Reference Resources

Caveats from AAALAC’s Council on Accreditation regarding this resource:

Guidelines for the Care and Welfare of Cephalopods in Research–

A consensus based on an initiative by CephRes, FELASA
and the Boyd Group
*This reference was adopted by the Council on Accreditation with the following clarification and exceptions:

The AAALAC International Council on Accreditation has adopted the “Guidelines for the Care and Welfare
of Cephalopods in Research- A consensus based on an initiative by CephRes, FELASA and the Boyd Group”
as a Reference Resource with the following two clarifications and one exception:

Clarification: The acceptance of these guidelines as a Reference Resource by AAALAC International pertains
only to the technical information provided, and not the regulatory stipulations or legal implications (e.g.,
European Directive 2010/63/EU) presented in this article. AAALAC International considers the information
regarding the humane care of cephalopods, including capture, transport, housing, handling, disease detection/
prevention/treatment, survival surgery, husbandry and euthanasia of these sentient and highly intelligent
invertebrate marine animals to be appropriate to apply during site visits. Although there are no current
regulations or guidelines requiring oversight of the use of invertebrate species in research, teaching or testing
in many countries, adhering to the principles of the 3Rs, justifying their use for research, commitment of
appropriate resources and institutional oversight (IACUC or equivalent oversight body) is recommended for
research activities involving these species.

Clarification: Page 13 (4.2, Monitoring water quality) suggests that seawater parameters should be monitored
and recorded at least daily, and that recorded information concerning the parameters that are monitored should
be stored for at least 5 years. AAALAC International relies on the statement provided in the Guide for the Care
and Use of Laboratory Animals (page 78) that the frequency of water quality testing should be identified at the
institutional level and will depend on the type of housing system used, the type of water quality monitoring
system in place, and the size of the aquatic program. Storage periods for monitoring records would also be an
institutional decision.

Exception: (Page 44, Section 8.6.1, The operating room environment) Although AAALAC International
understands the challenges associated with maintaining a sterile operating environment for aquatic species,
AAALAC supports the Guide’s recommendation that, regardless of the species, general principles of aseptic
technique should be followed for all survival surgical procedures (page 118).

This Reference Resource begins on the next page....

 l ab orator y

Guidelines
a n imals
l i m i t e d

Laboratory Animals
2015, Vol. 49(S2) 1–90
! The Author(s) 2015
Guidelines for the Care and Welfare of Reprints and permissions:
sagepub.co.uk/
Cephalopods in Research –A consensus journalsPermissions.nav
DOI: 10.1177/0023677215580006
based on an initiative by CephRes, FELASA la.sagepub.com

and the Boyd Group

Graziano Fiorito1,2, Andrea Affuso1,3, Jennifer Basil4,

Alison Cole2, Paolo de Girolamo5,6, Livia D’Angelo5,6,
Ludovic Dickel7, Camino Gestal8, Frank Grasso9, Michael Kuba10,
Felix Mark11, Daniela Melillo1, Daniel Osorio12, Kerry Perkins12,
Giovanna Ponte2, Nadav Shashar13, David Smith14, Jane Smith15
and Paul LR Andrews16,2

Abstract
This paper is the result of an international initiative and is a first attempt to develop guidelines for the care
and welfare of cephalopods (i.e. nautilus, cuttlefish, squid and octopus) following the inclusion of this Class of
700 known living invertebrate species in Directive 2010/63/EU. It aims to provide information for investiga-
tors, animal care committees, facility managers and animal care staff which will assist in improving both the
care given to cephalopods, and the manner in which experimental procedures are carried out. Topics covered
include: implications of the Directive for cephalopod research; project application requirements and the
authorisation process; the application of the 3Rs principles; the need for harm-benefit assessment and
severity classification. Guidelines and species-specific requirements are provided on: i. supply, capture and
transport; ii. environmental characteristics and design of facilities (e.g. water quality control, lighting require-
ments, vibration/noise sensitivity); iii. accommodation and care (including tank design), animal handling,
feeding and environmental enrichment; iv. assessment of health and welfare (e.g. monitoring biomarkers,
physical and behavioural signs); v. approaches to severity assessment; vi. disease (causes, prevention and
treatment); vii. scientific procedures, general anaesthesia and analgesia, methods of humane killing and
confirmation of death. Sections covering risk assessment for operators and education and training require-
ments for carers, researchers and veterinarians are also included. Detailed aspects of care and welfare
requirements for the main laboratory species currently used are summarised in Appendices. Knowledge
gaps are highlighted to prompt research to enhance the evidence base for future revision of these guidelines.

