interface node). Boundary type (closed or open)
needs to change always at a vertex node and never at a midside node. If unit flow or
velocity is specified at a boundary interface node, the resulting velocity vector needs to be
parallel to the closed boundary. If a velocity vector at a boundary interface node is not
parallel to the closed boundary, flow will "leak" into or out of the network depending on
the direction of the vector. If water-surface elevation is specified at a boundary interface
node, either a slip condition or a no-slip condition also needs to be specified, otherwise
accidental "leaks" will exist along the closed boundary adjacent to the node.

Depth-averaged Flow and Sediment Transport Model - Flo2DH 7-6

 Total flow normal to either a closed or an open boundary resulting from flow at a
boundary node also can be specified. Prescribing total flow normal to a closed boundary
can be used to simulate inflows from small tributaries or withdrawals at a point. Total flow
normal to an open boundary is specified where major known inflows or outflows occur,
such as at the upstream end of a river reach.
Total flow normal to both closed and open boundaries might need to be specified
at a boundary interface node. If a non-zero flow normal to an open boundary is specified
at a boundary interface node, and a slip condition is specified along the closed boundary,
the velocity vector at the boundary interface node will be directed into the network parallel
to the closed boundary.

Boundary conditions at cross sections

Boundary conditions can be specified at cross sections that form part of an open
boundary of a finite element network. Either total flow, water-surface elevation, or an
invariant quantity that allows waves to pass through the boundary with essentially no
reflection can be specified at a boundary cross section. Cross section boundary conditions
are specified in the BSEC data set.
Total flow. An open boundary where total flow at a cross section is specified
usually will represent the upstream end of a river/flood plain model where total flow has
been measured. The specified total flow at a cross section is distributed among the nodes
that define the cross section on the basis of conveyance. Positive flows represent inflows
to a network, and negative flows represent outflows from a network.
Weakly-reflecting invariant. An open boundary through which long-period waves
(such as those generated by tidal variation) can pass with minimal reflection can be used to
represent the entrance of a river to an estuary. Since flow entering (or leaving) the network
at such a boundary is affected by tidal conditions, it is not known in advance. However,
flow conditions at a point far upstream in the river which is not tidally-influenced might be
know and can be specified at the boundary in the form of an invariant quantity.
Water-surface elevation. A level or sloping water-surface elevation at a cross
section that forms part of an open boundary of a network can be specified as a boundary
condition. An open boundary where water-surface elevation at a cross section is specified
usually will represent the downstream end of a river/flood plain model where high-water
marks have been collected, or a channel in a model of a bay or estuary where stage has
been recorded. The water-surface elevation may be specified directly, calculated using the
slope-area method, or found from a rating-curve. If a level water-surface is specified, a
single water-surface elevation and a boundary condition code need to be specified. Two
elevations are needed to specify a sloping water-surface, one elevation at each end node of
the cross section. Intermediate water-surface elevations along the cross section are
interpolated based on a linear variation. If the slope-area method is used, the total flow rate
through the section and the total energy slope need to be specified along with the boundary
condition code that will be assigned to each node point of the cross section, and the
calculated elevation is applied to all node points of the cross sections (that is, a level water
surface is assigned). If a rating-curve is used, a tabular relation between the water-surface
elevation and the flow rate needs to be defined using the RATE data set.

Assigning Initial Conditions

Initial conditions (that is, starting values) need to be specified at each node point in
an active network at the beginning of a run. Initial conditions consist of depth-averaged
velocities in the x and y directions and flow depth (water-surface elevation minus
ground-surface elevation) at vertex nodes, just depth-averaged velocities at midside and

Depth-averaged Flow and Sediment Transport Model - Flo2DH 7-7

center nodes, and time-derivatives of each of the variables if the simulation is
time-dependent (unsteady).

Cold starts
Estimating reasonable starting values if a solution has not been obtained previously
might at first seem to be a difficult or an impossible task. However, a cold start procedure
can be used whereby a constant water-surface elevation and zero velocities are assigned. A
cold start is the only practical way of beginning a simulation on a new network.
During a cold start, the water-surface elevation is initially constant, and velocities
are set to zero at all node points. A constant water-surface elevation is specified in the
SWMS data set on the system-parameters record (SWMS.5). Because Flo2DH solves for
depth of flow, the ground-surface elevation is subtracted from the constant water-surface
elevation to obtain the depth of flow at all vertex nodes. A constant water-surface
elevation can be overridden at any node point by specifying a water-surface elevation as an
initial condition at that node point. Initial velocities at node points are considered always
to equal zero unless an initial condition value is specified.
When starting cold, the initial constant water-surface elevation needs to be greater
than the ground-surface elevation at the node points where boundary conditions are to be
specified. Usually computations will need to be started using an initial water surface that is
much higher than the final solution water surface at most node points in the finite element
network. Dry elements are permitted to exist in a network if the boundary of the network
is adjusted automatically. If the boundary of a network is not adjusted automatically to
account for dry elements, all active elements in the network always need to be wet (that is,
have positive flow depths at all node points).

Hot starts
A solution from a previous run can be used to assign initial conditions for a
subsequent run. This way of specifying initial conditions is referred to as a hot start.
Because computed velocities and depths usually are written to a data file, a flow data file
from a run can thus become an initial condition data file for a subsequent run.

Achieving Convergence
A solution might not converge if the initial conditions are not sufficiently close to
the true solution, regardless of the type of start. If a cold start is attempted and
convergence problems develop, the difference between specified boundary conditions and
the initial conditions is probably too great. The relaxation factor, T, can be decreased so
that the solution change from one iteration to the next will be reduced. Try setting l equal
to 0.5 or less for a few iterations if solution convergence is a problem.
Another way of solving a convergence problem is to temporarily increase
kinematic eddy viscosity to a large value. Large eddy viscosities encourage solution
convergence because of their dissipative effect when velocity gradients are large. Large
values of eddy viscosity probably need to be maintained for two or three iterations before
they are reduced to physically appropriate values.
If convergence problems persist and a plot of the finite element network has been
inspected carefully for geometric inconsistencies, then the network probably needs to be
refined. Areas in need of refinement probably will be located where velocities and
variations in velocities are extremely large, such as near constrictions (bridge openings).

Incremental Load Strategy

Convergence can often be obtained for difficult problems by gradually increasing
inflow rates or gradually lowering a downstream water-surface elevation, the hydraulic

Depth-averaged Flow and Sediment Transport Model - Flo2DH 7-8

“loads” acting on a model, beginning from some “known” solution. Indeed, “cold starts”
are known solutions, with level water surfaces and no motion throughout a mesh. By
choosing suitably small increments of the loads, convergence can usually be assured and
results of a reasonable kind will generally be available. Furthermore, the intermediate
results often provide useful information. You can implement an incremental loading
strategy automatically using the LOAD data set. An incremental-load data set immediately
precedes boundary condition data that are changed in an incremental fashion in the course
of achieving solution convergence. Incremental load data sets are needed for each set of
data changes you want to make, the data sets forming load data packets.

Continuity Norms
A potential problem caused by the use of mixed interpolation (that is, linear
interpolation of depth and quadratic interpolation of velocities) is that mass conservation is
not well enforced because the ratio of discrete continuity constraints to discrete momentum
equations is much smaller than the continuum ratio of 0.5. Computing the mass flux at
model cross sections in steady-state simulations is one method for determining whether
mass conservation errors are within acceptable limits. At cross sections where the mass
flux differs substantially from the inflow, the finite element network can be refined to
reduce the errors. An even better way to determine which parts of a network can be refined
to improve mass conservation is to compute a continuity norm for each element in the
network.
Letting RH denote the continuity equation residual,

(7-1)

the continuity norm for an element, Ne , is computed as

(7-2)

where Ae = element area. Continuity norms will be large for elements in which continuity
equation residuals are large. Calculation of continuity norms is optional. Continuity
norms greater than a specified value are flagged with an asterisk in the printed output so
that elements that need to be refined to obtain a more accurate solution can be identified
easily.

Automatic Boundary Adjustment

Automatic boundary adjustment in Flo2DH allows elements that are not covered
completely by water to exist in a finite element network. If the boundary is not allowed to
adjust automatically then all nodes in a network need to be "wet" at all times (that is, water
depth always needs to be greater than zero at a node point) otherwise computational
problems will result when a node becomes "dry" (that is, when water depth becomes less
than or equal to zero). A conceptually simple algorithm is used to determine automatically
the boundary of a finite element network so that no dry nodes exist. The procedure
excludes from an active network all elements that are connected to one or more dry node
points.
To explain how the algorithm determines whether or not an element is to be
included in an active network, several terms need to be defined. An element is said to be
"on" if it is included in the active network, and is said to be “off” if it is not included. A
“dry” element is an element that is connected to at least one node point that is dry. A
“wet” element is an element in which all node points are wet.

Depth-averaged Flow and Sediment Transport Model - Flo2DH 7-9

 At the beginning of each iteration, every element that is currently on is checked to
find out if it is dry. If found to be dry, the element is turned off. In addition, each element
that is currently off is checked to determine if it can be turned on. The decision to turn on
an element is based on the minimum water depth at wet nodes and the maximum
ground-surface elevation at the dry node points connected to the element. If the minimum
water-surface elevation is greater than the maximum ground-surface elevation, plus a small
depth tolerance, the element is turned on. The need for a depth tolerance is twofold. First,
because of friction losses, there probably will be some change in the water-surface
elevation across an element when it is turned on. Second, the condition of an element (wet
or dry) can oscillate from one iteration to the next, and cause the solution to converge
slowly or not at all. A depth tolerance of 0.5 feet (0.15 meters) has been found to provide
good results and is the default value used in Flo2DH. However, the best depth tolerance to
use will depend on the size of the elements in a network, and on the flow conditions.
It is possible that an element that would actually be wet is turned off in the final
solution. However, the depth of flow in the element would be small, and the effect of not
including the element in the active network would be negligible. The possibility of a wet
element being turned off in a final solution can be minimized by constructing smaller
elements in areas where the active network boundary is expected to occur.
The automatic boundary-adjustment feature allows a finite element network to be
designed without too much concern for the location of boundaries. However,
ground-surface elevations still need to be assigned carefully. If the automatic boundary-
adjustment feature is used and a high node point (located on a channel bank in the middle
of a flood plain, for example) becomes dry, all the elements connected to that node point
will be turned off for the next iteration. Removal of a large number of elements from an
active network could affect significantly the solution unless all the elements turned off
were quite small.
Either slip or no-slip conditions (as specified by a user) are applied automatically
at all existing or newly created boundary nodes. However, if a velocity, unit flow rate, or
depth boundary condition is specified at a node point that is eliminated from an active
network, and the node later is readmitted to the active network, the boundary conditions
that were specified for that node will not be applied again. If a velocity, unit flow rate, or
water-surface elevation is specified at a node, a user needs to be certain that the node will
not be removed from the active network even temporarily.

Depth-averaged Flow and Sediment Transport Model - Flo2DH 7-10

8. References
Ackers, P, and White, W. R. (1973). “Sediment transport: new approach and analysis.”
Journal of the Hydraulics Division, ASCE, 99(HY11), 2041-2060.

Alonso, C. V., Neibling, W. H., and Foster, G. R. (1981). “Estimating sediment transport
capacity.” Transactions of the ASAE, 24(5), 1211-1220.

American National Standards Institute (1978). American National Standard Programming

Language FORTRAN, ANSI X3.9-1978.

Arcement, G. J., and Schneider, V. R. (1984). “Guide for selecting Manning's roughness
coefficients for natural channels and flood plains.” Report No. FHWA-TS-84-204,
Federal Highway Administration, McLean, Virginia.

Armanini, A., and Di Silvio, G. (1988). “A one-dimensional model for transport of a

sediment mixture in non-equilibrium conditions.” Journal of Hydraulic Research,
26(3), 275-292.

Barnes, H. H., Jr. (1967). “Roughness characteristics of natural channels.”

U.S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 1849, Washington, D. C.

Bennett, J. P., and Nordin, C. F. (1977). “Simulation of sediment transport and

armouring.” Hydrological Sciences Bulletin, 22(4), 555-569.

Bijker, E. W. (1966). “Erosion around a pile due to current and breaking waves.”
Proceedings of the 10th International Conference on Coastal Engineering,
American Society of Civil Engineers, New York, NY, 746-765.

Bijker, E. W. (1967). “Some considerations about scales for coastal models with movable
bed.” Publication No. 50, Delft Hydraulics Laboratory, Delft, Netherlands.

Bijker, E. W., and de Bruyn, C. A. (1988). “Erosion around a pile due to current and
breaking waves.” Proceedings of the 21st International Conference on Coastal
Engineering, American Society of Civil Engineers, New York, NY, 1369-1381.

Bodhaine, G. L. (1968). “Measurement of peak discharge at culverts by indirect

measurements.” U.S. Geological Survey Techniques of Water Resources
Investigations, Book 3, Chapter A3, Washington, D. C.

Bradley, J. N. (1978). “Hydraulics of bridge waterways (2nd ed.).” Federal Highway

Administration Hydraulic Design Series, No. 1.

Buell, W. R., and Bush, B. A. (1973). “Mesh generation -- a survey.” Transactions of the
American Society of Mechanical Engineers, Journal of Engineering for Industry,
ser. B.,95(1), 332-338.

Chaudhry, M. H. (1993). Open-channel flow. Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, New

Jersey.

Depth-averaged Flow and Sediment Transport Model - Flo2DH 8-1

Chen, Y. H., and Cotton, G. K. (1988). “Design of roadside channels with flexible
linings.” Publication No. FHWA-IP-87-7, Hydraulic Engineering Circular No. 15,
Federal Highway Administration, McLean, Virginia.

Chow, V. T. (1959). Open-channel hydraulics. McGraw-Hill, New York, New York.

“Coastal flooding hurricane surge model - volume 1, methodology.” (1988). FEMA

Report, Federal Emergency Management Agency, Office of Risk Assessment,
Federal Insurance Administration, Washington, D.C.

Corry, M. L., Thompson, P. L., Watts, F. J., Jones, J. S., and Richards, D. L. (1983).
“Hydraulic design of energy dissipaters for culverts and channels.” Hydraulic
Engineering Circular No. 14, Federal Highway Administration, Washington, D. C.

Deigarrd, R., Bro Mikkelson, M., and Fredsøe, J. (1991). “Measurements of the bed shear
stress in a surf zone.” Progress Report 73, Institute of Hydrodynamic and
Hydraulic Engineering, Technical University of Denmark, Lyngby, Denmark.

Defina, A., D’Alpaos, L., and Matticchio, B. (1994). “A new set of equations for very
shallow water and partially dry areas suitable to 2D numerical models.” In
Modelling of Flood Propagation Over Initially Dry Areas, P. Molinaro and L.
Natale (eds.), Proceedings of the Specialty Conference held in Milan, Italy, June
29-July 1, 1994, American Society of Civil Engineers, New York, New York.

“Design and construction of urban stormwater management systems.” (1996). Manuals

and Reports of Engineering Practice No. 77, American Society of Civil Engineers,
New York, New York.

Dyer, K. R. (1986). Coastal estuarine sediment dynamics. John Wiley & Sons,
Chichester, England.

Edge, B. L., Scheffner, N. W., Fisher, J. S., and Vignet, S. N. (1998). “Determination of
Velocity in Estuary for Bridge Scour Computations.” Journal of Hydraulic
Engineering, 124(6), 619-628.

Engelman, M. S., Strang, G., and Bathe, K.-J. (1981). “The application of quasi-Newton
methods in fluid mechanics.” International Journal for Numerical Methods in
Engineering, 17(5), 707-718.

Engelund, F. and Hansen, E. (1967). A monograph on sediment transport in alluvial

streams. Teknisk Vorlag, Copenhagen, Denmark.

Fischer, H. B., List, E. J., Koh, R. C. Y., Imberger, J., and Brooks, N. H. (1979). Mixing in
inland and coastal waters. Academic Press, New York.

Foster, G. R. (1982). “Modeling the erosion process.” Chapter 8 in Hydrologic modeling

of small watersheds, C. T. Haan, H. P. Johnson, and D. L. Brakensiek, eds.,
American Society of Agricultural Engineers, St. Joseph, Michigan.

Froehlich, D. C. (1988). “Analysis of on-site measurements of scour at piers.”

Proceedings of the 1988 National Conference on Hydraulic Engineering, Colorado

Depth-averaged Flow and Sediment Transport Model - Flo2DH 8-2

 Springs, Colorado, August 15-19, 1988, American Society of Civil Engineers,
New York, NY, 826-831.

Froehlich, D. C. (1989). “Local scour at bridge abutments.” Proceedings of the 1989

National Conference on Hydraulic Engineering, New Orleans, Louisiana, August
14-18, 1989, American Society of Civil Engineers, New York, NY, 13-18.

Garbrecht, J., Kuhnle, R. A., and Alonso, C. V. (1995). “A sediment transport capacity
formulation for application to large channel networks.” Journal of Soil and Water
Conservation, 50(5), 527-529.

Garratt, J. R. (1977). “Review of drag coefficients over oceans and continents.” Monthly
Weather Review, 105(7), 915-929.

“Handbook of channel design” (1954). Publication No. SCS-TP-61, U.S. Soil

Conservation Service, Stillwater Outdoor Hydraulic Laboratory, Stillwater,
Oklahoma.

Hicks, B. B. (1972). “Some evaluations of drag and bulk transfer coefficients over water
bodies of different sizes.” Boundary-Layer Meteorology, 3(1), 201-213.

Hicks, B. B., Drinkrow, R. L., and Grauze, G., (1974). “Drag and bulk transfer
coefficients associated with a shallow water surface.” Boundary-Layer
Meteorology, 6(1), 287-297.

“Highway drainage guidelines.” (1992). American Association of State Highway

Officials, Inc., Washington, D. C.

Ho, F. P., Su, J. C., Hanevich, K. L., Smith, R. J., and Richards, F. (1987). "Hurricane
climatology for the Atlantic and Gulf coasts of the United States." NOAA
Technical Report NWS-38, National Weather Service, National Oceanic and
Atmospheric Administration, Washington, D.C.

Hood, P. (1976). “Frontal solution program for unsymmetric matrices.” International

Journal for Numerical Methods in Engineering, 10(2), 379-399.

Hood, P. (1977). “Note on frontal solution program for unsymmetric matrices.”

International Journal for Numerical Methods in Engineering, 11(6), 1055.

Hulsing, Harry (1976). “Measurement of peak discharge at dams by indirect method.”

Techniques of Water-Resources Investigations of the U.S. Geological Survey, Book
3, Chapter A5, Washington, D. C.

Jansen, P. P., van Bendegom, L., van den Berg, J., deVries, M., and Zanen, A. (1979).
Principles of river engineering -- the non-tidal alluvial river. Pittman, London.

Kaplan, J., and DeMaria, M. (1995). “A simple empirical model for predicting the decay
of tropical cyclone winds after landfall.” Journal of Applied meteorology, 34(11),
2499-2512.