1
Stazione Zoologica Anton Dohrn, Villa Comunale, Napoli, Italy
2
Association for Cephalopod Research ‘CephRes’, Italy
3
Animal Model Facility - BIOGEM S.C.A.R.L., Ariano Irpino (AV), 11
Italy Integrative Ecophysiology, Alfred Wegener Institute for Polar and
4
Biology Department, Brooklyn College - CUNY Graduate Center, Marine Research, Bremerhaven, Germany
12
Brooklyn, NY, USA School of Life Sciences, University of Sussex, Sussex, UK
13
5
Department of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Productions - Department of Life Sciences, Eilat Campus, Ben-Gurion
University of Naples Federico II, Napoli, Italy University of the Negev, Beer, Sheva, Israel
14
6
AISAL - Associazione Italiana per le Scienze degli Animali da FELASA, Federation for Laboratory Animal Science Associations
15
Laboratorio, Milano, Italy The Boyd Group, Hereford, UK
16
7
Groupe mémoire et Plasticité comportementale, University of Division of Biomedical Sciences, St George’s University of
Caen Basse-Normandy, Caen, France London, London, UK
8
Instituto de Investigaciones Marinas (IIM-CSIC), Vigo, Spain Corresponding author:
9
BioMimetic and Cognitive Robotics, Department of Psychology, Graziano Fiorito, Research – CephRes, via dei Fiorentini 21, 80133
Brooklyn College - CUNY, Brooklyn, NY, USA Napoli Italy.
10
Max Planck Institute for Brain Research, Frankfurt, Germany Email: [email protected]

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2 Laboratory Animals 49(S2)

Keywords
Cephalopods, Directive 2010/63/EU, animal welfare, 3Rs, invertebrates

Contributors Portugal
People listed here provided data, information and com- António Sykes
ments, and contributed to different extents during the C. Mar – Centre of Marine Sciences, Universidade
preparation of this work. do Algarve, Faro, Portugal
The following list is arranged by country in alpha-
betical order; different contributors are merged by
Institution.
Spain
Roger Villanueva López
Renewable Marine Resources Department - Institut
France de Ciències del Mar, Barcelona, Spain
Christelle Alves, Cecile Bellanger, Anne-Sophie
Darmaillacq, Céline Gaudin
United Kingdom
Groupe mémoire et Plasticité comportementale,
EA4259, University of Caen Basse-Normandy, Ngaire Dennison
Caen, France Home Office, Animals in Science Regulation Unit,
Joël Henry Dundee, Scotland, UK
Physiologie de la reproduction des Mollusques, Penny Hawkins
University of Caen Basse-Normandy, Caen, France RSPCA Research Animals Department,
Southwater, West Sussex, UK
Germany
Tamar Gutnick
United States of America
Max Planck Institute for Brain Research, Frankfurt, Gregory J. Barord, Heike Neumeister, Janice Simmons,
Germany Roxanna Smallowitz
Biology Department, Brooklyn College - CUNY
Graduate Center, Brooklyn, NY, USA
Italy
Jean Geary Boal
Anna Di Cosmo Biology Department, Millersville University,
Department of Biology - University of Naples Millersville, PA, USA
Federico II, Napoli, Italy Roger Hanlon, William Mebane
Carlo Di Cristo Marine Resources Center, Marine Biological
Department of Biological and Environmental Laboratory, Woods Hole, MA, USA
Sciences - University of Sannio, Benevento, Italy Judit R Pungor
Viola Galligioni Hopkins Marine Station of Stanford University,
CIBio - Centre for Integrative Biology, Trento, Italy Pacific Grove, CA, USA
& Association for Cephalopod Research ‘CephRes’, James B. Wood
Italy Waikiki Aquarium, University of Hawaii-Manoa,
Anna Palumbo Honolulu, HI, USA
Stazione Zoologica Anton Dohrn, Napoli, Italy
Perla Tedesco
Department of Biological and Environmental
1. Introduction
Science and Technologies - University of Salento, Cephalopods (i.e. nautilus, cuttlefish, squid and
Lecce, Italy octopus) have been used for diverse scientific pur-
Letizia Zullo poses across Europe for over 100 years.1,2 However,
Istituto Italiano di Tecnologia, Department of until recently, scientific procedures involving cephalo-
Neuroscience and Brain Technologies, Genoa, Italy pods have not been covered by EU regulations, with