Depth-averaged Flow and Sediment Transport Model - Flo2DH 8-3

King, H. W., and Brater, E. F. (1963). Handbook of hydraulics (5th ed.). McGraw-Hill,
New York, New York.

King, I. P., and Norton, W. R. (1978). “Recent applications of RMA's finite element
models for two-dimensional hydrodynamics and water quality.” in Brebbia, C. A.,
Gray, W. G., and Pinder, G. F. (eds.), Finite Elements in Water Resources,
Proceedings of the 2nd International Conference on Finite Elements in Water
Resources, London, 1978, Proceedings, London, Pentech Press, 2.81-2.99.

Kraus, N. C., and Horikawa, K. (1990). “Nearshore sediment transport.” The Sea, Vol.
9B: Ocean Engineering Science, B. Le Mehauté, and D. Hanes (eds.), 775-814,
John Wiley and Sons, New York, NY.

Laursen, E. M. (1958). “The total sediment load of streams.” Journal of the Hydraulics
Division, ASCE, 84(HY1).

Longuet-Higgins, M. S. (1970). “Longshore currents generated by obliquely incident sea

waves.” Journal of Geophysical Research, 75, 6778-6801.

Lee, J. K. and Froehlich, D. C. (1986). “Review of literature on the finite-element solution

of the equations of two-dimensional surface-water flow in the horizontal plane.”
U.S. Geological Survey Circular 1009, Washington, D. C.

MacCurdy, Edward (1938). The notebooks of Leonardo DaVinci, Reynal and Hitchcock,
New York.

Madsen, P. A., Sørenson, O. R., and Schäffer, H. A. (1997). “Surf zone dynamics
simulated by a Boussinesq type model. Part I. Model description and cross-shore
motion of regular waves.” Coastal Engineering, 32(3), 255-287.

McDowell, D. M., and O’Connor, B. A. (1977). Hydraulic behavior of estuaries. John

Wiley and Sons, New York, New York.

Meyer-Peter, E., and Mueller, R. (1948). “Formula for bed-load transport.” Proceedings
of the 2nd International Conference of the International Association for Hydraulic
Research, Stockholm, Sweden.

Nielson, P. (1992). Coastal bottom boundary layers and sediment transport. Advanced
series on ocean engineering, Vol. 4. World Scientific Publishing, Singapore.

Normann, J. M., Houghtalen, R. J., and Johnston, W. J. (1985). “Hydraulic design of

highway culverts.” Hydraulic Design Series No. 5, Report No. FHWA-IP-85-15,
Federal Highway Administration, Washington, D.C.

Novak, P., Moffat, A. I. B., Nalluri, C., and Narayanan, R. (1996). Hydraulic structures,
(2nd ed.), E & FN Spon, London, United Kingdom.

Raudkivi, A. J. (1990). Loose boundary hydraulics. Pergamon Press, Oxford, England.

Depth-averaged Flow and Sediment Transport Model - Flo2DH 8-4

Richardson, E. V. and Davis, S. R. (1995). “Evaluating scour at bridges.” Publication No.
FHWA-IP-90-017, Hydraulic Engineering Circular No. 18, 3rd ed., Federal
Highway Administration, U.S. Department of Transportation, McLean, Virginia.

“Roadway and traffic design standards for design, construction, maintenance and utility
operations on the state highway system.” (1998). Florida Department of
Transportation, Tallahassee, Florida.

Rodi, Wolfgang (1982). “Hydraulics computations with the k-g turbulence model.” in
Smith, P. E., ed., Applying Research to Hydraulic Practice, Proceedings of the
Conference of the Hydraulics Division of the American Society of Civil Engineers,
Jackson, Miss., 1982, 44-54.

Scheffner, N. W., Mark, D. J., Blain, C. A., Westerink, J. J., and Luettich, R. A., Jr. (1994).
“A tropical storm data base for the east and Gulf of Mexico coasts of the United
States,” Technical Report, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Coastal Engineering
Research Center, Vicksburg, Mississippi.

Sedimentation engineering (1975). Vito A. Vanoni (ed.), Manuals and reports on

Engineering Practice No. 54, American Society of Civil Engineers, New York,
New York.

Shirole, A. M., and Holt, R. C. (1991). “Planning for a comprehensive bridge safety
assurance program.” Transportation Research Record No. 1290, Volume 1,
National Research Council, Washington, D.C., 39-50.

Smagorinsky, J. (1963). “General circulation experiments with the primitive equations, I.

The basic experiment.” Monthly Weather Review, 91(2), 99-164.

SMS (Surface Water Modeling System) reference manual, version 8.0 (2002). Brigham
Young University, Engineering Computer Graphics Laboratory, Provo, Utah.

Sokolnikoff, I. S., and Redheffer, R. M. (1966). Mathematics of physics and modern

engineering (2nd ed.). McGraw-Hill, New York.

“Some fundamentals of particle size analysis: a study of methods used in measurement and
analysis of sediment loads in streams.” (1957). Report No. 12, Subcommittee on
Sedimentation, Interagency Committee on Water Resources, Saint Anthony Falls
Hydraulic Laboratory, Minneapolis, Minnesota.

Soulsby, R. L. (1997). Dynamics of marine sands. Thomas Telford, London, England.

Stevens, H. H., and Yang, C. T. (1989). “Summary and use of selected fluvial sediment-
discharge formulas.” U.S. Geological Survey Water Resources Investigation
Report 89-4026, Denver, Colorado.

Strang, G., and Fix, G. J. (1973). An analysis of the finite element method. Prentice-Hall,
Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey.

Depth-averaged Flow and Sediment Transport Model - Flo2DH 8-5

Temple, D. M., Robinson, K. M., Ahring, R. M., and Davis, A. G. (1987). “Stability
design of grass-lined open channels.” Agricultural Handbook No. 667, U.S.
Department of Agriculture, Washington, D.C.

Wang, J. D., and Connor, J. J. (1975). “Mathematical modeling of near coastal

circulation.” Ralph M. Parsons Laboratory for Water Resources and
Hydrodynamics Report No. 200, Massachusetts Institute of Technology,
Department of Civil Engineering, Cambridge, Massachusetts.

White, W. R., and Day, T. J. (1982). “Transport of graded gravel bed material.” in Gravel
Bed Rivers, R. D. Hey, J. C. Bathurst, and C. R. Thorne (eds.), John Wiley and
Sons, Chichester, United Kingdom, 181-223.

Yalin, M. S. (1964). “Geometrical properties of sand waves.” Journal of the Hydraulics

Division, ASCE, 90(HY5), 105-119.

Yang, C. T. (1972). "Unit stream power equation and sediment transport." Journal of the
Hydraulics Division, ASCE, 98(HY10), 1805-1826.

Yang, C. T. (1973). "Incipient motion and sediment transport." Journal of the Hydraulics
Division, ASCE, 99(HY10), 1679-1704.

Yang, C. T. (1984). “Unit stream power equation for gravel.” Journal of Hydraulic
Engineering, 110(12), 1783-1797.

Zienkiewicz, O. C. (1977). The finite element method (3rd ed.). McGraw-Hill, London,
England.

Zienkiewicz, O. C., and Taylor, R. L. (1991). The finite element method (4th ed.),
volume 2, solid and fluid mechanics, dynamics, and non-linearity. McGraw-Hill,
London, England.

Depth-averaged Flow and Sediment Transport Model - Flo2DH 8-6

Appendix A - Flo2DH Input Data
Introduction
Data files and formats of data needed to run Flo2DH are described in this
Appendix. The primary data file, called the control data file, contains, at a minimum, basic
information needed to operate Flo2DH, including parameters that control reading and
writing of auxiliary data files. While all input data can be placed in an application’s
control data file, data for ordinary applications will likely be stored in one or more
additional files. Some input and output data files may be in either text or binary format.

List-directed Input
All data contained in text files are read using list-directed, sequential read
statements that translate data from character to binary form using the data types of the
corresponding input/output (I/O) list items to decide the forms of the data. Translated data
are then assigned to the entities in the I/O list in their order of appearance, from left to
right.
Both numeric values and text strings need to be separated. Separators may be any
number of blank spaces, or a single comma preceded or followed by any number of blank
spaces. Text strings need delimiting double quotation marks (for example, “text string”) if
they contain blank spaces, commas, or slash marks. Unless noted otherwise, nondelimited
text strings are terminated by the first blank, comma, slash, or end-of-record encountered.
Apostrophes and quotation marks within nondelimited text strings are transferred just as
they are.
Unless specified otherwise, default values of all optional numeric values are zero.
All unspecified text strings default to a blank string.

Depth-averaged Flow and Sediment Transport Model - Flo2DH A-1

Flo2DH Project File
A FESWMS project consists of files containing an application’s associated data.
You can specify names of files from which data are read and to which data are written by
Flo2DH in a FESWMS project file. Flo2DH will prompt you for the name of the project
file at the start of a simulation. Default data file names will be used if you do not enter a
project file name. Project files contain the program name (Flo2DH) and release number
followed by the names of all data files used by Flo2DH listed in the specified order given
in Table A-1. The default name of a FESWMS project file is “feswms.fpr”.

Table A-1. Flo2DH Data Files

File Data file description Data file Default file name
ordera type
1 Flo2DH control data file Input flo2dh.dat
2 Network (mesh) data Input flo2dh.net
3 Flow datab (initial) Input flo2dh.flo
4 Sediment datac (initial) Input flo2dh.sed
5 Boundary condition data Input flo2dh.bcs
6 Wind data Input flo2dh.wnd
7 Wave data Input flo2dh.wve
8 Time data Input flo2dh.tim
9 Printed reports Output flo2dh.rpt
10 Flow data (output) Output flo2dh.flo
11 Sediment data (output) Output flo2dh.sed
12 Restart/recovery data Output flo2dh.rsr
13 Upper coefficient matrix Output flo2dh.upp
14 Lower coefficient matrix Output flo2dh.low
15 Scalar data Output flo2dh.scl
16 Vector data Output flo2dh.vec
17 Profile data Output flo2dh.pro
17 Run status file Output flo2dh.sta
a
Order in which file names need to appear in Flo2DH project data
files.
b
Flow initial data files are usually flow solution files generated by
previous runs.
c
Sediment initial data files are usually flow solution files generated by
previous runs.

Flo2DH Control Data File

Control data files for Flo2DH are text files containing all or part of the information
needed to carry out depth-averaged flow and sediment transport simulations. Data are
grouped in sets of related information. Each data set consists of one or more data records.
The first record in a data set contains a mnemonic code that identifies the data set. Some
data records and sequences of data records are repeated as many times as needed within

Depth-averaged Flow and Sediment Transport Model - Flo2DH A-2

data sets. All of the data sets read by Flo2DH are listed in Table A-2 and are described in
detail in following sections.
Table A-2. Flo2DH Data Sets
Data set name Data description
(mnemonic identifier)
SWMSa Program control data
MEMO Memo data.
NODE Node data
ELEM Element data
PROP Element properties set data
NODE1D Node data (for one-dimensional flow)
ELEM1D Element data (for one-dimensional flow)
XSEC1D Cross section data (for one-dimensional flow)
FLOW Flow initial condition data
BOUN Boundary condition data
BSEC Boundary cross section data
WIND Wind data
WAVE Wave data
CYCL Tropical cyclone data
SURGE Storm surge data
WEIR Weir segment data
CULV Culvert data
GATE Gate structure data
DROP Drop inlet spillway data
LINK Channel link data
RATE Rating curve data
PIER Bridge pier data
FLUX Flux (water flow or sediment flow) check data
GAGE Gage data
SEDI General sediment data.
BEDS Bed sediment composition initial data
SEDC Sediment concentration initial data
RESE Element resequencing data
PROF Profile data
LOADb Incremental load data
TIMEc Time-dependent data
LASTd Last record in the data stream
a
Needs to be the first data set in the file.
b
Incremental load data sets need to appear in sequential order at the end of the
input data stream and prior to time-dependent data sets.
c
Time-dependent data sets need to appear in chronological order at the end of the
file.
d
Needs to be the first data set in the input data stream.

Depth-averaged Flow and Sediment Transport Model - Flo2DH A-3

First Record
The first record of the Flo2DH control data file needs to contain the model name
and version number as follows:

Flo2DH,3

Comment Records
Data records in the control data file having an asterisk or an exclamation point (“*”
or “!”) as the first character are regarded as comments and are not processed. Comment
records may be placed anywhere within the data file.

Depth-averaged Flow and Sediment Transport Model - Flo2DH A-4

 SWMS
Program Control Data Set
Program control data records immediately follow an SWMS data set identification
record. The identification record contains the data set identifier and a code that controls
the format of printed output. The other eight records of the data set contain information
that controls the overall operation of the program. Record 1 contains the project title used
in printed output headings; Record 2 contains run option codes; Record 3 contains
input/output file specifications; Record 4 contains iteration control parameters; Record 5
contains time-step parameters used in time-dependent solutions; Record 6 contains general
system specifications; Record 7 contains general wind stress parameters; and Record 8
contains finite element network orientation data.
SWMS Identification Record
Order Value Description
1 “SWMS” Data set identifier.
2 0 or 1 Printed output code:
0= Printed output will be 80 columns wide.
1= Printed output will be 132 columns wide.
3 0 or 1 Interactive message code:
0= Messages that describe program operations will be written
to the screen during program execution.
1= No messages will be written to the screen during program
execution.
4 + Number of beeps to be sounded at the completion of a run.
Maximum = 10. Default = 0.
5 0 or 1 Restart/recovery code:
0= A normal steady-state or time- dependent solution is to be
carried out.
1= A restart/recovery run is to be carried out. Initial
conditions will be read from a restart/recovery file
“flo2dh.rsr”.
SWMS.1 Record
1 “text” Project stamp (32 characters maximum). This text string will be
written as a heading to all output data files generated by Flo2DH,
and will need to be matched by headings of all input data files read
by Flo2DH to assure consistency of finite element network and
solution data.

Depth-averaged Flow and Sediment Transport Model - Flo2DH A-5

SWMS
Order Value Description
2 “text” Variant description used to describe differences in boundary
conditions and other factors from other simulations using the same
network data (48 characters maximum).
SWMS.2 Record
1 0 to 2 Solution type option code as follows:
0= A flow solution only will be carried out.
1= A time-dependent sediment transport solution only will be
carried out. Flow data from a previous simulation will be
used to drive sediment movement.
2= A time-dependent, semi-coupled flow and sediment
transport solution will be carried out. Hydrodynamic
equations and sediment transport equations will be solved
sequentially at each time step.
2 0 to 511 Sum of the codes of the following printed output options that are
desired.
Code Option Description

0 Control data, error messages, and solution results will be

printed.
1 All input data read from data records will be echo printed.
2 Element and node data will be printed.
4 Initial condition data will be printed.
8 Element assembly sequence will be printed.
16 Degree-of-freedom array that contains equation numbers
that correspond to each nodal variable will be printed.
32 Scalar data consisting of water-surface elevation, water
depth, velocity magnitude, Froude number, mechanical
energy head (that is, potential head plus kinetic head)
elevation, average bed shear stress magnitude, and
vorticity magnitude at node points will be printed at the
end of a steady-state solution and at the end of each printed
time step of a time-dependent solution.
64 Vector data consisting of velocity, unit flow rate, and bed
shear stress at node points will be printed at the end of a
steady-state solution and at the end of each printed time
step of a time-dependent solution.

Depth-averaged Flow and Sediment Transport Model - Flo2DH A-6

 SWMS
Order Value Description
128 Local scour depth at bridge piers will be calculated and
printed at the end of a steady-state solution and at the end
of each time step. General clear-water scour at piers will
also be calculated and total scour depths printed.
256 General clear-water scour will be calculated at all node
points and printed at the end of a steady-state solution and
at the end of each time step.
3 0 or 1 Computational units option code as follows:
0= US customary units will be used in all computations and
for printed output.
1= International System (SI) units will be used in all
computations and for printed output.
4 0 or 1 Bed shear stress formula option code as follows:
0= Bed shear stresses will be calculated using the Manning
formula. All flow resistance coefficients specified in the
PROP data set will be considered Manning roughness
coefficients.
1= Bed shear stresses will be calculated using the Chézy
formula. All flow resistance coefficients specified in the
PROP data set will be considered Chézy discharge
coefficients.
5 0 to 2 Wind shear stress option code as follows:
0= Wind-induced surface stresses will not be considered.
1= General wind parameters or wind parameters read from the
WIND data set or wind data file will be used to calculate
wind-induced surface stresses.
2= A tropical cyclone windfield will be simulated using
parameters specified in the STORM data set.
6 0 or 1 Wave-induced bed shear stress option code as follows:
0= Wave-induced bed stresses will not be considered.
1= General wave parameters or wave parameters read from
the WAVE data set or wave data file will be used to
calculate wave-induced bed stresses.
7 0 to 2 Closed boundary condition option code as follows:

Depth-averaged Flow and Sediment Transport Model - Flo2DH A-7

SWMS
Order Value Description
0= Slip (tangential flow/zero tangential shear) conditions will
be applied automatically to all closed boundary nodes.
1= No-slip (zero flow) conditions will be applied
automatically to all closed boundary nodes.
2= Semi-slip (tangential flow/tangential wall shear)
Slip conditions are appropriate for most river and floodplain

L networks where physical boundaries are formed by the edges of

floodplains or sloped embankments. Semi-slip conditions might be
best where the boundary is formed by a vertical or nearly vertical
wall.
8 0 to 2 Numerical integration option code as follows:
0= Low-order numerical integration will be used on all
elements.
1= High-order numerical integration will be used on all
curve-sided elements.
2= High-order numerical integration will be used on all
elements.
9 0 to 3 Sum of the codes of the following continuity norm options that are
desired.
Code Option Description
0 Continuity norms will not be computed.
1 Continuity norms will be computed at the end of a
steady-state solution.
2 Continuity norms will be computed at the end of every
time-step of a time-dependent solution.
10 0 or 1 Element on/off option code as follows:
0= Elements will be turned on and off during a run.
1= Elements will not be turned on and off during a run. If
water-surface elevation falls below the elevation of the bed
at any node computations will be halted.
Automatic boundary adjustment allows elements that are not

L covered entirely by water to be included in a network. If used, all

elements that are found to have at least one dry node point will be
excluded from the active network. A dry node point has a calculated
water surface elevation that is lower than the effective bed elevation.

Depth-averaged Flow and Sediment Transport Model - Flo2DH A-8

 SWMS
Order Value Description
Effective bed elevations are found from the fixed bed elevation at a
node and the assigned flow storativity depth, described in the PROP
data set.
11 0 or 1 Solution matrix option code as follows:
0= Files that contain the upper and lower decompositions of
the coefficient matrix will be deleted at the end of a run.
1= Files that contain the upper and lower decompositions of
the coefficient matrix will be saved at the end of a run.
12 0 or 1 Network geometry check option code as follows:
0= Network geometry will not be checked.
1= Network geometry will be checked for consistency and
completeness at the start of a solution.
13 0 to 2 Element resequencing option code as follows:
0= Element resequencing will not be carried out.
1= Element resequencing will be carried out only at the start
of a solution.
2= Element resequencing will be carried out at the start of a
solution and after every iteration during which at least one
element has switched on or off.
14 0 or 1 Node point report option code as follows:
0= Node point reports will include the following flow
variables: depth averaged velocities in the X and Y
coordinate directions, water-surface elevation, and water
depth.
1= Node point reports will include unit flow rates in the X and
Y coordinate directions in addition to the variables listed
above.
15 0 to 1 Initial water-surface elevation for cold starts option code as follows:
0= Default initial water-surface elevation will be assigned to
all nodes for which initial conditions have not been
specified.
1= Storm surge elevation will be assigned to all nodes for
which initial conditions have not been specified.
16 -2 to 1 Frontal solver pivoting strategy option code as follows:

Depth-averaged Flow and Sediment Transport Model - Flo2DH A-9

SWMS
Order Value Description
0= Partial pivoting (just rows).
1= Full pivoting (rows and columns).
-1 = No pivoting (first complete equation eliminated).
-2 = No pivoting (equation with largest diagonal element
eliminated).
SWMS.3 Record
1 -1 to 1 Network data file option code as follows:
0= All finite element network data will be entered on data
records.
±1 = Finite element network data will be read from a data file.
However, additional network data that will supercede
values read from the network data file may be entered on
data records. Data will be read in “text” form if the value
is positive, or in “binary” form if the value is negative.
The default name of the network data file is “flo2dh.net”.
2 -1 to 1 Initial condition data file option code as follows:
0= All initial flow condition data will be entered on data
records.
±1 = Initial flow condition data will be read from a data file.
However, additional initial flow condition data that will
supercede values read from the initial flow condition data
file may be entered on data records. Data will be read in
“text” form if the value is positive, or in “binary” form if
the value is negative. The default name of the initial flow
condition data file is “flo2dh.flo”.
An initial flow condition data file usually will be a flow solution

L output file created by a previous run.

3 -1 to 1 Boundary condition data file option code as follows

0 = All boundary condition data will be entered on data
records.

Depth-averaged Flow and Sediment Transport Model - Flo2DH A-10

 SWMS
Order Value Description
±1 = Boundary condition data will be read from a data file.
However, additional boundary condition data that will
supercede values read from the boundary condition data
file may be entered on data records. Data will be read in
“text” form if the value is positive, or in “binary” form if
the value is negative. The default name of the boundary
condition data file is “flo2dh.bcs”.
4 -1 to 1 Wind data file option code as follows:
0= All wind data will be entered on data records.
±1 = Wind data will be read from a data file. However,
additional wind data that will supercede values read from
the wind data file may be entered on data records. Data
will be read in “text” form if the value is positive, or in
“binary” form if the value is negative. The default name of
the wind data file is “flo2dh.wnd”.
5 -1 to 1 Wave data file option code as follows:
0= All wave data will be entered on data records.
±1 = Wave data will be read from a data file. However,
additional wave data that will supercede values read from
the wave data file may be entered on data records. Data
will be read in “text” form if the value is positive, or in
“binary” form if the value is negative. The default name of
the wind data file is “flo2dh.wve”.
6 0 or 1 Time data file option code as follows:
0= All time data will be entered on data records.
1= All time data will be read from a data file in “text” form.
The default name of the time data file is “flo2dh.tim”.
7 -1 to 1 Flow solution output data file code as follows:
0= Flow solutions will not be written to a data file.
±1 = Flow solutions will be written to a data file at the end of a
steady-state run and at the end of selected time-steps
during a time-dependent run. If a positive value is entered,
the solution will be written in “text” form; if a negative
value is entered, the solution will be written in “binary”
form. The default name of the flow solution data file is
“flo2dh.flo”.
8 -1 to 1 Restart/recovery file option code as follows:

Depth-averaged Flow and Sediment Transport Model - Flo2DH A-11

SWMS
Order Value Description
0= A restart/recovery file will not be used.
±1 = Intermediate results will be written to a restart/recovery
file after every iteration to allow a run to be restarted from
the last successful iteration if the run terminates
abnormally. Results will be written in “text” form if the
value is positive, or in “binary” form if the value is
negative. The default name of the restart/recovery file is
“flo2dh.rsr”.
9 0 A scalar output data file will not be written.
1 to 65535 Sum of the codes of the following items to be written to the scalar
output data file:
Code Item Description
1 Water-surface elevation
2 Water depth
4 Ground elevation
8 Depth-averaged velocity magnitude.
16 Unit flow rate magnitude
32 Froude number
64 Mechanical energy head elevation
128 Bed shear stress magnitude (node average)
256 Vorticity magnitude (node average)
512 Wind speed
1024 Depth of general scour
2048 Scoured bed elevation (that is, bed elevation less depth of
general scour)
4096 Sediment concentration (discharge-weighted)
8192 Sediment volumetric transport rate.
16384 Sediment volumetric transport capacity (that is, the
equilibrium sediment transport rate)
32768 Sediment transport rate deficit (that is, the transport
capacity minus the transport rate)

Depth-averaged Flow and Sediment Transport Model - Flo2DH A-12

 SWMS
Order Value Description
Selected scalar values at every node point in the network will be

L written to a data file. If the value is positive, scalar data will be

written in “text” form; if the value is negative, scalar data will be
written in “binary” form. The default name of the scalar output data
file is “flo2dh.scl”.
10 0 A vector output data file will not be written.
1 to 63 Sum of the following codes of items to be written to the vector
output data file:
Code Item Description
1 Depth-averaged flow velocities.
2 Unit flow rates (velocities × water depth)
4 Bed shear stresses
8 Tropical cyclone wind velocities.
16 Sediment volumetric transport rates.
32 Sediment volumetric transport capacities (that is,
equilibrium transport rates).
Selected vector values at every node point in the network will be

L written to a data file. If the value is positive, data will be written in

“text” form; if the value is negative, data will be written in “binary”
form. The default name of the vector output data file is
“flo2dh.vec”.
SWMS.4 Record
1 1 to 99 Solution iteration code read as KKJJII where:
II = maximum number of initial full-Newton iterations to be carried
out (usually from 5 to 20).

JJ = maximum number of quasi-Newton iterations to be carried out

after all the initial full- Newton iterations, and after each additional
full-Newton iteration.

KK = maximum number of additional full-Newton iterations to be

carried out.
The maximum allowable number of iterations for a steady-state

L solution or for a time step of a time-dependent solution is 99.

Therefore, II + JJ + KK × (1 + JJ) needs to be less than or equal to
99. The solution may be stopped before the maximum number of

Depth-averaged Flow and Sediment Transport Model - Flo2DH A-13

SWMS
Order Value Description
iterations are completed if convergence criteria are satisfied.
2 + Convergence tolerance for maximum absolute changes to X and Y
direction unit flow rates, in ft2/sec (m2/s).
3 + Convergence tolerance for maximum absolute changes to water-
surface elevation, in ft (m).
If the convergence tolerances for velocity and flow depth are

L satisfied, the steady-state solution or the time-dependent solution for

the current time step will be considered to have converged and
calculations will be halted.
4 + Relaxation factor 0 < Tr # 2 used in equation solution. Default
Tr = 1.
5 + Printed iteration control code. Results from every ith iteration
during a steady-state solution and at every printed time step of a
time-dependent solution will be printed, where I is the specified
value. Results from the last iteration are always printed for a steady-
state solution and for printed time steps of a time-dependent
solution. Default = 1.
6 + Number of ranked changes included in printed output. Up to the 10
largest changes at node points for each solution variable will be
printed. Default = 1.
7 + Default flow storativity depth. Flow storativity depth is specified as
an element property in the PROP data set. This default value that
will be specified for an element if a non-zero value is not specified
in the PROP data set.
8 + Global minimum element storativity coefficient a.
9 + Global storativity depth multiplier 0 used to set the lower limit of
element storativity.
SWMS.5 RECORD
1 hhhh:mm:ss Starting simulation time.
2 hhhh:mm:ss Length of simulation for a time dependent solution. A steady-state
solution will carried out if this value is zero.
3 hhhh:mm:ss Length of each time step used in a time-dependent solution )t.
4 + Time integration factor 2 (0.5 # 2 # 1.0). Default 2 = 0.667.

Depth-averaged Flow and Sediment Transport Model - Flo2DH A-14

 SWMS
Order Value Description
5 hhhh:mm:ss Printed report time interval. Flow solutions will be reported at this
incremental time during time-dependent simulations. Default =
“0000:00:00”.
6 hhhh:mm:ss Output time interval. Flow solutions will be written to output files
at this incremental time during time-dependent simulations.
Default = “0000:00:00”.
7 + Starting data of simulation entered as ccyymmdd where cc = century
(00 to 99), yy = year of the century (00 to 99), mm = month of year
(01 to 12), and dd = day of month (01 to 31).
SWMS.6 Record
1 + Default water-surface elevation, in ft (m). This value is assigned to
each node point in a network that has not been assigned an initial
water-surface elevation. Usually the cold start water-surface
elevation is assigned using this parameter.
2 0 Effect of the Coriolis force will not be considered.
± Average local latitude of the surface-water body being modeled, in
degrees. The latitude is positive in the Northern hemisphere and
negative in the Southern hemisphere.
3 + Average water mass density D, in slugs/ft3 (kg/m3). Default D =
1.937 slug/ft3 (999.0 kg/m3).
4 + Coefficient $0 used to compute the momentum correction
coefficient. Default $0 = 1.0.
5 + Coefficient c$ used to compute the momentum correction
coefficient. Default c$ = 0.
6 + Continuity norm flag value. Continuity norms greater than this value
will be denoted by an asterisk. Appropriate values are problem
dependent. Default = 1.0e+35 (that is, continuity norms will not be
flagged).
7 + Depth tolerance, in ft (m), used during automatic boundary
adjustment to decide whether or not to turn on an element. Default
= 0.5 ft (0.15 m).
SWMS.7 Record
1 + Default wind speed, in ft/sec (m/s). This value is assigned to each
node in the network unless superceded by a value specified in the
WIND data set.

Depth-averaged Flow and Sediment Transport Model - Flo2DH A-15

SWMS
Order Value Description
2 + Default wind direction angle, in degrees measured clockwise from
true north. Wind direction is the direction from which the wind is
blowing. This value is assigned to each node in the network unless
superceded by a value specified in the WIND data set.
3 + Air mass density Dair, in slugs/ft3 (kg/m3). Default Dair = 0.00237
slug/ft3 (1.225 kg/m3).
4 + Coefficient cw1 used to calculate the wind stress coefficient. Default
cw1 = 1.
5 + Coefficient cw2 used to calculate the wind stress coefficient. Default
cw2 = 0.
6 + Minimum wind velocity Wmin, in m/s, used to calculate the wind
shear stress coefficient. Default Wmin = 0 m/s.
7 + Breaking water wave height to depth ratio (w . Default (w = 0.78.
SWMS.8 Record
1 + Angle between the positive x-axis of the network coordinate system
and true north, measured in degrees clockwise from true north.
2 ± Reference point latitude, in degrees (northern latitudes are positive,
southern latitudes are negative.)
3 ± Reference point longitude, in degrees (western longitudes are
positive, eastern longitudes are negative).
4 ± Reference point network X coordinate, in ft (m).
5 ± Reference point network Y coordinate, in ft (m).
Reference point geodetic and network coordinates are used to

L establish the geodetic coordinates of the network origin, which may

be needed to calculate tropical cyclone pressure and wind fields.
While the reference point may be the network origin, a point near
the center of the finite element network would be best.

Depth-averaged Flow and Sediment Transport Model - Flo2DH A-16

 MEMO
Memorandum Data Set
Memorandum data records immediately follow an MEMO data set identification
record. Memo records are simply character strings that become part of the Flo2DH data
file. They provide a means of describing the project and its variants and will be written to
printed report files.
MEMO Identification Record
Order Value Description
1 “MEMO” Data set identifier.
2 0 Number of memo records to follow.
MEMO Record
1 text Up to 256 characters per record may be entered. The entire record
is considered a character string and, therefore, does not need to be
delimited. Records may be truncated when printed in reports.
Repeat the memo record the specified number of times. Memo
records may be blank.

Depth-averaged Flow and Sediment Transport Model - Flo2DH A-17

NODE
Node Data Set
Node data records immediately follow a NODE data set identification record. The
identification record contains the data set identifier and factors used to convert node point
coordinates and ground and ceiling elevations read from data records to the desired units
(either feet or meters). A node data record contains the identification number of a node,
the horizontal X-Y coordinates of the node, and the node’s ground-surface and ceiling
elevations. Node data records are needed for all vertex nodes and for midside nodes of
curved element sides. Curved element sides are defined by entering coordinate data for
their midside nodes. Because bed and ceiling elevations are interpolated within elements
using linear functions, values for these quantities are needed at only vertex nodes.
Therefore, bed and ceiling elevations specified at midside and center nodes will be ignored.
Optionally, node records may be read from a separate data file. The data set is terminated
with one or more blank data records.
NODE Identification Record
Order Value Description
1 “NODE” Data set identifier.
2 + Multiplication factor used to convert X coordinates read from data
records to feet (meters). Default = 1.
3 + Multiplication factor used to convert Y coordinates read from data
records to feet (meters). Default = 1.
4 + Multiplication factor used to convert ground and ceiling elevations
read from data records to feet (meters). Default = 1.
5 + Feet (meters) to be added to all X coordinates read from data
records after they are multiplied. Default = 0 ft (0 m).
6 + Feet (meters) to be added to all Y coordinates read from data
records after they are multiplied. Default = 0 ft (0 m).
7 + Feet (meters) to be added to all ground and ceiling elevations read
from data records after the they are multiplied. Default = 0 ft
(0 m).
8 0 or 1 Node data record option code as follows:
0= All node data records will follow in the data stream.
1= All node records will be read from a separate data file.
Enter the complete name of the node data file on the
following record.
NODE Record
1 + Node identification number.
2 ± X coordinate of the node.

Depth-averaged Flow and Sediment Transport Model - Flo2DH A-18

 NODE
Order Value Description
3 ± Y coordinate of the node.
4 ± Ground-surface elevation at the node.
5 ± Ceiling (lower bridge deck) elevation at the node.
Coordinates and elevations are converted to feet (meters) by the

L factors specified on the data set identification record. Therefore,

any system of units can be used to record node coordinates and
elevations.
Terminate the NODE data set with one or more blank data records.

Depth-averaged Flow and Sediment Transport Model - Flo2DH A-19

ELEM
Element Data Set
Element data records immediately follow an ELEM data set identification record.
One record is required for each element. An element data record contains the identification
number of an element, the sequence of nodes connected to the element (the element
connectivity list), the element properties set number, and the element assembly sequence.
Optionally, element records may be read from a separate data file. The data set is
terminated with one or more blank data records.
ELEM Identification Record
Order Value Description
1 “ELEM” Data set identifier.
2 0 or 1 Element data record option code as follows:
0= All element records will follow in the data stream.
1= All element records will be read from a separate data file.
Enter the complete name of the element data file on the
following record.
ELEM Record
1 + Element identification number.
2 to 10 + Element connectivity list. The sequence of nodes connected to the
element. Enter six node numbers for a triangular element, eight
node numbers for a “serendipity” quadrilateral element, or nine
node numbers for a “Lagrangian” quadrilateral element. Begin the
list at any vertex node and proceed in a counterclockwise direction
around the element. Enter the center node last for a nine-node
quadrilateral element.

Depth-averaged Flow and Sediment Transport Model - Flo2DH A-20

 ELEM
Order Value Description
11 ± Element property set number. The number corresponds to a set of
element properties or parameters that are entered in the PROP data
set. If the number is negative, the element will be turned off (that
is, the element will not be used in computations).
12 + Element assembly sequence. The sequence number of the element
for processing by the frontal method. An efficient element
sequence can be generated using the resequencing option.
Terminate the ELEM data set with one or more blank data records.

Depth-averaged Flow and Sediment Transport Model - Flo2DH A-21

PROP
Element Properties Data Set
Two-dimensional element properties data records immediately follow a PROP
data set identification record. Three data records are needed for each set of element
properties. An element properties data set contains information that describes the erosion
and flow resistance of the element surface, the presence of a bridge deck, and turbulence
parameters. The data entered on these records are applied to all elements that have been
assigned the property set number. Optionally, element properties data may be read from a
separate data file. The data set is terminated with one or more blank data records.
PROP Identification Record
Order Value Description
1 “PROP” Data set identifier.
2 + Default wall roughness coefficient nwall or dimensionless discharge
coefficient CNwall. Default values: nwall = 0.035, CNwall = 11.
3 + Default bridge deck roughness coefficient ndeck or dimensionless
discharge coefficient CNdeck. Default values: ndeck = 0.035, CNdeck =
11.
4 + Default bare soil roughness coefficient nsoil or dimensionless
discharge coefficient CNsoil. Default values: nsoil = 0.016, CNsoil = 20.
5 + Default protective soil cover roughness coefficient ncover or
dimensionless discharge coefficient CNcover. Default values: ncover
= 0.040, CNcover = 8.
6 0 or 1 Property data record option code as follows:
0= All element properties data records will follow in the data
stream.
1= All element properties data records will be read from a
separate data file. Enter the complete name of the element
properties data file on the following record.
Use of Manning roughness or Chézy discharge coefficients is

L specified on the SWMS.2 data record. Dimensionless Chézy

discharge coefficients , where C = Chézy coefficient for
the appropriate system of units being used, and g = gravitational
acceleration.
PROP.1 Record
1 0 to 99 Property set number.
Elements can be removed from the network for computational

L purposes by setting the property code to a negative value. All

elements assigned a negative property set code will always be
“turned off” during the computations. This feature can be used to

Depth-averaged Flow and Sediment Transport Model - Flo2DH A-22

 PROP
Order Value Description
evaluate the effect of a bridge crossing on water-surface elevations
by constructing the “without roadway” network with elements that
conform to the new roadway approach embankment. Elements
occupied by approach roadways can then be easily turned off by
assigning them unique property set codes and then setting the
codes negative.
2 0 or 1 Potential pressure flow code as follows:
0= Elements assigned this property set are not potential
pressure flow elements.
1= Elements assigned this property code are potential
pressure flow elements.
If ceiling elevations are specified at all vertex nodes of a potential

L pressure flow element (for example, to represent the underside of a

bridge deck) a ceiling will be added and pressure flow will be
simulated if the water-surface is in contact with the ceiling.
3 + Critical shear stress of bed soil Jcs , in lb/ft2 (N/m2 ), used in general
clear-water scour calculations. Set this value to zero if the bed will
not be allowed to erode.
4 + Critical shear stress of a protective bed cover Jcp , in lb/ft2 (N/m2),
used in general scour calculations. Set this value to zero if a
protective lining does not exist.
A thin protective cover, such as gravel, grass, or a synthetic fabric,

L may extend over ground surfaces. No erosion will be calculated

until bed shear stresses exceed the critical shear stresses of
protective covers. When failure of linings occur, depth of clear-
water scour will be calculated based on critical shear stresses of the
underlying bed material.
5 “text” Comment string describing the element type.
PROP.2 Record
1 + Manning roughness coefficient or dimensionless Chézy discharge
coefficient applied to all water depths less than or equal to the
depth entered in the next data item.
2 + Water depth, in ft (m), below which the flow resistance coefficient
entered in the previous data item is applied.
3 + Manning roughness coefficient or dimensionless Chézy discharge
coefficient applied to all depths greater than or equal to the depth
in the next data item.