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Fiorito et al. 3

the exception of procedures using Octopus indicates that these animals are covered by the
vulgaris in the United Kingdom (see discussion in Directive from ‘when they hatch’.13,14
Smith et al.3). Cephalopods are characterised by bilateral body
The inclusion of ‘live cephalopods’ (Article 1, 3b) in symmetry, a prominent head and a set of arms, includ-
EU Directive 2010/63/EU on the ‘protection of animals ing tentacles in Decapods, which are considered as mus-
for scientific purposes’ represents a landmark. It is the cular hydrostats and derived from the primitive
first time that an entire class of invertebrates, covering molluscan foot.15–21 The class contains two, only dis-
approximately 700 known species,4,5 has been included tantly related, living subclasses: Nautiloidea (repre-
in laboratory animal legislation throughout the EU. sented by Nautilus and Allonautilus) and Coleoidea,
The decision was largely based upon a review of the evi- which includes cuttlefish, squid and octopuses.20,22
dence for sentience and capacity to experience pain, In the Nautiloidea, the external shell, common to the
suffering, distress and lasting harm (PSDLH) in ceph- molluscan Bauplan, still exists, whereas in the
alopods6 (see also Table 1) which is now supported by Coleoidea it has been internalised or is absent. The var-
more recent circumstantial (for reviews see7,8) and iety of species that compose the taxon is reflected in the
objective evidence9–11 for the existence of nociceptors diversified habitats they have adapted to: oceans, ben-
in cephalopods. Annexes III and IV to the EU thic and pelagic zones, intertidal areas and deep sea,
Directive provide general guidance on care and accom- polar regions and the tropics.23–26
modation requirements and methods of humane killing Understanding the requirements of a particular species
for all species covered by the Directive, but specific in relation to its natural habitat is fundamental in main-
guidance is restricted to vertebrates, and there are no taining healthy laboratory populations of cephalopods.
specific details for cephalopods. Assumptions for housing, care and use of these animals
Prompted by the need for guidelines on these and based on fish, whilst appropriate in some circumstances,
other matters covered by the Directive, members of should be made with great caution as the evolutionary
the international cephalopod research community convergence between fish and cephalopods24,27 does not
have met on several occasions over the past 3 years reflect the actual requirements of different species.
and have produced publications aimed at cephalopod Generally, cephalopods have a high metabolic rate,
researchers, on: i. requirements of the EU Directive, grow rapidly and are short-lived.28,29 These animals are
implementation, ethics and project review;3 exothermic, highly adapted to the marine aquatic envir-
ii. PSDLH, anaesthesia and humane killing;8 and onment and are therefore unlikely to tolerate rapid or
iii. implications for neuroscience research and the significant changes in the quality or temperature of the
Three Rs, i.e. Replacement, Reduction, Refinement.2 water they are housed in. They react rapidly to environ-
This work has led to the development of a set of mental changes/external stimuli with immediate physio-
consensus Guidelines for the Care and Welfare of logical consequences that can be relatively long lasting.
Cephalopods in Research which aim to assist research- Such changes, as well as having potential welfare impli-
ers in complying with the Directive, and are the subject cations, will also impact upon experimental results.
of this paper. These guidelines have been developed as a Cephalopods are considered among the most
joint initiative between CephRes (www.cephalopodre- ‘advanced’ invertebrates, having evolved many charac-
search.org), FELASA (www.felasa.eu) and the Boyd teristic features such as relatively large, highly differen-
Group UK (http://www.boyd-group.demon.co.uk/). tiated multi-lobular brains, a sophisticated set of
The Guidelines for the Care and Welfare of sensory organs, fast jet-propelled locomotion, and com-
Cephalopods in Research, which should be regarded as plex and rich behavioural repertoires.25,30–37
a starting point for future developments, begin with a set
of general principles of good practice, representing the 1.2 What the Directive 2010/63/EU means
present state of knowledge that may reasonably be
for cephalopod research
applied to all cephalopods. These are followed by a tabu-
lated set of specific guidelines (see Appendices) for typical The entry into force of the Directive 2010/63/EU (here-
cephalopod species, currently used in EU laboratories, after referred to as ‘the Directive’)38,39 means that, from
which also reflect well-established principles. 1st January 2013, scientific research and testing invol-
ving ‘live cephalopods’ is regulated by a legal frame-
work at both EU and Member State levels, and as a
1.1 What is a cephalopod? consequence all scientific projects that cross the thresh-
For the purpose of these guidelines, cephalopods are old set for regulation (i.e. involve procedures that may
defined as all living species that are members of the cause PSDLH equivalent to, or higher than that caused
molluscan class Cephalopoda.4,5,12 The term ‘live ceph- by the insertion of a hypodermic needle in line with
alopod’ is not defined in the Directive, but guidance good veterinary practice) will require authorisation by