Depth-averaged Flow and Sediment Transport Model - Flo2DH A-23

PROP
Order Value Description
4 + Water depth, in ft (m), above which the flow resistance coefficient
entered in the previous data item is applied.
For depths greater than the first depth and less than the second

L depth entered above, the roughness coefficient is interpolated

linearly. If the second coefficient is zero or blank, the first
coefficient is applied to all depths.
Use of Manning roughness or Chézy discharge coefficients is

L specified on the SWMS.2 data record. Dimensionless Chézy

discharge coefficients , where C = Chézy coefficient for
the appropriate system of units being used, and g = gravitational
acceleration.
5 + Manning roughness coefficient nwall used to calculate “wall” shear
stress.
6 + Manning roughness coefficient ndeck used to calculate “ceiling”
shear stress from a bridge deck.
7 + Manning roughness coefficient nsoil used to calculate “bare soil”
shear stress.
8 + Manning roughness coefficient nliner used to calculate “soil liner”
shear stress.
PROP.3 Record
1 + Turbulence model base kinematic eddy viscosity <o, in ft2/sec
(m2/s).
2 + Turbulence model coefficient c:1 (dimensionless).
3 + Turbulence model coefficient c:2 (dimensionless).
4 + Eddy diffusivity ,o, in ft2/sec (m2/s).
5 + Flow storativity depth, in ft (m). Flow storativity depth is the
distance below the fixed bed elevation at a node to which the
water-surface can fall before the node is considered dry

Depth-averaged Flow and Sediment Transport Model - Flo2DH A-24

 PROP
Order Value Description
6 + Wind shear reduction factor CJw (0 # CJw # 1). This value is used
to reduce wind shear at the water surface caused by the presence of
vegetation such as trees and brush. Default = 1 (that is, no
reduction is applied). Default = 0 ft (0 m). Ranges of coefficients
for several different types of land cover are given in the table
below.
Wind Stress Reduction Coefficientsa
Land Cover Coefficient Range
Wooded land 0.1 to 1.0
Marsh land 0.7 to 0.9
Open water 1.0
Developed areas 0.1 to 1.0
Open land 0.7 to 0.9
a
From “Coastal flooding” (1988, p. 4-42)

7 + Water wave height Hw , in ft (m).

8 + Water wave period Tw, in sec.
0 Water wave period is calculated as , where "w = 11.
- Negative value of the dimensionless coefficient "w used to
calculate wave periods using the above formula.
9 + or -1 Sediment erosion rate coefficient Kes. Default = 1.0
-1 Sediment erosion rate coefficient Kes will be calculated using the
expression developed by Armanini and Di Silvio (1988).
Repeat the PROP.1-PROP.2-PROP.3 data record sequence for each

L set of element properties.

Terminate the PROP data set with one or more blank data records.

Depth-averaged Flow and Sediment Transport Model - Flo2DH A-25

NODE1D
Node Data Set (for One-dimensional Flow)
One-dimensional node data records immediately follow a NODE1D data set
identification record. The identification record contains the data set identifier and factors
used to convert node point coordinates and ground and ceiling elevations read from data
records to the desired units (either feet or meters). One-dimensional node data records
contain node numbers, values of measured coordinates, the name of a cross section
associated with the node point, and an optional comment. A node data record is needed for
each element end node. Curved one-dimensional elements are specified by also entering
coordinate data for the midside node of the element side. Because cross section geometry
is interpolated within elements using linear functions, sections are specified only at end
nodes. Optionally, one-dimensional node records may be read from a separate data file.
The data set is terminated with one or more blank data records.
NODE1D Identification Record
Order Value Description
1 “NODE1D” Data set identifier.
2 + Multiplication factor used to convert X coordinates read from data
records to feet (meters). Default = 1.
3 + Multiplication factor used to convert Y coordinates read from data
records to feet (meters). Default = 1.
4 + Feet (meters) to be added to all X coordinates read from data
records after they are multiplied. Default = 0 ft (0 m).
5 + Feet (meters) to be added to all Y coordinates read from data
records after they are multiplied. Default = 0 ft (0 m).
6 0 or 1 One-dimensional node data record option code as follows:
0= All one-dimensional node data records will follow in the
data stream.
1= All one-dimensional node records will be read from a
separate data file. Enter the complete name of the one-
dimensional node data file on the following record.
NODE1D Record
1 + One-dimensional node number.
2 ± X coordinate of the node.
3 ± Y coordinate of the node.
4 “text” Identifier of the cross section associated with the end node.
Required only for end nodes because cross section properties are
interpolated linearly between end nodes within an element. Cross
section data are entered in the XSEC1D data set.

Depth-averaged Flow and Sediment Transport Model - Flo2DH A-26

 NODE1D
Order Value Description
5 “text” Comment string.
Coordinates and elevations are converted to feet (meters) by the

L factors specified on the data set identification record. Therefore,

any system of units can be used to record node coordinates and
elevations.
Terminate the NODE1D data set with one or more blank data records.

Depth-averaged Flow and Sediment Transport Model - Flo2DH A-27

ELEM1D
Element Data Set (for One-dimensional Flow)
One-dimensional element data records immediately follow an ELEM1D data set
identification record. One record is required for each element. A one-dimensional element
data record contains the identification number of an element, the sequence of nodes
connected to the element (the element connectivity list), the element type code, the element
assembly sequence, and a comment string. Optionally, element records may be read from a
separate data file. The data set is terminated with one or more blank data records.
ELEM1D Identification Record
Order Value Description
1 “ELEM1D” Data set identifier.
2 0 or 1 Element data record option code as follows:
0= All element records will follow in the data stream.
1= All element records will be read from a separate data file.
Enter the complete name of the element data file on the
following record.
ELEM1D Record
1 + Element identification number.
2 to 4 + Element connectivity list. The sequence of three nodes that define
the one-dimensional element. Begin the list at an end node and
proceed to the other end. (Also, make sure to read the note at the
end of this section regarding topological consistency.)

5 0 to 3 One-dimensional element type code as follows:

0= Channel element
1= Bridge element (not currently functional)
2= Culvert element (not currently functional)
3= Roadway element (not currently functional)
Only one-dimensional channel elements are currently supported.

L Support for other one-dimensional element types will be added in

the future.

Depth-averaged Flow and Sediment Transport Model - Flo2DH A-28

 ELEM1D
Order Value Description
6 + Element assembly sequence. The sequence number of the element
for processing by the frontal method. An efficient element
sequence can be generated using the resequencing option.
7 + Kinematic eddy viscosity, in ft2/sec (m2/s).
8 “text” Comment string (32 characters maximum).
Flow within an element is considered positive when proceeding

L from the element’s first vertex node to its second, and negative
when moving in the opposite direction. To maintain topological
consistency, all one-dimensional elements connecting two
boundaries (including junction boundaries) need to be numbered in
sequential fashion, beginning at one boundary node and
concluding at the other as shown in the figure below. The order in
which nodes are numbered defines the direction of positive and
negative flow rates. Choose the direction that best suits the
application.

Terminate the ELEM1D data set with one or more blank data records.

Depth-averaged Flow and Sediment Transport Model - Flo2DH A-29

XSEC1D
Cross Section Data Set (for One-dimensional Flow)
One-dimensional cross section data records immediately follow an XSEC1D data
set identification record. Three records are required for each cross section. The first
record contains coordinates of the section origin (that is, the first ground point), the
azimuth of the section, roughness coefficients of the left and right overbanks and the main
channel, and a comment. The second data record contains horizontal distances from the
origin of exactly eight section points, which correspond to eight ground elevations entered
on the third data record. Optionally, cross section records may be read from a separate data
file. The data set is terminated with one or more blank data records.
XSEC1D Identification Record
Order Value Description
1 “XSEC1D” Data set identifier.
2 0 or 1 Cross section data record option code as follows:
0= All cross section records will follow in the data stream.
1= All cross section records will be read from a separate data
file. Enter the complete name of the cross section data file
on the following record.
XSEC1D.1 Record
1 “text” Cross section identifier (8 characters maximum).
2 ± Section origin X coordinate, in ft (m).
3 ± Section origin Y coordinate, in ft (m).
4 ± Section azimuth, in deg. The section is considered straight.
5 + Manning roughness coefficient of the left overbank.
6 + Manning roughness coefficient of the main channel.
7 + Manning roughness coefficient of the right overbank.
8 “text” Comment string (32 characters maximum).
XSEC1D.2 Record
1 to 8 + Horizontal distances corresponding to bed elevations specified on
the following record, in ft (m).
XSEC1D.3 Record
1 to 8 ± Bed elevations corresponding to horizontal distances specified on
the preceding record, in ft (m).

Depth-averaged Flow and Sediment Transport Model - Flo2DH A-30

 XSEC1D
Order Value Description
Each cross section is defined by exactly eight ground points as

L shown in the following figure. The third and sixth points represent
the two channel banks. Active width of the section (that is, the
portion of the section within which sediment can be transported) is
between points four and five as shown.

Terminate the XSEC1D data set with one or more blank data records.

Depth-averaged Flow and Sediment Transport Model - Flo2DH A-31

FLOW
Flow Initial Condition Data Set
Flow initial condition data records immediately follow an FLOW data set
identification record. One record is needed for each node at which initial conditions are
specified. Flow initial condition data consist of node numbers, initial velocities in the x
and y directions, water-surface elevations, and time derivatives of the x and y velocities and
water-surface elevations. Values entered on data records will override those read from an
initial condition data file. The data set is terminated with one or more blank data records.
FLOW Identification Record
Order Value Description
1 “FLOW” Data set identifier.
FLOW Record
1 + Node number.
2 ± Initial velocity in the x direction, in ft/sec (m/s).
3 ± Initial velocity in the y direction, in ft/sec (m/s).
4 + Initial water-surface elevation, in ft (m).
5 ± Initial x velocity rate of change, in ft/sec (m/s).
6 ± Initial y velocity rate of change, in ft/sec (m/s).
7 ± Initial water-surface elevation rate of change, in ft/sec (m/s).
Terminate the FLOW data set with one or more blank data records.

Depth-averaged Flow and Sediment Transport Model - Flo2DH A-32

 BOUN
Boundary Condition Data Set
Boundary condition data records immediately follow a BOUN data set
identification record. Two records are needed for each boundary node at which conditions
other than slip/no-slip/semi-slip are specified. For a time-dependent (unsteady) simulation,
only values that change from the previous time step need to be specified. Boundary
condition data consist of the number of the node to which the data apply, boundary
condition codes, a comment, and specified values. Either tangential flow (slip) or zero
flow (no-slip) conditions (as specified on the SWMS.2 data record) are applied
automatically at all boundary nodes unless specified otherwise. Values entered on data
records will override those read from a boundary condition data file. The data set is
terminated with one or more blank data records.
BOUN Identification Record
Order Value Description
1 “BOUN” Data set identifier.
BOUN.1 Record
1 + Node number.
2 0 to 6 Flow specification in the x-direction, the tangent direction, or
normal to the open boundary as follows:
0= No specification.
1= Velocity in the x direction.
2= Unit flow (velocity × depth) in the x-direction.
3= Velocity tangent to the boundary.
4= Unit flow tangent to the boundary.
5= Total flow normal to the open boundary.
6= Weakly-reflecting boundary invariant quantity

where Un4 = velocity in a fictitious channel far away from

the boundary, g = gravitational acceleration, and Hn4 =
flow depth in the fictitious channel.
3 0 to 6 Flow specification in the y-direction, the normal direction, or
normal to the closed boundary as follows:
0= No specification.
1= Velocity in the y direction.
2= Unit flow (velocity × depth) in the y-direction.

Depth-averaged Flow and Sediment Transport Model - Flo2DH A-33

BOUN
Order Value Description
3= Velocity normal to the boundary.
4= Unit flow normal to the boundary.
5= Total flow normal to the closed boundary.
6= Velocity tangent to the open boundary.
Zero flow (no-slip) conditions are applied at a boundary node by

L setting data items 2 and 3 to “1” and specifying the x and y

velocities to be zero. Tangential flow (slip) conditions are applied
at a boundary node by setting data item 2 “0” and data item 3 to
“5” and specifying the total flow normal to the boundary to be
zero.
Special consideration needs to be given nodes where closed and

L open boundaries meet. Specified unit flow or velocity needs to be

parallel to closed boundaries at these nodes. If water-surface is
specified, tangential or zero flow needs to be specified.
4 0 to 5 Water-surface elevation specification code as follows:
0= No specification.
1= Water-surface elevation will be applied as an essential
boundary condition.
2= Water-surface elevation will be applied as a natural
boundary condition.
3= Supercritical flow exists at the outflow boundary node.
Water-surface elevation is not specified.
4= Water-surface elevation plus an additional rise due to
cyclonic storm pressure deficit will be applied as a natural
boundary condition.
5= A source (inflow) or sink (withdrawal) is specified. The
node does not have to lie on the network boundary.
7= Stormtide elevations (that is, storm surge plus astronomic
tide elevation) calculated based on storm surge and tide
parameters specified in the SURGE and STORM data sets
will be applied as essential conditions. The boundary node
does not need to be repeated as time-dependent data.
9= The node is a junction node. Water-surface elevations at
all nodes assigned to a junction will be required to be the
same. The junction identifier is the specified value.

Depth-averaged Flow and Sediment Transport Model - Flo2DH A-34

 BOUN
Order Value Description
Only one junction may be attached to an element. Where two or

L more junctions are close to one another, elements may need to be

subdivided to satisfy the “one junction per element” limit.

5 0 to 2 Bed elevation specification for sediment transport solutions as

follows:
0= No specification.
1= Bed elevation is specified.
2= Initial bed elevation is fixed and will not change.
6 0 to 5 Sediment volumetric flow rate specification for sediment transport
solutions as follows:
0= No specification.
1= Sediment discharge-weighted volumetric concentrations
are specified as essential conditions.
2= Sediment discharge-weighted volumetric concentrations
are specified as natural conditions.
3= Sediment volumetric transport rates are specified for each
size class, and average discharge-weighted volumetric
concentrations are specified as essential conditions.
4= Sediment transport rates are specified for each size class,
and average discharge-weighted volumetric concentrations
are specified as natural conditions.
5= Equilibrium total sediment transport rates are applied.
Transport rates will be calculated using flow parameters
and properties of the active layer.
7 “text” Boundary node comment string.
BOUN.2 Record
1 + Specified velocity, in ft/sec (m/s), or unit flow, in ft2/sec (m2/s), in
the x direction or tangent to the boundary at the node point. Or, for
a weakly reflecting boundary, the invariant quantity, in ft/sec
(m2/s).
2 + Specified velocity, in ft/sec (m/s); unit flow, in ft2/sec (m2/s); or
total flow, in ft3/sec (m3/s), in the y direction or normal to the
boundary at the node point. Or, if total flow normal to an open
boundary is specified, the velocity tangent to the open boundary.

Depth-averaged Flow and Sediment Transport Model - Flo2DH A-35

BOUN
Order Value Description
If total flow is specified, a positive value indicates flow into a

L network and a negative value indicates flow out of a network

resulting from flow.

3 ± or “text” Specified water-surface elevation, in ft (m), or total flow, in ft3/sec

(m3/s) if a source (inflow) or sink (withdrawal) is specified. Total
flow is positive for a source, and negative for a sink. For junction
nodes, the specification is a junction identifier (that is, a unique
text string of up to 8 characters that identifies the junction).
4 ± Bed elevation, in ft (m).
5 to 12 + Discharge-weighted sediment concentrations in volume per unit
volume × 106 , or unit volumetric sediment transport rates in ft2/s
(m2/s), for each size class in order.
Terminate the BOUN data set with one or more blank data records.

Depth-averaged Flow and Sediment Transport Model - Flo2DH A-36

 BSEC
Boundary Cross Section Data Set
Boundary cross section data records immediately follow a BSEC data set
identification record. Boundary cross section data consist of boundary conditions that
apply to all the node points that define a “channel cross section” forming part of a finite
element network’s open boundary. Boundary conditions that can be specified include total
flow normal to the boundary, water-surface elevation, weakly reflecting conditions, or the
presence of a junction. Two records are needed to specify boundary conditions, and a
variable number of records are needed to list cross section nodes. Up to 1000 nodes can be
entered for each boundary section. Only values that change from the previous time step
need to be specified for time-dependent (unsteady) simulations. The boundary cross
section data set is terminated with one or more blank data records.
BSEC Identification Record
Order Value Description
1 “BSEC” Data set identifier.
BSEC.1 Record
1 “text” Boundary cross section identification string. An alpha/numeric
character string that is used to identify the cross section.
2 0, 5, or 6 Normal flow specification along the open boundary as described
below:
0= No specification.
5= Total flow normal to the open boundary cross section will
be specified.
6= A weakly-reflecting boundary condition will be specified
along the open boundary cross section. The invariant
quantity

in ft/sec (m/s) needs to be specified where Qn4 = total flow

in a fictitious channel far away from the boundary, An4 =
cross section area of the fictitious channel far away from
the boundary, Bn4 = cross section top width far away from
the boundary, and g = gravitational acceleration.
3 0 No specification. Always enter zero for consistency with node
point boundary condition codes.
4 0 to 7 Water-surface elevation specification along the boundary section
as follows:
0= No specification.

Depth-averaged Flow and Sediment Transport Model - Flo2DH A-37

BSEC
Order Value Description
1= Water-surface elevation will be specified as an essential
boundary condition at each node of the cross section.
2= Water-surface elevation will be specified as a natural
boundary condition at each node of the cross section.
Water-surface elevations need to be specified on the BSEC.2 data

L record if codes 1 or 2 are entered.

3= Supercritical flow exists at each node of the cross section.

The cross section is considered to form an outflow
boundary and water-surface elevation is not specified.
4= Water-surface elevation plus an additional rise due to
cyclonic storm pressure deficit will be applied as an
essential condition.
5= Water-surface elevation will be calculated based on the
slope-area method using the specified friction slope and
total flow rate. Total cross section flow rate and friction
slope need to be specified on the BSEC.2 data record.
6= Water-surface elevation will be calculated based on a
stage-discharge relation using the specified rating curve
and total flow rate. Total cross section flow rate and a
rating curve identifier need to be specified on the BSEC.2
data record.
7= Stormtide elevations (that is, storm surge plus astronomic
tide elevation) calculated based on storm surge and tide
parameters specified in the SURGE and STORM data sets
will be applied as essential conditions. The boundary cross
section does not need to be repeated as time-dependent
data.
9= The boundary
section is part
of a junction.
Water-surface
elevations at all
nodes assigned
to a junction
will be required
to be the same.
The junction
identifier is the specified value.