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 Table 1. Summary of evidence for the capacity of cephalopods to experience pain based upon the criteria used by the EFSA 2005 panel (as the basis for recom-
mending the inclusion of cephalopods in revision of Directive 86/609/EEC), and here updated with more recent studies. See also Andrews et al. for review8 and
4
additional references.

Criterion used by EFSA 2005 panel Judgement Comment and references

Presence of receptors sensitive to noxious stimuli, YES Circumstantial evidence, e.g. cutaneous free nerve endings491 available at time of EFSA
located in functionally useful positions on (or) in the report. Recent neurophysiological afferent recording studies10,11 have provided direct
body, and evidence for presence of mechano-nociceptors in both squid and octopus.

Connected by nervous pathways to the ‘lower’ parts of LIKELY Evidence that peripheral afferent axons project to brain from the arms and
the nervous system (but not proven) mantle,492,493 but modality not identified although likely to include nociceptors if
present.

Possession of higher brain centres [in the sense of YES Most complex brain structure amongst invertebrates and clear hierarchical
integration of brain processing], especially a structure organisation.34,35
analogous to the human cerebral cortex
Vertical lobe approximates to the hippocampus in mammals and is unique in inverte-
brates in having gyri.26,142
Studies in progress investigating self-awareness and consciousness, as discussed in
Edelman and coworkers.494,495

Possession of nervous pathways connecting the noci- LIKELY Evidence for ascending afferent projections from ‘lower’ to ‘higher’ brain regions
ceptive system to the higher brain centres (but not proven) including the vertical lobe, but no neurophysiological studies showing projection of
signals from nociceptors.492,493
Indirect evidence from behavioural studies for projection of signals from nociceptors to
higher brain regions (see below).

Receptors for opioid substances found in the central LIKELY Not studied directly. Opioid system is highly conserved in evolution.496 Limited evi-
nervous system especially the brain (but not proven) dence for presence of enkephalins497,498 and opioid receptors.497–502

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Analgesics modify the animal’s response to stimuli Not studied Investigation of candidate substances is required using a combination of neurophysio-
that would be painful for a human logical recording from nociceptive afferents and behavioural studies.

An animal’s response to stimuli that would be painful YES Good evidence of learned avoidance of punishment (e.g. electric shock) but assumes
for a human is functionally similar to the human that this stimulus activates nociceptors and not some other afferent modality that
response (that is, the animal responds so as to avoid evokes an aversive but non-painful sensation (e.g.26,503). Limited supportive evidence
or minimise damage to its body) from behavioural studies of predatory behaviour.26,36,72,504–507

Equivocal evidence for wound-directed behaviours.9,10,189

An animal’s behavioural response persists and it YES Evidence for: peripheral mechano-nociceptor sensitisation (at least 48 h) following
shows an unwillingness to resubmit to a painful pro- injury to either an arm or fin; contralateral afferent sensitisation (but see Alupay
cedure; the animal can learn to associate apparently et al.10); hyper-responsiveness to visual stimuli following arm injury.9,11
non-painful with apparently painful events.
Laboratory Animals 49(S2)
 Fiorito et al.

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Figure 1. Schematic overview summarising the major components of a project application and stages of project approval under Directive 2010/63/EU. Note that the
details of the project approval process may differ across member states. For details see text and review in Smith et al3.
5
6 Laboratory Animals 49(S2)

Text Box 1. Definition of key terms utilised in Directive 2010/63/EU.

A project is a programme of work with a defined scientific objective involving one or more procedures, which can run for a
term of up to 5 years, after which authorisation must be renewed.
A procedure is any use of an animal covered by the Directive for experimental or other scientific or educational purposes,
which ‘may cause the animal pain, suffering, distress or lasting harm equivalent to or higher than that caused by the
introduction of a needle in accordance with good veterinary practice’. This can include procedures that do not involve any
‘invasive’ technical acts such as administration of substances or surgery, but which cause psychological distress (such as
anxiety) above the threshold level of suffering defined above. Unless specifically justified as part of the authorisation
process, procedures may only be carried out at authorised user establishments.
Authorisation is limited to the procedures and purposes described in the application. If, during the life of the project, there
is need for any amendments to the project plans that may have a negative impact on animal welfare, these must also be
authorised.
A Competent Authority is a body responsible for implementing a specific task (or tasks), laid down by the Directive, within
a Member State; for example, project evaluation and/or project authorisation. Member States must designate one or more
competent authorities to fulfil these tasks.

Text Box 2. Definitions of the levels of severity of procedures according to Directive 2010/63/EU, Annex VIII; see also Lindl
et al.490

Mild: Procedures on animals as a result of which the animals are likely to experience short-term mild pain, suffering or
distress, as well as procedures with no significant impairment of the well-being or general condition of the animals shall
be classified as ‘mild’.
Moderate: Procedures on animals as a result of which the animals are likely to experience short-term moderate pain,
suffering or distress, or long-lasting mild pain, suffering or distress as well as procedures that are likely to cause
moderate impairment of the well-being or general condition of the animals shall be classified as ‘moderate’.
Severe: Procedures on animals as a result of which the animals are likely to experience severe pain, suffering or distress,
or long-lasting moderate pain, suffering or distress as well as procedures, that are likely to cause severe impairment of
the well-being or general condition of the animals shall be classified as ‘severe’. Note that the Competent Authority will
require retrospective assessment of projects involving ‘severe’ procedures.
Non-recovery: Procedures which are performed entirely under general anaesthesia from which the animal shall not
recover consciousness.

the National Competent Authority (see the list avail- sections, which aim to show how these requirements
able at: http://ec.europa.eu/environment/chemicals/ can be fulfilled specifically for cephalopods (Figure 1).
lab_animals/ms_en.htm).3 Before they can begin, all projects involving live
Three key aspects of the project that will need to cephalopods must be authorised by a competent
be considered by researchers and those responsible for authority appointed by the Member State in which
animal care and welfare are outlined below (see also the project is to take place (see Text Box 1 and Text
Figure 1). Specific topics for inclusion and consideration Box 2 for definitions of key terms in the Directive). This
are listed in Appendix 1, and a more detailed overview of will involve ‘comprehensive project evaluation’, ‘taking
issues relating to implementation of the Directive for into account ethical considerations’ and ‘implementa-
cephalopods can be found in Smith et al.,3 which also tion of principles of reduction, refinement and replace-
includes some hypothetical worked examples of project ment’ of the use of animals, the 3Rs (Recital 38 and 39).
review, particularly in relation to opportunities for An application for project authorisation must
implementing the 3Rs (see 2.2.1 below). include, as a minimum, the project proposal and the
items listed in Appendix 1. A non-technical project
summary will be required unless waived by the
2. Project application requirements and National Competent Authority.
authorisation process Applications must also include specific scientific
justification for any requests for exemptions from
2.1 Application requirements
certain requirements of the Directive (where permitted
The key requirements of project authorisation are out- – see also Appendix 1). This will include requests for
lined here to provide a background to the technical permission to: i. use an endangered cephalopod species