Depth-averaged Flow and Sediment Transport Model - Flo2DH A-38

 BSEC
Order Value Description
Only one junction may be attached to an element. Where two or

L more junctions are close to one another, elements may need to be

subdivided to satisfy the “one junction per element” limit.

5 0 or 2 Bed elevation specification along the boundary section as follows:

0= No specification.
2= Initial bed elevation is fixed and will not change.
6 0 to 5 Sediment volumetric flow rate specification for sediment transport
solutions as described below:
0= No specification.
1= Sediment discharge-weighted volumetric concentrations
are specified as essential conditions.
2= Sediment discharge-weighted volumetric concentrations
are specified as natural conditions.
Cross-section averaged discharge-weighted sediment

L concentrations for each particle size class need to be specified on

the following data record if codes 1 or 2 are entered.

3= Sediment volumetric transport rates are specified for each

size class, and average concentrations are applied as
essential conditions.
4= Sediment volumetric transport rates are specified for each
size class, and average discharge-weighted concentrations
are applied as natural conditions.
Total cross-section volumetric transport rates for each particle size

L class need to be specified on the following data record if codes 3 or

4 are entered.

5= Equilibrium total sediment volumetric transport rates are

applied at all nodes in the cross section. Transport rates
are calculated using flow parameters and properties of
active layers at cross section node points.
7 “text” Boundary cross section comment string.
BSEC.2 Record
1 ± Total flow normal to the boundary cross section, in ft3/sec (m3/s),
or the weakly-reflecting boundary invariant quantity in ft/sec (m/s).
Total flow rate needs to be specified if water-surface elevations are
calculated by the slope-area method.

Depth-averaged Flow and Sediment Transport Model - Flo2DH A-39

BSEC
Order Value Description
Flows into finite element networks through open boundaries

L (inflows) are positive, and flows out of networks through open

boundaries (outflows) are negative.

2 ± or “text” Water-surface elevation, in ft (m), or friction slope used in the

slope-area method.. For junction nodes, the specification is a
junction identifier (that is, a unique text string of up to 8 characters
that identifies the junction).
3 ± Second water-surface elevation, in ft (m), if a linearly- varying
water-surface elevation is specified along the cross section.
If the data item 3 water-surface elevation … 0, water-surface

L elevations at node points between the two cross section end nodes
are interpolated linearly on the basis of distance between the two
end nodes.
If the slope-area method is used, water-surface elevation will be

L calculated using the friction slope and total flow rate specified in
for the cross section.

4 “text” Rating curve identifier. The rating curve is used along with the
total cross section flow rate to establish a water-surface elevation
that is assigned to every node point of the cross section.
5 to 12 + Cross-section-averaged discharge-weighted sediment
concentrations in volume per unit volume × 106 , or total cross-
section sediment transport rates in ft3/s (m3/s), for each particle size
class in order.
BSEC.3 Record
3 to + A list of node numbers that define a connected series of element
1000 sides on a section of the network boundary that is open (that is,
through which flow can enter or leave the network). The list is
terminated by a negative entry. Up 1000 node points may be used
to define a cross section. When the boundary cross section is used
repeatedly as time-dependent data, only a single “-1” entry is
needed so that the list of boundary section nodes does not need to
be repeated.
Terminate the BSEC data set with one or more blank records.

Depth-averaged Flow and Sediment Transport Model - Flo2DH A-40

 WIND
Wind Data Set
Wind data records immediately follow a WIND data set identification record. One
record is prepared for each node at which conditions other than general wind specifications
are desired. For a time-dependent (unsteady) run, only values that change from the
previous time step need to be specified. Wind data consist of the node number and the
specified wind direction and velocity. The data set is terminated with one or more blank
data records.
WIND Identification Record
Order Value Description
1 “WIND” Data set identifier.
WIND Record
1 0 Node number at which the following wind data are to be applied.
2 + Wind velocity, in ft/sec (m/s).
3 + Wind direction angle, in degrees measured clockwise from true
north. Wind direction is the direction from which the wind is
blowing, which is the conventional meteorological definition of
wind direction. For example, a wind blowing to the northeast (45o
clockwise from true north) would be coming from the southwest,
and would have a direction angle 235o measured clockwise from
true north as shown in the diagram below.

Terminate the WIND data set with one or more blank data records.

Depth-averaged Flow and Sediment Transport Model - Flo2DH A-41

WAVE
Wave Data Set
Wave data records immediately follow a WAVE data set identification record.
One record is prepared for each node at which wave data are to be specified. Only values
that change from the previous time step need to be specified for a time-dependent
(unsteady) simulation. Wave data consist of the node number and the specified wave
height, period, and direction. The data set is terminated with one or more blank data
records.
WAVE Identification Record
Order Value Description
1 “WAVE” Data set identifier.
WAVE Record
1 0 Node number at which the following wave data are to be applied.
2 + Wave height, in ft (m).
3 0 Wave period, in seconds.
4 + Wave direction angle, in degrees measured counter-clockwise from
the positive x-axis.
Terminate the WAVE data set with one or more blank data records.

Depth-averaged Flow and Sediment Transport Model - Flo2DH A-42

 CYCL
Tropical Cyclone Data Set
A tropical cyclone data record immediately follows a CYCL data set identification
record. The identification record contains information describing the storm initial position
and the landfall location. The tropical cyclone data record contains data information used
to calculate movement of the storm, wind speeds, and wind directions. Storm coordinates
in time-dependent tropical cyclone data sets are not read.
CYCL Identification Record
Order Value Description
1 “CYCL” Data set identifier.
2 0 or 1 Storm coordinates code as follows:
0= Geodetic coordinates (latitude and longitude).
1= Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM) system coordinates
(Northing and Easting)
3 ± Storm latitude (for geodetic coordinates) in degrees, or Northing
(for UTM coordinates) in meters.
4 ± Storm longitude (for geodetic coordinates) in degrees, or Easting
(for UTM coordinates) in meters.
Northern latitudes are positive, southern latitudes are negative;

L western longitudes are positive, eastern longitudes are negative.

UTM coordinates (Northing and Easting) are in meters.

5 0 or 1 Storm position code as follows:

0= Coordinates are the initial position of the storm center.
1= Coordinates are the landfall location of the storm. The
initial position of the storm will be calculated based on the
landfall location and the landfall time, along with storm
track angle and forward speed (which are considered
constant).
6 0 or + 0 Landfall will not be considered and wind speeds will not
be adjusted.
+ Landfall time, in hours (simulation time, not actual clock
time). Wind decay after landfall will be calculated using
the procedure in Kaplan and DeMaria (1995)
CYCL Record
1 + Forward storm speed Vf , in nautical mi/hr (km/hr).

Depth-averaged Flow and Sediment Transport Model - Flo2DH A-43

CYCL
Order Value Description
2 + Storm track azimuth, in degrees measured clockwise from true
north, is the direction from which the storm is moving.
3 + Radius to maximum winds Rmax, in nautical mi (km).
4 + Central pressure Pc, in inches of Hg (kPa).
5 + Peripheral storm pressure P4, in inches of Hg (kPa). Default = 30.0
in Hg (101.325 kPa).

Depth-averaged Flow and Sediment Transport Model - Flo2DH A-44

 SURGE
Storm Surge Data Set
A storm surge data record immediately follows a SURGE data set identification
record. The storm surge data record contains data information used to calculate storm
surge elevations along ocean boundaries for time-dependent simulations. A hydrograph is
developed based on the surge peak stage, characteristics of a tropical cyclone, and
astronomic tides. Tropical cyclone data need to be specified if storm surge elevations are
calculated.
SURGE Identification Record
Order Value Description
1 “SURGE” Data set identifier.
SURGE Record
1 + Simulation time of surge peak stage, in hours.
2 + Storm surge peak stage or water-surface height above normal
water-surface, in ft (m).
3 ± Mean astronomic tide elevation, in ft (m).
4 + Astronomic tide range (high tide elevation - low tide elevation), in
ft (m).
5 1 or 2 Number of daily astronomic tide cycles (1 = diurnal, 2 = semi-
diurnal). Diurnal tides have periods of 24.84 hr, and semi-diurnal
tides have periods of 12.42 hr. Default = 2 (semi-diurnal tides).
6 0 to 4 Tide phase code that defines the astronomic tide phase at storm
surge peak stage as follows:
0= No astronomic tide stage is added to storm surge.
1= High tide occurs at storm surge peak.
2= Mid-tide falling occurs at surge peak
3= Low tide occurs at surge peak.
4= Mid-tide rising occurs at surge peak.

Depth-averaged Flow and Sediment Transport Model - Flo2DH A-45

WEIR
Weir Data Set
Weir data records immediately follow a WEIR data set identification record. Two
records are needed for each weir segment. Date for each weir segment includes an
identification string, numbers of the node points on the upstream and downstream sides of
the segment, the weir segment type code, crest length, crest elevation, user-defined
discharge and submergence function coefficients, and user-defined tailwater depth.
Optionally, weir data may be read from a separate data file. The data set is terminated with
one or more blank data records.
WEIR Identification Record
Order Value Description
1 “WEIR” Data set identifier.
2 0 to 2 Code that defines the weir flow report(s) to be printed at the end of
printed time steps and at the end of a steady-state simulation (0 =
just summary reports, 1 = just comprehensive reports, 2 = both
summary and comprehensive reports).
3 ± Default tailwater elevation, in ft (m), assigned to all weir segments
for which tailwater elevations are not assigned.
4 + Default minimum head difference, in ft (m), assigned to all weir
segments for which minimum head differences are not specified.
5 0 or 1 Weir data record option code as follows:
0= All weir records will follow in the data stream.
1= All weir records will be read from a separate data file.
Enter the complete name of the weir data file on the
following record.
WEIR.1 Record
1 “text” Weir segment identification string (8 characters maximum). This
is a unique text string used to identify the weir segment.
2 ± Number of the node point on one side of the weir. Water will only
be allowed to leave the network at this node, as if a flapgate was
present, if the number is negative.
3 0 If 0, flow is allowed to leave the finite element network over the
weir segment from the previously specified node point. Otherwise,
the value is the number of the node point at the opposite side of the
weir segment.
Weir segment node points may be located on either the boundary

L or the interior of the network.

Depth-averaged Flow and Sediment Transport Model - Flo2DH A-46

 WEIR
Order Value Description
4 “text” Comment string used to describe the weir segment (32 characters
maximum).
WEIR.2 Record
1 0 to 6 Weir segment type code that defines the weir segment as follows:
0= Undefined (weir discharge and submergence function
coefficients Cw, asub, and bsub need to be specified).
1= Paved roadway embankment.
2= Gravel roadway embankment.
3= Single railroad track embankment.
4= Double railroad track embankment.
5= Sharp-crested weir (rectangular).
6= Sharp-crested weir (triangular).
7= Broad-crested weir (rectangular).
2 + Crest length of the weir segment Lw, in ft (m).
3 ± Crest elevation of the weir segment zwc, in ft (m).
4 0 or + Dimensionless discharge coefficient Cw for free-flow conditions at
the weir segment. A default value based on the weir segment type
is assigned if not specified (see following table).
5 0 or + Submergence function coefficient asub. A default value based on
the weir segment type is assigned if not specified (see following
table).
6 0 or + Submergence function coefficient bsub. A default value based on
the weir segment type is assigned if not specified (see following
table).

Depth-averaged Flow and Sediment Transport Model - Flo2DH A-47

WEIR
Order Value Description
Weir submergence factors are calculated as

L
where

is the submergence ratio, = upstream water-surface elevation,

= downstream water-surface elevation, and = weir segment
crest elevation. Unless specified, default values of weir segment
coefficients Cw, asub, and bsub will be used based on the assigned
weir segment type as summarized in the following table:
Submergence Function Default Coefficients
Weir segment description Cw asub bsub
Paved roadway 0.544 16.4 0.432
Gravel roadway 0.544 15.4 0.608
Single railroad track 0.577 7.25 0.500
Double railroad track 0.520 7.25 0.500
Sharp-crested weir
0.544 1.5 0.385
(rectangular)
Sharp-crested weir
0.544 2.5 0.385
(triangular)
Broad-crested weir
0.544 7.25 0.500
(rectangular)
7* ± Weir crest elevation increment (decrement) that is added to
(subtracted from) all section point weir crest elevations, in ft (m).

Depth-averaged Flow and Sediment Transport Model - Flo2DH A-48

 CULV
Culvert Data Set
Culvert data records immediately follow a CULV data set identification record.
Three data records are needed for each culvert. Culvert data consist of identification
strings, numbers of the node points on the upstream and downstream ends of culverts,
numbers of culvert barrels, culvert type codes, inlet and outlet control flow coefficients,
barrel dimensions, and invert elevations at the culvert ends. Optionally, culvert data may
be read from a separate data file. The data set is terminated with one or more blank
records.
CULV Identification Record
Order Value Description
1 “CULV” Data set identifier.
2 0 to 2 Code that defines the culvert flow report(s) to be printed at the end
of printed time steps and at the end of a steady-state simulation (0
= just summary reports, 1 = just comprehensive reports, 2 = both
summary and comprehensive reports).
3 ± Default tailwater elevation, in ft (m), assigned to all culverts for
which tailwater elevations are not specified.
4 + Default minimum head difference, in ft (m), assigned to all culverts
for which minimum head differences are not specified.
5 + Default riprap basin depth, in ft (m), assigned to all culverts for
which riprap basin depths are not specified.
6 0 or 1 Culvert data record option code as follows:
0= All culvert records will follow in the data stream.
1= All culvert records will be read from a separate data file.
Enter the complete name of the culvert data file on the
following record.
CULV.1 Record
1 “text” Culvert identification string (8 characters maximum). This is a
unique text string used to identify the culvert.
2 ± Number of the node point at one end of the culvert. Water will be
allowed only to leave the network at this node point, as if a
flap-gate was installed on the other end of the culvert, if the node
number is negative.
3 0 or + If 0, flow is allowed to leave the finite element network through
the culvert from the previously specified node point. Otherwise,
the value is the number of the node point at the culvert outlet.

Depth-averaged Flow and Sediment Transport Model - Flo2DH A-49

CULV
Order Value Description
Culvert node points may be located on either the boundary or the

L interior of the network.

4 “text” Comment used to describe the culvert (32 characters maximum).

CULV.2 Record
1 + Culvert type code. Type codes for various combinations of barrel
materials, cross-section shapes, and inlet characteristics are defined
the table at the end of this section.
2 + Number of identical culvert barrels. Default = 1.
3 0 or + Entrance loss coefficient Kce used in outlet control flow
calculations. Values of Kce for various types of inlets are given in
Table 2-3.
4 0 or + Culvert barrel Manning roughness coefficient nc used in outlet
control flow calculations. Values of nc for various culvert barrel
materials and conditions are given in Table 2-4.
5 0 or + Inlet control flow coefficient KN.
6 0 or + Inlet control flow coefficient M.
7 0 or + Inlet control flow coefficient cN.
8 0 or + Inlet control flow coefficient Y.
9 0 or + Inlet control flow coefficient ".
Culvert flow coefficients obtained from Tables 2-2, 2-3, and 2-4

L and from HDS-5 (Norman et al. 1985) based on the specified

culvert type code will be used as defaults if values of Kce, nc, KN, M,
cN, Y, and " are not specified.
CULV.3 Record
1 + Barrel rise or height, in ft (m).
2 + Barrel span or width, in ft (m).
3 + Barrel length Lc, in ft (m).
4 ± Invert elevation at the first culvert end point, in ft (m).
5 ± Invert elevation at the second culvert end point, in ft (m).
6 ± Tailwater elevation, in ft (m), used in outlet flow control
calculations if only one node is specified for the culvert.

Depth-averaged Flow and Sediment Transport Model - Flo2DH A-50

 CULV
Order Value Description
7 + Minimum head difference in ft (m), needed for culvert flow
calculations. Zero flow is assigned if the head difference is less
than this value. Default = 0 ft (m).
8 0 Culvert riprap calculations will not be carried out.
+ Riprap basin depth, in ft (m), used to size riprap at culvert outlets.
Repeat the CULV.1-CULV.2-CULV.3 data record sequence for

L each culvert.

Terminate the CULV data set with one or more blank records.

Table A-1. Culvert type codes for various combinations of barrel materials, barrel cross-
section shapes, and inlet characteristics.
Barrel Barrel cross- Inlet description Culvert HDS-5
material section shape type chart
code no.
Concrete Circular Headwall with square edge 1011 1/1
Headwall with grooved edge 1012 1/2
Projecting with grooved edge 1051 1/3
Beveled ring with 45/ bevels 1061 3/A
Side-tapered inlet 1071 55/1
Rectangular Headwall with 3/4-in chamfers 1111 10/1
Headwall with 45/ bevels 1112 10/2
Headwall with 33.7/ bevels 1113 10/3
Skewed headwall (45/) with 3/4-in chamfers 1121 11/1
Skewed headwall (30/) with 3/4 in chamfers 1122 11/2
Skewed headwall (15/) with 3/4 in chamfers 1123 11/3
Skewed headwall (10-45/) with 45/ bevels 1124 11/4
Wingwalls (30/ to 75/) with square top edge 1131 8/1
Wingwalls (15/ and 90/) with square edge 1132 8/2
Wingwalls (0/, extension of sides) with square top edge 1133 8/3
Wingwalls (45/) with beveled top edge 1134 9/1
Wingwalls (18/ and 33.7/) with beveled top edge 1135 9/2
Side- or slope-tapered 1171 57/1
Non-offset flares (45/) with 3/4-in chamfers 1181 12/1
Non-offset flares (18.4/) with 3/4-in chamfers 1182 12/2
Non-offset flares (18.4/) with skewed barrel 1183 12/3
Offset flares (45/) with beveled top edge 1191 13/1
Offset flares (33.7/) with beveled top edge 1192 13/2
Offset flares (18.4/) flares with beveled top edge 1193 13/3
Horizontal Headwall with square edge 1211 29/1
ellipse Headwall with grooved edge 1212 29/2
Projecting with grooved edge 1251 29/3
Vertical ellipse Headwall with square edge 1311 30/1
Headwall with grooved edge 1312 30/2
Projecting with grooved edge 1351 30/3
Corrugated Circular Headwall 2011 2/1
metal Mitered to fill slope 2041 2/2
Projecting from fill slope 2051 2/3

Depth-averaged Flow and Sediment Transport Model - Flo2DH A-51

CULV
Side- or slope-tapered 2071 55/2
Rectangular Headwall 2111 16-19/2
Projecting from fill with thick wall 2151 16-19/3
Projecting from fill with thin wall 2152 16-19/5
Pipe-arch (18-in Headwall 2511 34/1
corner radius) Mitered to fill slope 2541 34/2
Projecting from fill slope 2551 34/3
Arch Headwall 2711 41/1
Mitered to fill slope 2741 41/2
Projecting from fill slope 2751 41/3
Structural Pipe-arch (18-in Headwall with square edge 3511 35/2
metal plate corner radius) Headwall with beveled edge 3512 35/3
Projecting from fill slope 3551 35/1
Pipe-arch (31-in Headwall 3611 36/1
corner radius) Mitered to fill slope 3641 36/2
Projecting from fill slope 3651 36/3

Depth-averaged Flow and Sediment Transport Model - Flo2DH A-52

 GATE
Gate Structure Data Set
Gate structure data records immediately follow a GATE data set identification
record. Two data records are needed to describe each gate structure. Gate structure data
consist of identification strings, numbers of the node points on the upstream and
downstream ends of structures, and discharge coefficients and dimensions of both
underflow and overflow gates. Optionally, gate structure data records may be read from a
separate data file. The data set is terminated with one or more blank records.
GATE Identification Record
Order Value Description
1 “GATE” Data set identifier.
2 ± Default tailwater elevation, in ft (m), assigned to all gate structures
for which tailwater elevations are not specified.
3 + Default minimum head difference, in ft (m), assigned to all gate
structures for which minimum head differences are not specified.
4 0 or 1 Gate structure data record option code as follows:
0= All gate structure data records will follow in the data
stream.
1= All gate structure data records will be read from a separate
data file. Enter the complete name of the gate structure
data file on the following record.
GATE.1 Record
1 “text” Gate structure identification string (8 characters maximum). This
is a unique text string used to identify the gate.
2 + Number of the node point at one end of the gate structure.
3 0 or + If 0, flow is allowed to leave the finite element network through
the culvert from the previously specified node point. Otherwise,
the value is the number of the node point at the culvert outlet.
Gate structure node points may be located on either the boundary

L or the interior of the network.