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Fiorito et al. 7

where it falls within the criteria laid out in Article 7.1 of . Could you avoid the use of animals by asking differ-
the Directive; ii. use cephalopods taken from the wild ent type of question, or making better use of existing
(Article 9, see also section 3.3 below); iii. carry out pro- data or literature to address the scientific objectives?
cedures in a place that is not an authorised users’ estab- . Could in vitro studies or in silico-modelling be used
lishment (Article 12); iv. re-use (in a different to replace some or all of the animals?
procedure) animals that have already undergone a pro-
cedure (Article 16, see also section 8.10 below); v. use Reduction
drugs, such as neuromuscular blocking agents, that
could stop or restrict an animal’s ability to show . How will you ensure that the number of animals
pain, without an adequate level of anaesthesia or anal- used in the project, and in individual studies within
gesia (Article 14§3); vi. depart from any of the general the project, is ‘reduced to a minimum without com-
standards of animal care and accommodation outlined promising the scientific objectives’? (Article 4§2)
in Section A of Annex III of the Directive (Article 33). . Could any further reductions be made, e.g. by taking
For species other than cephalopods, specific justifi- expert statistical advice to help optimise experimen-
cation is also required for killing animals by a method tal and statistical design?
not listed in Annex IV of the Directive, or for departing
from species-specific standards of animal care and Refinement
accommodation outlined in Section B of Directive
Annex III. However, at present, cephalopods are not . How have you refined the ‘breeding, accommoda-
included in either of these Annexes. tion and care of the animals’ and the ‘methods
Once a project is authorised and underway, it should used in procedures’, so as to ‘reduce to the minimum
continue to be critically evaluated by the Principal any possible pain, suffering, distress or lasting harm
Investigator and all members of the project team, to the animals’ throughout their lives? (Article 4§3)
using the factors listed in Appendix 1, so as to ensure . Have you considered and implemented all the possi-
that ethical considerations and opportunities for imple- bilities for refinement described elsewhere in these
menting the 3Rs are identified and addressed in an guidelines?
ongoing process for the entire duration of the project, . How will you ensure that all relevant personnel
not only at the start. working on the project are adequately educated
and trained, and are supervised until they have
2.2 Factors to be evaluated in project demonstrated their competence in the procedures?
authorisation and project operation
The Directive sets out the factors that must be evalu- 2.2.2 Assess and assign the severity classification of
ated during project authorisation and throughout the the procedures used in the project. Each procedure
lifetime of authorised projects. These factors are listed outlined in a project application must be classified
below as a series of action points and associated ques- according to the severity of its adverse effects on the ani-
tions for consideration. mals (Article 38§2c). This prospective severity classifica-
tion sets an upper limit on the level of suffering that an
2.2.1 Implement the 3Rs to minimise the harms individual animal undergoing the procedure is
caused to the animals. The Three Rs (3Rs) principles allowed to experience.46,47 The categories are: ‘non-
were first described by Russell and Burch40 and are now recovery’ (for procedures carried out entirely under
internationally accepted as an essential requirement for general anaesthesia from which the animal does not
the ethical and humane conduct of scientific studies recover consciousness), ‘mild’, ‘moderate’ and
involving animals (Recital 11; Articles 4 and 38 §2b). ‘severe’ (Article 15§1 and Annex VIII; see also section
In addition, it is widely recognised that implementa- 8 below, and Text Box 2).
tion of the principles can enhance scientific The following points must be considered for all pro-
quality.41–44,45 jects, in order to fully address the 3Rs and meet the
The following are examples of questions that will requirements of the project evaluation process:
need to be addressed:
. Have you tried to identify and predict all possible
Replacement adverse effects that could be caused to the animals in
the project? Include any pain, distress, lasting harm
. What on-going efforts will you make to identify ‘sci- and other forms of suffering, such as hunger, anx-
entifically satisfactory’ alternative methods that could iety, boredom and osmotic or thermal stress caused
replace the use of some or all animals? (Article 4§1) to the animals, which may occur at any time during

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8 Laboratory Animals 49(S2)

the animals’ lifetime; for example, a result of capture . How will you ensure that the ‘weighing of harms and
and transport to the laboratory, routine handling, benefits’ is an on-going process throughout the pro-
housing and husbandry, or method of killing, as ject – i.e. part of the day-to-day practice of ‘ethical
well as the effects of the procedures themselves. science’, and not just a one-off event at the time of
. Have you taken steps to minimise each of these authorisation?
adverse effects as far as possible, by: i. applying the
3Rs in the design of procedures (see above), ii. using A detailed examination of procedures for harm-ben-
these guidelines, other relevant literature, advice efit analysis in animal research and testing is available
from colleagues and from the institution’s Animal in a document from the Animal Procedures Committee
Welfare Body to assist you? in the UK.48
. Based on the above, have you set prospective sever-
ity classifications (see section 8) and clear humane
end-points for all procedures? 3. Supply, capture and transport
. How will you monitor the welfare of the animals
used in the project, and when and how will you inter-
3.1 Source of animals
vene to ensure that the animals do not suffer beyond Article 9§1 of the Directive requires that animals must
the upper limit of severity needed to achieve the not be taken from the wild for use in procedures, unless
objectives of any particular procedure? an exemption has been granted by the relevant
National Competent Authority, based on ‘scientific jus-
Member States must also collect retrospective infor- tification to the effect that the purpose of the procedure
mation on the actual severity of procedures, after they cannot be achieved by the use of an animal that has
have ended, and must make this publicly available on been [purpose-] bred for use in procedures’.
an annual basis (Article 54§2). The assessment of actual This means that, in principle, cephalopods used for
severity is based on day-to-day observations of the ani- experimental or other scientific purposes should be bred
mals, and the ‘most severe’ severity experienced by the and reared in captivity. However, there are significant
animal is reported to the National Competent difficulties in captive-breeding most cephalopod species
Authority. For example, if records of observations indi- (for exceptions, see2,49,50) and, therefore, this may not
cate that suffering is moderate at the beginning of a be feasible at the time of writing.
procedure and then mild for the remainder, actual Development of more successful, standardised breed-
severity for reporting purposes is ‘moderate’. ing procedures is urgently required. Article 38§1c indi-
Annex VIII of the Directive further explains the cates that projects must be designed ‘to enable
severity categories (see also section 8), and the procedures to be carried out in the most humane and
European Commission has put together a series of environmentally sensitive manner possible’.
examples* to illustrate the process of prospective sever- Where there is scientific justification for using animals
ity classification, day-to-day observation and monitor- taken from the wild, animals may be captured ‘only by
ing of animals and actual severity assessment. competent persons using methods which do not cause the
animals avoidable pain, suffering, distress or lasting
2.2.3 Weigh the harms and benefits of the project and harm’ (Article 9§3).2 All those involved must observe a
the individual studies within it. Taking into account strict ethic of respectful treatment of animals, take into
all the points listed above: account their conservation status (section 3.2 below), and
minimise the impact on the local ecosystem (section 3.3).
. What is the basis for your overall assessment that Care should be taken to prevent physical injury and
‘the harm to the animals in terms of suffering, pain stress to cephalopods at all stages in the supply chain,
and distress is justified by the expected outcome, including capture (section 3.3), transportation (section
taking into account ethical considerations, and 3.4), acclimatisation to laboratory conditions (3.5) and
may ultimately benefit human beings, animals or quarantine where required (3.6). It is also important to
the environment’? (Article 38§2d) check local requirements for transport of animals in all
. Have you explained this evaluation in your project countries along the route.
application and, where relevant, your non-technical
project summary (Article 43) – the latter using lan- 3.2 Cephalopod species commonly used in
guage suitable for the general public?
research and conservation status
An analysis of cephalopod species used in EU labora-
*
http://ec.europa.eu/environment/chemicals/lab_animals/pdf/ tories and the types of research undertaken can be
examples.pdf found in Smith et al.3 Species from the main taxa of