4 “text” Comment used to describe the gate structure (32 characters

maximum).
GATE.2 Record
1 + Underflow gate opening height hgu, in ft (m)..
2 + Underflow gate opening width wgu, in ft (m).

Depth-averaged Flow and Sediment Transport Model - Flo2DH A-53

GATE
Order Value Description
3 ± Underflow gate bottom elevation zgu, in ft (m).
4 + Underflow gate inclination angle 2, in deg. (0° # 2 # 90°)
5 + Overflow gate discharge coefficient Cgo (dimensionless).
6 + Overflow gate width wgo, in ft (m).
7 ± Overflow gate bottom or crest elevation zgo, in ft (m).
Repeat the GATE.1-GATE.2 data record sequence for each gate

L structure.

Terminate the GATE data set with one or more blank records

Depth-averaged Flow and Sediment Transport Model - Flo2DH A-54

 DROP
Drop-inlet Spillway Data Set
Drop-inlet spillway data records immediately follow a DROP data set
identification record. Two records are needed for each drop inlet spillway. Drop-inlet
spillway data consist of an identification string, the node points on the upstream and
downstream ends of the structure; a discharge coefficient, crest length, and crest elevation
used to compute weir flow at the inlet; a discharge coefficient and cross-sectional area used
to compute orifice flow at the inlet; and a discharge coefficient and cross sectional area
used to compute conduit flow through the structure. Optionally, all drop inlet spillway
records may be read from a separate data file. The data set is terminated with one or more
blank records.
DROP Identification Record
Order Value Description
1 “DROP” Data set identifier.
2 0 to 2 Code that defines the drop-inlet spillway flow report(s) to be
printed at the end of printed time steps and at the end of a steady-
state simulation (0 = just summary reports, 1 = just comprehensive
reports, 2 = both summary and comprehensive reports).
3 0 or 1 Drop-inlet spillway data record code as follows:
0= All drop-inlet spillway records will follow in the data
stream.
1= All drop-inlet spillway records will be read from a separate
data file. Enter the complete name of the drop inlet
spillway data file on the following record.
DROP.1 Record
1 “text” Drop-inlet spillway identification string (8 characters maximum).
This is a unique text string used to identify the spillway.
2 + Number of the node point at the entrance of the drop inlet spillway.
3 0 or + If 0, flow is allowed to leave the finite element network through
the drop inlet spillway from the previously specified node point.
Otherwise, the value is the number of the node point at the outlet
of the drop inlet spillway conduit.
The drop inlet spillway node points may be located either on the

L boundary or the interior of the finite element network.

4 “text” Comment used to describe the drop inlet spillway (32 characters
maximum).
DROP.2 Record

Depth-averaged Flow and Sediment Transport Model - Flo2DH A-55

DROP
Order Value Description
1 + Weir discharge coefficient Cdw (dimensionless).
2 + Weir crest length Ldw, in ft (m).
3 + Weir crest elevation zdw, in ft (m).
4 + Orifice discharge coefficient Cdo (dimensionless).
5 + Orifice cross-sectional area Ado, in ft2 (m2).
6 + Conduit discharge coefficient Cdc, (dimensionless).
7 + Conduit cross-sectional area Adc, in ft2 (m2).
8 ± Elevation of the hydraulic energy head at the conduit outlet, in feet
(meters). This value is needed only if the second drop inlet node
point is not specified and flow is allowed to leave the finite
element network through the drop inlet spillway.
Repeat the DROP.1-DROP.2 data record sequence for each drop-

L inlet spillway.

Terminate the DROP data set with one or more blank data records.

Depth-averaged Flow and Sediment Transport Model - Flo2DH A-56

 LINK
Channel Link Data Set
Channel link data records immediately follow a LINK data set identification
record. A channel link is a wide open-channel segment with a horizontal bed that can be
used to link together node points of the two-dimensional network. In some cases, roadway
and railroad embankments can be represented more accurately as links than as weir
segments. Two records are needed for each channel link. Channel link data consist of an
identification string, the numbers of the node points on the upstream and downstream sides
of the link, the width and length of the channel, an entrance loss coefficient, an outlet loss
coefficient, the elevation of the bed of the horizontal bed of the channel link, and a
Manning roughness coefficient that describes the flow resistance of the channel bed.
Optionally, all channel link records may be read from a separate data file. The data set is
terminated with one or more blank data records.
LINK Identification Record
Order Value Description
1 “LINK” Data set identifier.
2 0 to 2 Channel link report code that defines the report(s) to be printed at
the end of printed time steps and at the end of a steady-state
simulation (0 = just summary reports, 1 = just comprehensive
reports, 2 = both summary and comprehensive reports).
3 ± Default tailwater elevation, in ft (m), assigned to all channel links
for which tailwater elevations are not assigned.
4 + Default minimum head difference, in ft (m), assigned to all channel
links for which minimum head differences are not specified.
5 0 or 1 Channel link data record option code as follows:
0= All channel link records will follow in the data stream.
1= All channel link records will be read from a separate data
file. Enter the complete name of the channel link data file
on the following record.
LINK.1 Record
1 “text” Channel link identification string (8 characters maximum). This is
a unique text string used to identify the link.
2 + Number of the node point on one end of the channel link.
3 0 or + If 0, flow is allowed to leave the finite element network through
the channel link from the previously specified node point.
Otherwise, the value is the number of the node point at the other
end of the channel link.

Depth-averaged Flow and Sediment Transport Model - Flo2DH A-57

LINK
Order Value Description
The channel link node points may be located on either the

L boundary or the interior of the network.

4 “text” Comment used to describe the channel link (32 characters

maximum).
LINK.2 Record
1 + Width of the channel link wl through which water can flow, in ft
(m).
2 + Length of the channel link Lll from the upstream end to the
downstream end, in ft (m).
3 + Bed elevation of the first channel link node zl1, in ft (m).
4 + Bed elevation of the second channel link node zl2, in ft (m), if the
second node is specified, or the bed slope of the channel link (a
positive value denotes a downward slope) if flow is allowed to exit
the network at the first node point.
5 + Entrance loss coefficient Kle. This coefficient depends on
conditions at the upstream end of the channel link but generally
0.1 # Kle # 0.5.
6 + Manning’s roughness coefficient that describes flow resistance of
the channel link bed. This coefficient depends of the condition of
the channel bed. Beds with many flow obstructions such as brush
and trees, will have larger roughness coefficients than beds that are
less resistance to flow.
7 ± Tailwater elevation, in ft (m), used in calculations if only one node
is specified for the channel link.
8 + Minimum head difference in ft (m), needed for channel link
calculations. Zero flow is assigned if the head difference is less
than this value. Default = 0 ft (m).
Repeat the LINK.1-LINK.2 data record sequence for each channel

L link.

Terminate the LINK data set with one or more blank data records.

Depth-averaged Flow and Sediment Transport Model - Flo2DH A-58

 RATE
Rating Curve Data Set
Rating curve data records immediately follow a RATE data set identification
record. Rating curve data consist of an identification string, and a tabular relation between
the water-surface elevation and the flow rate through a channel cross section. The three-
record set is repeated for each rating curve that is to be defined. Optionally, all rating
curve records may be read from a separate data file. The data set is terminated with one or
more blank records.
RATE Identification Record
Order Value Description
1 “RATE” Data set identifier.
2 0 or 1 Rating curve data record option code as follows:
0= All rating curve records will follow in the data stream.
1= All rating curve data records will be read from a separate
data file. Enter the complete name of the rating curve data
record file on the following record.
RATE.1 Record
1 “text” Rating curve identification string (8 characters maximum). This is
a unique text string used to identify the rating curve.
2 “text” Comment used to describe the rating curve (32 characters max).
RATE.2 Record
1 to 8 + Water-surface elevations that correspond to flow rates in the same
field on the following record. Enter up to eight values.
RATE.3 Record
1 to 8 + Flow rates that correspond to the upstream water-surface elevation
in the same field on the previous record.
Repeat the RATE.1-RATE.2-RATE.3 data record sequence for

L each rating curve.

Terminate the RATE data set with one or more blank records.

Depth-averaged Flow and Sediment Transport Model - Flo2DH A-59

PIER
Pier Data Set
Pier data records immediately follow a PIER data set identification record. Two
records are needed for each bridge pier. However, if piers are grouped closely together and
are contained in a single element their widths may be combined to form a single
“equivalent” pier to calculate drag force. Pier data consist of a code that indicates the
expression used to calculate local pier scour depth, an identification string, the coordinates
of the center of the pier, an optional comment describing the pier, the pier width, the pier
length, a dimensionless drag coefficient, and a code that describes the shape of the pier
nose (needed if scour calculations are to be carried out). Optionally, all pier records may
be read from a separate data file. The data set is terminated with one or more blank data
records.
PIER Identification Record
Order Value Description
1 “PIER” Data set identifier.
2 0 to 2 Pier scour report code that defines the report(s) to be printed at the
end of printed time steps and at the end of a steady-state simulation
(0 = just summary reports, 1 = just comprehensive reports, 2 = both
summary and comprehensive reports).
3 + Local pier scour equation code read as “i.level”, where the integer
part of the number I = equation code, and the fractional part of the
number level = design scour depth confidence level used in
Froehlich’s equation. The HEC-18 pier scour equation
(Richardson and Davis 1995) will be used if I = 0, 1, or 3; and
Froehlich’s (1988) pier scour equation will be used if I = 2 or 3.
For example, enter 2.995 to request Froehlich’s equation with a
design confidence level of 0.995 or 99.5%. The confidence level is
ignored if the just the HEC-18 equation is selected (that is, if I = 1)
and can be omitted. Default level = 0.5 if the fractional part of the
value is zero.
4 + Pier sediment specific gravity used in local scour calculations.
Default = 2.65.
5 + Pier rock riprap equation code (0 or 1 = HEC-18 equation, 2 =
Froehlich’s equation).
6 + Riprap safety factor. Default = 1.
7 + Riprap specific gravity. Default = 2.65.
8 0 or 1 Rock riprap angularity code (0 = rounded, 1 = angular).
Default = 0 (rounded rock).
9 + Rock riprap angle of repose, in degrees. Default = 35o for rounded
rock, and 40o for angular rock.
10 0 All pier records will follow in the data stream.

Depth-averaged Flow and Sediment Transport Model - Flo2DH A-60

 PIER
Order Value Description
1 All pier records will be read from a separate data file. Enter the
complete name of the pier data file on the following record.
PIER.1 Record
1 “text” Pier identification string (8 characters maximum). This is a unique
text string used to identify the pier.
2 ± X coordinate of the center of the bridge pier, in ft (m).
3 ± Y coordinate of the center of the bridge pier, in ft (m).
4 “text” Comment string used to describe the bridge pier (32 characters
maximum).
PIER.2 Record
1 + Pier width averaged over the depth of flow at the upstream end of
the pier, in ft (m).
2 + Pier length (from nose to tail), in ft (m).
Aligned Columns. Groups of aligned, identical, closely-spaced

L columns (that is, with columns spaced less than five column
diameters apart such as commonly found in pier bents) are to be
treated as a single pier having a length equal to the combined
length of all the piers in the group in accordance with HEC-18
scour calculation guidelines (Richardson and Davis 1995).
3 ± Pier alignment angle, in degrees measured from the X-axis.
4 + Drag coefficient for the pier (dimensionless). Default = 1.0. Drag
coefficients for a few column shapes based on frontal area follow:
Column shape and approach flow alignmentDrag coefficient based
on frontal area

Round cylinder 1.0

Square cylinder 2.2

Square cylinder 1.6

Depth-averaged Flow and Sediment Transport Model - Flo2DH A-61

PIER
Order Value Description
R/B CD
0 2.2
Square cylinder with
0.02 2.0
rounded corners
0.17 1.2
0.33 1.0

Hexagonal cylinder 1.0

Hexagonal cylinder 0.7

Round-nosed section
L/B CD
1 1.0
2 0.7
4 0.68
6 0.64

Square-nosed section
L/B CD
1 2.2
2 1.8
3 1.3
6 0.9

5 0 to 3 Pier nose shape code defined as follows: 1 = round-nosed,

2 = square-nosed , 3 = sharp-nosed.
Pier nose shape code controls calculation of local scour. Local

L scour is not calculated for the pier if the nose shape code = 0.

6 + Median diameter D50, in mm, of bed material surrounding the pier.

7 + Bed material particle diameter for which 90% of the sediment by
weight is finer D90, in mm.
Bed material diameters are needed only if armoring is to be taken

L into account by the HEC-18 equation, or if Froehlich’s equation is

used.

Depth-averaged Flow and Sediment Transport Model - Flo2DH A-62

 PIER
Order Value Description
8 -1 to 3 Bedform code defined as follows: 0 =, 2
0= Plane bed or ripples (transverse ridges of cohesionless
sediments less than about 2 in or 0.05 m high).
1= Small dunes with height # 10 ft (3 m).
2= Medium dunes with 10 ft (3 m) < height # 30 ft (9 m).
3= Large dunes with height > 30 ft (9 m).
-1 = Bedform codes are estimated using Yalin’s (1964) formula
to calculate bedform heights.
The bedform code is needed when the HEC-18 equation is used to

L account for the effect of transient forms on the streambed surface

that cause the depth of scour below the average ambient bed
elevation at a pier to vary with time.
Terminate the PIER data set with one or more blank data records.

Depth-averaged Flow and Sediment Transport Model - Flo2DH A-63

FLUX
Flux Line Data Set
Flux line data immediately follow a FLUX data set identification record. Flux line
data consist of two records. The first record contains a flux line identification string. The
second record contains a list of node points that can be repeated as many times as needed
for a flux line consisting of at most 260 node points. The last node point in the flux line
list is given a negative value. Flow across the first flux line is used as a base flow against
which other calculated flows are compared. Flux lines may be composed of either straight
or curved element sides. The data set is terminated with one or more blank data records.
FLUX Identification Record
Order Value Description
1 “FLUX” Data set identifier.
FLUX.1 Record
1 “text” Flux line identification string. The first 10 characters need to be a
unique identifier.
2 “text” Comment used to describe the flux line (32 characters maximum).
FLUX.2 Record
1 to 1000 + A list of node numbers that define a connected series of straight or
curved element sides across which total flow is to be computed.
Up to 1000 node points may be used to define a flux line. The
node list is terminated with a negative entry.
Terminate the FLUX data set with one or more blank records.

Depth-averaged Flow and Sediment Transport Model - Flo2DH A-64

 GAGE
Gage Point Data Set
Gage point data immediately follow a GAGE data set identification record. Gage
point data identify locations within a network for which solutions are reported at the end of
a time step and at the end of a simulation. Gage points may be placed where a physical
gage is located so measured and computed values of velocity and water-surface elevation
can be easily compared. However, gage points can also be used to highlight solutions at
specific locations within a network that are of interest. Gage points can be placed at
specific node points, or a defined coordinates. Comment strings can be included to
describe gage points locations. The data set is terminated with one or more blank records.
GAGE Identification Record
Order Value Description
1 “GAGE” Data set identifier.
GAGE Record
1 “text” Gage point identification string (8 characters maximum). This is a
unique text string used to identify the gage.
2 0 or + If 0, the location of the gage point is given by coordinates specified
in the following two fields; otherwise, the value is the number of
the node at which the gage point is located.
3 ± X coordinate of the location of the gage point, in ft (m).
4 ± Y coordinate of the location of the gage point, in ft (m).
5 ± Elevation of the gage, in ft (m).
6 “text” Brief description of the gage point that will be included in printed
output (32 characters maximum).
Repeat GAGE records for each gage point to be reported.

L
Terminate the GAGE data set with one or more blank data records.

Depth-averaged Flow and Sediment Transport Model - Flo2DH A-65

SEDI
General Sediment Data Set
General sediment data immediately follow an SEDI data set identification record.
The data describe general bed sediment properties and sediment transport solution
parameters. There are nine records in the sediment data set. The ninth record is a repeated
record, and is needed only if bed-composition printout nodes are specified.
SEDI Identification Record
Order Value Description
1 “SEDI” Data set identifier.
SEDI.1 Record
1 1 to 19 Sum of the codes of the following printed output options that are
desired:
Code Option Description
1 Sediment transport report by size classes.
2 Node point bed composition report.
16 Sediment transport degree-of-freedom equation number
report.
2 0 or 1 Sediment initial condition data file option code as follows:
0 = All initial sediment data will be entered on data records.
1 = Initial sediment transport data will be read from a data file.
However, additional initial sediment transport data that will
supercede values read from the initial sediment transport
data file may be entered on data records. The default name
of the initial sediment transport data file is “flo2dh.sed”.
Initial sediment transport data files are usually sediment transport

L solution output files created by previous simulations.

3 0 or ±1 Sediment transport solution output file option code as follows:

0 = Sediment transport solutions will not be written to a data
file.
±1 = Sediment transport solutions will be written to a data file at
the end of a steady-state run and at the end of selected
time-steps during a time-dependent run. If a positive value
is entered, the solution will be written in “text” form; if a
negative value is entered, the solution will be written in
“binary” form. The default name of the sediment transport
solution data file is “flo2dh.sed”.

Depth-averaged Flow and Sediment Transport Model - Flo2DH A-66

 SEDI
Order Value Description
4 0 or 1 Bed composition report option code as follows:
0 = Bed composition will not be reported in printed output.
1 = Bed composition will be reported at nodes specified on
SEDI.9 data records.
5 0 or 1 balancing diffusion option code as follows:
0 = Balancing diffusion terms will be added to the sediment
transport advection diffusion equation.
1 = Balancing diffusion terms will not be added.
SEDI.2 Record
1 1 to 99 Sediment solution iteration code read as KKJJII where:
II = maximum number of initial full-Newton iterations to be carried
out (usually from 5 to 10).

JJ = maximum number of quasi-Newton iterations to be carried out

after all the initial full- Newton iterations, and after each additional
full-Newton iteration.

KK = maximum number of additional full-Newton iterations to be

carried out.
The maximum allowable number of iterations for a steady-state

L solution or for a time step of a time-dependent solution is 99.

Therefore, II + JJ + KK × (1 + JJ) needs to be less than or equal to
99. The solution may be stopped before the maximum number of
iterations are completed if convergence criteria are satisfied.
2 + Convergence tolerance for maximum absolute changes to bed
elevation, in ft (m). Default = 0 ft (m).
3 + Convergence tolerance for maximum absolute changes to sediment
concentrations, in vol/vol × 106. Default = 0.
If the convergence tolerances for bed elevation and sediment

L concentrations are satisfied, the time-dependent solution for the

current time step will be considered to have converged.

4 + Relaxation factor 0 < Tr # 1 used in the sediment transport solution.

Default Tr = 1.
5 + Printed iteration control code. Results from every ith iteration will
be printed, where I is the specified value. Results from the last
iteration are always printed for printed time steps.

Depth-averaged Flow and Sediment Transport Model - Flo2DH A-67

SEDI
Order Value Description
6 + Number of ranked changes included in printed output. Up to the 10
largest changes at node points for each solution variable will be
printed. Default = 1.
7 hhhh:mm:ss Printed report time interval. Sediment transport solutions will be
reported at this incremental time during time-dependent simulations.
Default = “0000:00:00”.
8 hhhh:mm:ss Solution output time interval. Sediment transport solutions will be
written to output files at this incremental time during time-dependent
simulations. Default = “0000:00:00”.
SEDI.3 Record
1 ± Sediment transport capacity formula code defined as follows:
Code Sediment Transport Capacity Formula

0 = Power formula (using specified coefficients)

1 = Engelund-Hansen formula
2 = Ackers-White formula
3 = Laursen formula
4 = Yang sand and gravel formulae
5 = Meyer-Peter and Mueller formula
6 = Ackers-White-Day formula
-1 = A combination of sediment transport capacity formulae
suggested by Garbrecht et al. (1995) will be used to
calculate equilibrium sediment concentrations based on
particle size class diameter as follows:

Particle Diameter D Formula

D < 0.25 mm Laursen
0.25 mm # D < 8.0 mm Yang sand and gravel
8.0 mm # D Meyer-Peter and Mueller

2 + Bed sediment porosity 0 applied at all nodes. Default 0 = 0.4.

3 + Sediment specific gravity Ss applied to all particle size classes.
Default Ss = 2.65.

Depth-averaged Flow and Sediment Transport Model - Flo2DH A-68

 SEDI
Order Value Description
4 + Water temperature Twater, in °F (°C). Default Twater = 68° F (20° C).
5 + Water kinematic viscosity <water, in ft2/sec (m2/s). Default values are
found based on water temperature. For Twater = 68° F (20° C), <water
= 1.082 ×10-6 ft2/sec (1.005 × 10-6 m2/s).
6 + Sediment power equation coefficient a.
7 + Sediment power equation exponent b.
If the power equation is used to calculate equilibrium

L sediment concentrations, where qs = unit width volumetric sediment

transport rate, and q = unit width flow rate, then both a and b need to
be specified as non-zero values.
8 + or 0 Sediment erosion rate coefficient Kes. Default Kes = 1.
- Sediment erosion rate coefficient Kes will be calculated as

where Ta = thickness of the surface or active layer, H = water depth,

ws = terminal fall velocity or settling velocity of a sediment particle
in still water, and u* = bed friction velocity (Armanini and Di Silvio
1988).
SEDI.4 Record
1 + Default active bed-layer thickness, in ft (m).
2 + Default deposition bed-layer thickness, in ft (m).
3 + Default original bed-layer thickness, in ft (m).
SEDI.5 Record
1 to 8 + Particle size class diameters, in mm, in ascending order (that is, from
smallest to largest). Up to eight particle size classes can be
specified. These diameters characterize the fraction of particles in
each particular size class specified in the following three data
records for the active bed-layer, deposition bed-layer, and original
bed-layer, respectively.
SEDI.6 Record
1 to 8 + Default active bed-layer size class fractions corresponding to
particle size classes defined on the SEDI.5 data record.

Depth-averaged Flow and Sediment Transport Model - Flo2DH A-69

SEDI
Order Value Description
SEDI.7 Record
1 to 8 + Default deposition bed-layer size class fractions corresponding to
particle size classes defined on the SEDI.5 data record.
SEDI.8 Record
1 to 8 + Default original bed-layer size class fractions corresponding to
particle size classes defined on the SEDI.5 data record.
SEDI.9 Record
1 to 260 + List of nodes for which detailed bed composition reports are
provided in printed output. Repeat the SEDI.9 data record to enter
up to 260 node points.
Terminate the SEDI data set with one or more blank records.

Depth-averaged Flow and Sediment Transport Model - Flo2DH A-70

BEDS BEDS
Bed Elevation and Sediment Composition Initial Data
Bed elevation and sediment composition initial data records immediately follow a
BEDS data set identification record. These data describe the initial bed elevation and its
time-derivative, and composition of the active, deposition, and original bed layers at node
points. This four-record group needs to be repeated for each node at which bed
composition data are specified. The data set is terminated with one or more blank records.
BEDS Identification Data Record
Order Value Description
1 “BEDS” Data set identifier.
BEDS.1 Record
1 + Node number.
2 ± Bed elevation at the node, in ft (m).
3 ± Time derivative of bed elevation at the node, in ft/sec (m/s).
4 + Active bed-layer initial thickness at the node, in ft (m).
5 + Deposition bed-layer initial thickness at the node, in ft (m).
6 + Original bed-layer initial thickness at the node, in ft (m).
BEDS.2 Record
1 to 8 + Active bed-layer size class fractions corresponding to particle size
classes defined on the SEDI.5 data record.
BEDS.3 Record
1 to 8 + Deposition bed-layer size class fractions corresponding to particle
size classes defined on the SEDI.5 data record.
BEDS.4 Record
1 to 8 + Original bed-layer size class fractions corresponding to particle
size classes defined on the SEDI.5 data record.
Repeat the BEDS.1-BEDS.2-BEDS.3-BEDS.4 data record

L sequence for each node at which initial bed composition data are
specified.

Terminate the BEDS data set with one or more blank data records.

Depth-averaged Flow and Sediment Transport Model - Flo2DH A-71

SEDC
Sediment Concentration Initial Conditions Data
Sediment concentration initial condition data records immediately follow a SEDC
data set identification record. These data describe the initial total discharge-weighted
sediment concentrations at node points. This three-record group needs to be repeated for
each node at which sediment concentration data are specified. The data set is terminated
with one or more blank records.
SEDC Identification Data Record
Order Value Description
1 “SEDC” Data set identifier.
SEDC.1 Record
1 + Node number.
SEDC.2 Record
1 to 8 + Total discharge-weighted sediment concentrations (volume of
sediment per unit volume of water-sediment mixture)
corresponding to particle size classes defined on the SEDI.5 data
record.
SEDC.3 Record
1 to 8 + Time-derivatives of total discharge-weighted sediment
concentrations (volume of sediment per unit volume of water-
sediment mixture) corresponding to particle size classes defined on
the SEDI.5 data record.
Repeat the SEDC.1-SEDC.2-SED.3 data record sequence for each

L node at which initial sediment concentration data are specified.

Terminate the SEDC data set with one or more blank data records.

Depth-averaged Flow and Sediment Transport Model - Flo2DH A-72

 RESE
Resequencing Data
Resequencing data immediately follow an RESE data set identification record.
Element resequencing data consist of control instructions, and a list of elements that are
used to begin the ordering of elements for a more efficient solution by the frontal method.
As a general rule, try at least two starting locations, one at either end of a finite element
network. The data set is terminated with one or more blank data records.
RESE Identification Record
Order Value Description
1 “RESE” Data set identifier.
RESE Record 1
1 1 or 2 Element resequencing method code as follows:
1 = Resequencing will be carried out using the minimum
frontgrowth method.
2 = Resequencing will be carried out using the level structure
method.
2 + Smallest maximum-length-of-stay used in minimum frontgrowth
method. Default = a × number of elements in the network.
3 + Largest maximum-length-of-stay used in minimum frontgrowth
method.
2 + Maximum-length-of-stay increment. Maximum-length-of-stay is
increased from the minimum value to the maximum value by this
increment. An element sequence is calculated for each maximum-
length and the best sequence is retained for use in equation
solution.
RESE Record 2
1 to 80 + List of element numbers used to begin resequencing. Each list is
terminated with a negative element number. Up to 80 elements
may be contained in each list.
Repeat the set RESE.1-RESE.2 data record sequence for each

L starting element list.

Terminate the RESE data set with one or more blank data records.

Depth-averaged Flow and Sediment Transport Model - Flo2DH A-73

PROF
Profile Data
Profile data immediately follow a PROF data set identification record. Profile
data consist of lists of node points for which solution data are written to an output file. If
the nodes form a spatially sequential list, the output data can be used to plot quantity
distributions either in transverse flow directions (cross-section plots), or in longitudinal
flow directions (profile plots). The data consist of a profile identifier, a data code for each
profile, and a list of nodes for each profile. The data set is terminated with one or more
blank data records.
PROF Identification Record
Order Value Description
1 “PROF” Data set identifier.
PROF Record 1
1 “text” Profile identification string (8 characters maximum). This is a
unique text string used to identify the profile.
2 1 to 15 Sum of the codes of the following items to be written to the profile
data file:
Code Item Description
1 Bed elevation
2 Water-surface elevation
4 Velocity magnitude
8 Unit flow rate magnitude
3 “text” Brief description of the profile that will be included in printed
output (32 characters maximum).
PROF Record 2
1 to 80 + List of node numbers in the profile. Up to 512 nodes can be
included in each profile. Each list is ended with a negative node
number.
Repeat the set PROF.1-PROF.2 data record sequence for each

L profile. Up to 10 profiles can be defined.

Terminate the PROF data set with one or more blank data records.

Depth-averaged Flow and Sediment Transport Model - Flo2DH A-74

 LOAD
Incremental-Load Data Set
Incremental load data immediately follow a LOAD data set identification record.
An incremental-load data set immediately precedes boundary condition data (BOUN and
BSEC data sets), that are changed in an incremental fashion in the course of achieving
steady-state solution convergence. Incremental loading strategies are used when large
changes are made to boundary conditions, such as during cold starts when trivial solutions
(that is, a level water surface and zero unit flow rates everywhere) are used to begin
computations. Incremental load data records contain revised iteration codes, solution
convergence tolerances, and relaxation factors. An incremental load data set is needed for
each set of data changes you want to make. LOAD data sets along with all accompanying
BOUN and BSEC data sets form load data packets. All load data packets need to appear
at the end of the input data stream, before any following TIME data sets.
LOAD Identification Record
Order Value Description
1 “LOAD” Data set identifier.
LOAD Record
1 0 Iteration control code is not changed.
+ Revised iteration control code read as KKJJII, where II, JJ, and KK
for each time step are the same as described on the SWMS.4 data
record.
2 0 Unit flow rate solution convergence tolerance is not changed.
+ Revised solution convergence tolerance for maximum absolute
changes to X and Y direction unit flow rates, in ft2/sec (m2/s).
3 0 Water-surface elevation solution convergence tolerance is not
changed.
+ Revised solution convergence tolerance for maximum absolute
changes to water-surface elevation, in ft (m).
4 0 Bed-elevation solution convergence tolerance is not changed.
+ Revised solution convergence tolerance for maximum absolute
changes to bed-elevation, in ft (m).
5 0 Discharge-weighted sediment concentration solution convergence
tolerance is not changed.
+ Revised solution convergence tolerance for maximum absolute
changes to discharge-weighted sediment concentration, in vol/vol
× 106.
6 0 Relaxation factor Tr is not changed.
+ Revised relaxation factor 0 < Tr # 2 used in equation solution.
Time-dependent Data Set

Depth-averaged Flow and Sediment Transport Model - Flo2DH A-75

TIME
Time-dependent data records immediately follow a TIME data set identification
record. Time-dependent data sets immediately precedes updated boundary condition data
sets used in time-dependent (unsteady) simulations. Time-dependent data records contain
the simulation time in hours at which the following data become effective, solution control
parameters and general system specifications that apply to all nodes in the network. TIME
data sets along with all accompanying BOUN, BSEC, WIND, and STORM data sets form
time data packets. All time data packets need to appear in chronological order at the end
of the input data stream.
TIME Identification Record
Order Value Description
1 “TIME” Data set identifier.
2 0 Boundary conditions will not change until the simulation time
equals or exceeds the update simulation time specified on the
following record.
1 Boundary conditions will be interpolated linearly based on time
between those at the previous update and those at the following
update.
TIME Record
1 hhhh:mm:ss Update simulation time at which the following boundary condition
(BOUN), boundary cross section (BSEC), wind data (WIND), or
tropical storm (STORM) data sets become effective.
2 0 Iteration control code will not be changed.
+ Revised iteration control code read as KKJJII, where II, JJ, and KK
for each time step are the same as described for steady-state
solutions on the SWMS.4 data record. The maximum total number
of iterations that can be carried out for a single time step is 99.
3 0000:00:00 Time step length will not be changed.
hhhh:mm:ss Revised time step length )t.
4 0 Time integration factor 2 will not be changed.
+ Revised time integration factor 2 (0.5 # 2 # 1.0).
5 0 or + Default wind speed will not be changed.
+ Default wind speed, in ft/sec (m/s). This value is assigned to each
node in the network unless superceded by values read from the
WIND data set.
6 0 Default wind direction angle will not be changed.

Depth-averaged Flow and Sediment Transport Model - Flo2DH A-76

 TIME
Order Value Description
+ Revised default wind direction angle, in degrees measured
clockwise from true north. Wind direction is the direction from
which the wind is blowing. This value is assigned to each node in
the network unless superceded by values read from the WIND data
set.
7 0 Air mass density will not be changed.
+ Revised air mass density Dair, in slugs/ft3 (kg/m3).
8 0 Relaxation factor Tr will not be changed.
+ Revised relaxation factor 0 < Tr # 2 used in equation solution.

Depth-averaged Flow and Sediment Transport Model - Flo2DH A-77

Network Data File
Finite element networks or meshes are described by elements and nodes. Two-
dimensional elements are either three- or four-sided polygons (triangles or quadrilaterals)
that are defined by a series of nodes located at their vertices, midside points, and,
optionally, at the center of quadrilaterals. One-dimensional elements are polylines defined
by three nodes, one at each end or vertex, and one located in between the two ends. As an
option, Flo2DH can read element and node data from a network data file. Network data
files may be in either text or binary form. Data record format descriptions follow.

Record 1
Order Value Description
1 “text” File header record. The first 32 characters are the project stamp,
which is used to identify related data files.
Record 2
1 “US” or “SI” Units identifier, U.S. customary (US) or International System (SI).
Record 3
1 + Number of 2D node records to follow.
2 + Number of 2D element records to follow.
3 + Number of 1D node records to follow.
4 + Number of 1D element records to follow.
5 + Number of 1D cross section three-record series to follow.
2D Node Record
1 + Node number.
2 ± X coordinate in ft (m) of the node.
3 ± Y coordinate in ft (m) of the node.
4 ± Ground (bed) elevation in ft (m) at the node.
5 ± Ceiling (bottom of bridge deck) elevation in ft (m) at the node.
6 “text” Comment string (32 characters maximum).
Repeat 2D node records the specified number of times.

L Coordinates and elevations will be converted to the appropriate

system of units, if needed, when a network data file is read.

2D Element Record
1 + Element number.
2 to 10 0 or + Element connectivity list. The sequence of nodes connected to the
element: six nodes for a triangular element, eight nodes for a

Depth-averaged Flow and Sediment Transport Model - Flo2DH A-78

Order Value Description
“serendipity” quadrilateral element, or nine nodes for a
“Lagrangian” quadrilateral element. Begin connectivity lists at any
vertex node and proceed in a counterclockwise direction around
the element. Enter center nodes last for nine-node quadrilateral
elements.
11 ± Element property set number.
12 + Element assembly sequence.
13 “text” Comment string (32 characters maximum).
Repeat 2D element records the specified number of times.

L Velocities and water-surface elevations, along with their time

derivatives, will be converted to the appropriate system of units if
needed when initial conditions are read from a flow data file.
1D Node Record
1 + Node number.
2 ± X coordinate in ft (m) of the node.
3 ± Y coordinate in ft (m) of the node.
4 “text” Cross section identifier (8 characters maximum) associated with
the node (only at vertex nodes).
5 “text” Comment string (32 characters maximum).
Repeat 1D node records the specified number of times.

L Coordinates and elevations will be converted to the appropriate

system of units, if needed, when a network data file is read.

1D Element Record
1 + Element number.
2 to 4 + Element connectivity list. The sequence of three nodes connected
to the element.
5 ± Element type code defined as follows: 0 = channel element, 1 =
bridge element, 2 = culvert element, 3 = roadway element.
6 + Element assembly sequence.
7 + Kinematic eddy viscosity, in ft2/sec (m2/s).
8 “text” Comment string (32 characters maximum).
Repeat 1D element records the specified number of times. Flow

L rates and water-surface elevations, along with their time

derivatives, will be converted to the appropriate system of units if
needed when initial conditions are read from a flow data file.

Depth-averaged Flow and Sediment Transport Model - Flo2DH A-79

Order Value Description
1D Cross Section Record (1)
1 “text” Cross section identifier (8 characters maximum).
2 ± Section origin X coordinate, in ft (m).
3 ± Section origin Y coordinate, in ft (m).
4 ± Section azimuth, in deg. The section is considered straight.
5 + Manning roughness coefficient of the left overbank.
6 + Manning roughness coefficient of the main channel.
7 + Manning roughness coefficient of the right overbank.
8 “text” Comment string (32 characters maximum).
1D Cross Section Record (2)
1 to 8 + Horizontal distances corresponding to bed elevations specified on
the following record, in ft (m).
1D Cross Section Record (3)
1 to 8 ± Bed elevations corresponding to horizontal distances specified on
the preceding record, in ft (m).
Each cross section is defined by exactly eight ground points. The

L third and sixth points represent the two channel banks. Repeat the
three-record 1D cross section record series the specified number of
times.

Depth-averaged Flow and Sediment Transport Model - Flo2DH A-80

Flow Data File
Flow solution data are written to files at the end of steady-state simulations, and at
selected intervals during time-dependent simulations. These files may be read at the start
of subsequent simulations to obtain initial conditions. Flow data files may be in either text
or binary form. Data record format descriptions follow.

Header Record
Order Value Description
1 “text” File header record. The first 32 characters are the project stamp,
which is used to identify related data files.
Units Record
1 “US” or “SI” Units identifier, U.S. customary (US) or International System (SI).
Time and Count Record
1 hhhh:mm:ss Simulation time of following flow data.
2 + Number of flow data records to follow.
Flow Data Record
1 + Node number to which the following flow data apply.
2 ± X-direction depth-averaged velocity in ft/sec (m/s).
3 ± Y-direction depth-averaged velocity in ft/sec (m/s).
4 ± Water-surface elevation in ft (m).
5 ± Time-derivative of X-direction depth-averaged velocity in
ft/sec/sec (m/s/s).
6 ± Time-derivative of Y-direction depth-averaged velocity in
ft/sec/sec (m/s/s).
7 ± Time-derivative of water-surface elevation in ft/sec (m/s).
Repeat the Flow Data Record the specified number of times.

Depth-averaged Flow and Sediment Transport Model - Flo2DH A-81

Sediment Data File
Sediment transport solution data are written to files at the end of steady-state
simulations, and at selected intervals during time-dependent simulations. These files may
be read at the start of subsequent simulations to obtain initial conditions. Sediment data
files may be in either text or binary form. The header and units records apply only at the
beginning of a sediment data file, all other data records and data record sequences are
repeated for each simulation time at which solution data are to be read. Data record format
descriptions follow.

Header Record
Order Value Description
1 “text” File header record. The first 32 characters are the project stamp,
which is used to identify related data files.
Units Record
1 “US” or “SI” Units identifier, U.S. customary (US) or International System (SI).
Time and Count Record
1 hhhh:mm:ss Simulation time of following sediment data.
2 + Number of sediment data record sequences to follow.
3 + Number of particle size classes for which data are to be read.
Bed Record
1 + Node number to which the following sediment data apply.
2 ± Bed elevation, in ft (m).
3 ± Time-derivative of bed elevation, in ft/sec (m/s).
4 + Active bed layer thickness, in ft (m).
5 + Deposition bed layer thickness, in ft (m)
6 + Original bed layer thickness, in ft (m)
Concentration Record 1
1 to 8 + Discharge-weighted sediment concentrations, in vol/vol, for the
specified number of particle size classes.
Concentration Record 2
1 to 8 ± Time-derivatives of discharge-weighted sediment concentrations,
in vol/vol/sec, for the specified number of particle size classes.

Depth-averaged Flow and Sediment Transport Model - Flo2DH A-82

Order Value Description
Active Bed Layer Record
1 to 8 + Fractions of each particle size class forming the active bed layer.
The fractions will sum to unity.
Deposition Bed Layer Record
1 to 8 + Fractions of each particle size class forming the deposition bed
layer. The fractions will sum to unity.
Original Bed Layer Record
1 to 8 + Fractions of each particle size class forming the original bed layer.
The fractions will sum to unity.
Repeat the sequence of sediment data records (Bed-Concentration

L 1-Concentration 2-Active Bed Layer-Deposition Bed Layer-

Original Bed Layer) the specified number of times.

Depth-averaged Flow and Sediment Transport Model - Flo2DH A-83

Boundary Condition Data File
Boundary condition data are read at the start of steady-state simulations and,
optionally, at intervals during time-dependent simulations. Boundary condition data files
may be in either text or binary form. The header and units records appear only at the
beginning of a sediment data file, all other data records and data record sequences are
repeated for each simulation time at which solution data are to be read. Data record format
descriptions follow.

Header Record
Order Value Description
1 “text” File header record. The first 32 characters are the project stamp,
which is used to identify related data files.
Units Record
1 “US” or “SI” Units identifier, U.S. customary (US) or International System (SI).
Time and Count Record
1 hhhh:mm:ss Simulation time of following boundary condition data.
2 + Number of boundary node data records to follow.
Boundary Condition Code Record
1 + Node number to which the following boundary condition data
apply.
2 to 6 + Boundary condition codes as described on the BOUN.1 data record
in the Flo2DH Data Set descriptions.
Boundary Condition Specification Record
1 to 12 + Boundary condition specifications as described on the BOUN.2
data record in the Flo2DH Data Set descriptions.
Repeat the two-record sequence the specified number of times.

Depth-averaged Flow and Sediment Transport Model - Flo2DH A-84

Wind Data File
Wind data are read at the start of steady-state simulations and, optionally, at
intervals during time-dependent simulations. Wind data files may be in either text or
binary form. The header and units records appear only at the beginning of wind data files,
all other data records and data record sequences are repeated for each simulation time at
which solution data are to be read. Data record format descriptions follow.

Header Record
Order Value Description
1 “text” File header record. The first 32 characters are the project stamp,
which is used to identify related data files.
Units Record
1 “US” or “SI” Units identifier, U.S. customary (US) or International System (SI).
Time and Count Record
1 hhhh:mm:ss Simulation time of following boundary condition data.
2 + Number of wind data records to follow.
Wind Data Record
1 0 Node number at which wind data are to be applied.
2 + Wind velocity at the node, in ft/sec (m/s).
3 + Wind direction angle at the node, in degrees measured clockwise
from true north. Wind direction is the direction from which the
wind is blowing.
Repeat the wind data record the specified number of times.

Depth-averaged Flow and Sediment Transport Model - Flo2DH A-85

Wave Data File
Wave data are read at the start of steady-state simulations and, optionally, at
intervals during time-dependent simulations. Wave data files may be in either text or
binary format. The header and units records appear only at the beginning of wave data
files, all other data records and data record sequences are repeated for each simulation time
at which solution data are to be read. Data record format descriptions follow.

Header Record
Order Value Description
1 “text” File header record. The first 32 characters are the project stamp,
which is used to identify related data files.
Units Record
1 “US” or “SI” Units identifier, U.S. customary (US) or International System (SI).
Time and Count Record
1 hhhh:mm:ss Simulation time of following boundary condition data.
2 + Number of wave data records to follow.
Wave Data Record
1 0 Node number at which wave data are to be applied.
2 + Wave height, in ft (m).
3 0 Wave period, in seconds.
4 + Wave direction angle, in degrees measured counter-clockwise from
the positive x-axis.
Repeat the wave data record the specified number of times.

Depth-averaged Flow and Sediment Transport Model - Flo2DH A-86

Time Data File
Boundary, wind, and wave data may be updated periodically during time-
dependent simulations. When reading from Flo2DH Data Files, all TIME and time-
dependent BOUN, BSEC, WIND, and WAVE data sets need to appear in chronological
order at the end of the data streams. Optionally, these data sets can be placed in other files
called Time Data Files. Time Data Files can be in only text format.

References
Armanini, A., and Di Silvio, G. (1988). “A one-dimensional model for transport of a
sediment mixture in non-equilibrium conditions.” Journal of Hydraulic Research,
26(3), 275-292.

“Coastal flooding hurricane surge model - volume 1, methodology.” (1988). FEMA

Report, Federal Emergency Management Agency, Office of Risk Assessment,
Federal Insurance Administration, Washington, D.C.

Froehlich, D. C. (1988). “Analysis of on-site measurements of scour at piers.”

Proceedings of the 1988 National Conference on Hydraulic Engineering, Colorado
Springs, Colorado, August 15-19, 1988, American Society of Civil Engineers,
New York, NY, 826-831.

Garbrecht, J., Kuhnle, R. A., and Alonso, C. V. (1995). “A sediment transport capacity
formulation for application to large channel networks.” Journal of Soil and Water
Conservation, 50(5), 527-529.

Kaplan, J., and DeMaria, M. (1995). “A simple empirical model for predicting the decay
of tropical cyclone winds after landfall.” Journal of Applied Meteorology, 34(11),
2499-2512.

Normann, J. M., Houghtalen, R. J., and Johnston, W. J. (1985). “Hydraulic design of

highway culverts.” Hydraulic Design Series No. 5, Report No. FHWA-IP-85-15,
Federal Highway Administration, Washington, D.C.

Richardson, E. V. and Davis, S. R. (1995). “Evaluating scour at bridges.” Publication No.

FHWA-IP-90-017, Hydraulic Engineering Circular No. 18, 3rd ed., Federal
Highway Administration, U.S. Department of Transportation, McLean, Virginia.

Depth-averaged Flow and Sediment Transport Model - Flo2DH A-87

 This page has been left blank intentionally.

Depth-averaged Flow and Sediment Transport Model - Flo2DH A-88

Appendix B - Tropical Cyclone Model
The empirical model used in Flo2DH to calculate windfields and atmospheric
pressure distribution caused by cyclonic tropical storms is described in this Appendix. It
follows closely the hurricane storm model presented in the Federal Emergency
Management Agency’s (FEMA’s) Coastal Flooding Hurricane Storm Surge Model
(“Coastal Flooding” 1988), which is an extension of the National Weather Service (NWS)
tropical cyclone model described in NOAA Technical Report NWS-23 (“Meteorological
criteria” 1979) and in NOAA Technical Report NWS-38 (Ho et al. 1987).

Introduction
Tropical cyclones originate over tropical or subtropical waters, with organized
deep convection and a closed surface wind circulation about a well-defined center. Once
formed, tropical cyclones are maintained by extraction of heat energy from the ocean at
high temperature, and heat export at the low temperatures of the upper troposphere. They
differ in this way from extratropical cyclones, which derive their energy from horizontal
temperature contrasts in the atmosphere.
Tropical storms are tropical cyclones in which the maximum sustained surface
wind speed (using the U.S. 1-minute average) ranges from 34 kt (39 mph or 63 km/hr) to
63 kt (73 mph or 118 km/hr). A tropical cyclone in which the maximum sustained surface
wind is 64 kt (74 mph or 119 km/hr) or more are called hurricanes or typhoons. The term
hurricane is used for Northern Hemisphere tropical cyclones east of the International
Dateline to the Greenwich Meridian. The term typhoon is used for Pacific tropical
cyclones north of the Equator west of the International Dateline.
Mature tropical cyclones are characterized by circular patterns of storm clouds and
torrential rains, accompanied by winds that may reach speeds of 100 to 180 mi/h (160 to
300 km/h) within a radius of six to 60 mi (10 to 100 km) from the storm center or core.
Winds diminish rapidly with increasing distance from a core. At a radius of 300 mi (500
km), wind speed is usually less than 18 mi/h (30 km/h). Tropical cyclones move with the
large-scale wind currents in which they are embedded with average speeds of 16 mi/h (25
km/h). Although some storms may travel at twice the typical speed, others can remain
stalled in the same location for several days.
For all tropical cyclones, the barometric pressure decreases exponentially toward
the center and levels off to a relatively flat region of lowest pressure inside the storm center
or core. Wind speeds increase exponentially toward the center, then drop rapidly toward
calm, leaving a belt of strong winds around the core. The pressure and wind centers do not
normally coincide, and they are also not necessarily at the geographical center of the storm.
However, for our purposes, we can assume that they coincide without loss of generality.

A semi-empirical model of the horizontal barometric pressure field and wind

structure in tropical cyclones is presented in the next section, with subsections covering the
basic features of axisymmetric winds and their modeling, the effects of asymmetries and
the types of changes that can occur after a storm moves inland.

Barometric Pressure Distribution

Barometric pressure isobars for fully-developed tropical cyclones are assumed to
be circular about the storm centers following the approaches of Schloemer (1954) and
Holland (1980). Barometric pressures at sea level p are given by

Depth-averaged Flow and Sediment Transport Model - Flo2DH B-1

 (B-1)

where Pc = central pressure (that is, pressure at the storm center), P4 = barometric pressure
surrounding the cyclone or the peripheral pressure (usually set to a climatological constant
or to the value of the outer closed isobar), Rmax = radius of maximum winds, and r = radius
from the storm center. Peripheral pressure P4 usually ranges from 29.76 to 30.35 in Hg
(100.5 to 102.5 kPa), with 30.0 in Hg (101.325 kPa) being close to ambient pressure.
The radial barometric pressure gradient is obtained from the pressure profile expression as
follows:

(B-2)

Windfield Structure
The basic horizontal balance in a tropical cyclone above the boundary layer is
between the sum of the Coriolis acceleration and the centripetal acceleration, balanced by
the horizontal pressure gradient force as follows:

(B-3)

where Vg = gradient wind speed (that is, the wind speed at the top of the atmospheric
frictional boundary layer under conditions of curving motion in which centripetal and
Coriolis accelerations balance the horizontal pressure gradient force), Da = air mass density,
e = base of Napierian logarithms (approximately 2.71828), S = 2T sin N, T = angular
velocity of the rotating Earth (7.27 x 10-5 radians per second), and N = angle of latitude.
Note that air mass density Da varies with pressure and temperature. This balance is called
the gradient balance. Substituting the expression for the pressure gradient gives

(B-4)

The centripetal force alters the original two-force geostrophic balance and creates a
nongeostrophic gradient wind. The reason that different peak winds can result in different
central pressures is caused by the fact that the radius of maximum winds varies. A storm
with 40 m/s peak winds and Rmax = 100 km will have a much lower pressure drop than one
with Rmax = 25 km.
The maximum gradient windspeed Vg, max occurs where the pressure gradient is
largest at r = Rmax. Setting r = Rmax in (2-4) and solving for Vg gives

(B-5)

The first term in the bracketed quantity containing the Coriolis parameter will be much
smaller than the pressure difference term and can safely be ignored (Myers 1954, p. 89-90).
Consequently, the maximum gradient wind speed is approximated in “Coastal Flooding”
(1988, p. 3-6) as follows:

Depth-averaged Flow and Sediment Transport Model - Flo2DH B-2

 (B-6)

The maximum 10-m elevation, 10-min average wind speed for a stationary storm,
Vmax, occurs at a distance from the storm center equal to the radius of maximum winds Rmax,
and is given in “Coastal Flooding” (1988, p. 3-9) as
(B-7)
The 10-m, 10-min wind speed for a stationary storm varies with radial distance from the
storm center as
(B-8)
where F(r) = relative wind speed function given by

(B-9)

in which the coefficients a and b are found from the following expressions:

(B-10)

(B-11)

where r is given in nautical miles.

The cyclonic wind blows counterclockwise about the center of the storm in the
northern hemisphere, and counterclockwise in the southern hemisphere. However, the
wind is not entirely circumferential, it also has an inward radial component. The inflow
angle from the tangent ", known as the incurvature angle or inflow angle, depends on the
distance from the storm center and is calculated as follows:

(B-12)

where

Depth-averaged Flow and Sediment Transport Model - Flo2DH B-3

 (B-13)

is the maximum incurvature angle in degrees and Rmax is in nautical miles, "min = minimum
incurvature angle = 6o, 8 = constant factor = 1.0, and

(B-14)

is the value in degrees of the incurvature angle as the radius approaches infinity.
Taking into account the storm’s forward motion, which adds an asymmetric
contribution to the velocity distribution, wind speed is found as

(B-15)

where Vf = storm forward speed, and $ = angle between the local 10-m, 10-min wind
vector and the storm’s forward motion vector.

Transformation to Cartesian Coordinates

Wind velocities and pressure gradients need to be transformed to Cartesian
coordinates for use in Flo2DH. An example of these calculations at a point P are shown in
Figure B-1. The position of the storm center C moves at velocity Vf. Therefore, the wind
velocity at a general point P varies constantly and is calculated at every hydrodynamic
time-step. Letting the Cartesian coordinates xC, yC denote the location of the storm center,
and the coordinates xP, yP denote the location of point P, the radial distance from the storm
center to P is

(B-16)

and the angle between the radian and the positive x axis of the coordinate system ( is
found as

(B-17)

The angle between the local wind velocity and the positive x axis is then
(B-18)
noting that the incurvature angle " varies with r according to (2-12) to (2-14). The angle $
is then given by
(B-19)

Depth-averaged Flow and Sediment Transport Model - Flo2DH B-4

 Figure 2-16. Coordinate system for calculating tropical cyclone windfields where C
= position of the tropical cyclone center or core, P = point at which wind velocities
are calculated, Vf = forward storm velocity, V = wind velocity at P, " = incurvature
angle, 2 = angle between V and the positive x axis, ( = angle between CP and the
positive x axis, * = angle between Vf and the positive x axis, and r = distance between
C and P.

where * = angle between the forward velocity vector and the positive x axis as shown in
Figure B-1. The wind speed at point P is found from (2-12), and the x- and y-components
of the velocity are found as

(B-20)

Wind Decay After Landfall

Tropical cyclones form over oceans, relying upon the thermal energy stored there
to maintain their intensity. Their winds weaken when the storm centers move across land
(that is, after landfall) because land surfaces usually provide much more resistance than
comparatively smooth water surfaces (even during hurricanes), and also because the
surface energy flux that fuels the storm is significantly reduced.
An empirical model developed by Kaplan and Demaria (1995) is used in Flo2DH
to estimate the maximum sustained surface wind as a storm moves inland. The model

Depth-averaged Flow and Sediment Transport Model - Flo2DH B-5

 applies a simple two parameter decay equation to the wind speed V in knots given by
(B-15) as follows:

(B-21)

where VR = wind speed after landfall in knots, = time in hours since landfall, t =
time in hours, tR = time in hours of landfall, and D = distance in kilometers the storm has
advanced inland. No automatic adjustments are made to the storm forward speed Vf.

Summary
Tropical storms are fully described by their barometric pressure fields at sea level,
and the corresponding 10-meter elevation, 10-minute average windfield over the sea
surface. The model requires the following parameters: (1) initial location of the storm
center, (2) radius of maximum winds, (3) forward storm speed, (4) storm track angle, (5)
atmospheric pressure at the storm’s center, (6) ambient atmospheric pressure outside the
storm, and (7) time or location of landfall. A good source for most of these data items is
NOAA Technical Report NWS-38 (Ho et al. 1987).

References
“Coastal flooding hurricane surge model - volume 1, methodology.” (1988). FEMA
Report, Federal Emergency Management Agency, Office of Risk Assessment,
Federal Insurance Administration, Washington, D.C.

Ho, F. P., Su, J. C., Hanevich, K. L., Smith, R. J., and Richards, F. (1987). "Hurricane
climatology for the Atlantic and Gulf coasts of the United States." NOAA
Technical Report NWS-38, National Weather Service, National Oceanic and
Atmospheric Administration, Washington, D.C.

Holland, G. J. (1980). “An analytic model of the wind and pressure profiles in hurricanes.”
Monthly Weather Review, 108, 1212-1218.

Kaplan, J., and DeMaria, M. (1995). “A simple empirical model for predicting the decay
of tropical cyclone winds after landfall.” Journal of Applied Meteorology, 34(11),
2499-2512.

“Meteorological criteria for standard project hurricane and probable maximum hurricane
windfields, Gulf and East coasts of the United States.” (1979). NOAA Technical
Report NWS-23, National Weather Service, National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration, Washington, D.C.

Myers, V. A. (1954). “Characteristics of United States hurricanes pertinent to levee design

for Lake Okeechobee, Florida.” Hydrometeorological Report 32, U.S. Department
of Commerce, Washington, D.C.

Schloemer, R. W. (1954). “Analysis and synthesis of hurricane wind patterns over Lake
Okeechobee, Florida.” Hydrometeorological Report 31, U.S. Department. of
Commerce, Washington, D.C.

Depth-averaged Flow and Sediment Transport Model - Flo2DH B-6