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Fiorito et al. 9

Table 2. Summary of major species of cephalopod used in include, but are not limited to, nets, traps and pots
research together with their source. Eggs may either wild (see Table 3).53,54 Environmentally destructive methods
caught or captive bred (e.g. for S. officinalis). See also (e.g. trawling) should be avoided wherever possible.
reviews in Smith et al. (2013)3 and Fiorito et al. (2014).2 The Hand-jigging is considered the ‘best’ method for cap-
possibility of obtaining animals through a given source is turing squid, but may not be appropriate for all squid
indicated by (ˇ), and (X) indicates this source is considered
species.51,55
possible, but not currently available. For details and com-
Whichever method is used for capturing animals for
ments on welfare issues see also text.
research, it must not cause ‘avoidable pain, suffering,
Source distress or lasting harm’ (Article 9). As noted above,
animals may be captured only by competent persons.
Captive
Moreover, researchers (and institutions) should only
Wild caught Eggs bred animals
accept animals from suppliers who use appropriate
Nautiloid ˇ capture and transportation methods; and the compe-
Cuttlefish ˇ ˇ X tence of third party providers should be evaluated
Sepiolid ˇ X X based on the condition and survival of the animals sup-
Squid ˇ X X plied (see also section 3.4).
Octopus ˇ X X
3.4 Transport (local, national and
international)
cephalopods used in research are shown in Table 2.
Note that in some cases, e.g. Nautilus sp. or Idiosepius Transport of cephalopods should always be in well-
sp., animals are mainly available by importation and oxygenated seawater.56
this requires permits and documentation from both Whenever possible and applicable to the research
exporting and importing countriesy. project, transport of eggs is the simplest, most success-
At the time of writing, species of the Class ful, and, hence, preferable approach. Details of meth-
Cephalopoda have not yet been assessed for possible ods for egg transport are available for some cephalopod
inclusion in the IUCN Red List of Threatened species.56,57
Speciesz and hence none is listed as endangered. When juvenile and adult cephalopods are trans-
However, concerns are being raised for some rare ported, high survival rates should be achieved through
species, based on local evidence and experience. careful selection of container type, maintenance of sea-
Examples of locally protected species are: Euprymna water quality in appropriate volumes and consideration
scolopes in Hawaii; Octopus cyanea, Sepia elongata, of other measures to support animal welfare, such as
Sepia pharaonis and Sepia prashadi in Israel food deprivation and cooling. The following discussion
(N. Shashar, pers. comm.); and some outlines general principles for transport of cephalo-
Mastigoteuthidae species in New Zealand.51 Indeed, pods, along with variations according to the duration
assessments are now underway for cephalopods§ of transport.
under the Sampled Red List Index (SRLI) initiative**, In the following sections, short-duration (i.e. short
which indicates the relative rate at which the conserva- distance) transport is defined as requiring less than 2
tion status of certain species groups changes over time, hours; and long-duration (i.e. long distance) transport is
and aims to broaden the taxonomic coverage of the for any longer period. These working definitions are
IUCN Red List. based upon the consumption of available oxygen and
detrimental changes in water chemistry (e.g. accumula-
tion of ammonia and carbon dioxide and depletion of
3.3 Capture methods
oxygen) as the duration of confinement for transport
Commonly used cephalopod species are listed in increases.
Table 2 together with information on currently avail- Since no specific systematic studies of transport
able sources (e.g. wild, captive bred, eggs), and Table 3 methods for cephalopods are currently available, it is
indicates possible capture methods. recommended that transport requirements should be
Several reviews describe commercial capture meth- based on the FAO guidelines for fish,58–60 paying par-
ods for cephalopod species.29,52 Current methods ticular attention to oxygen-sensitive species as they are
considered to be comparable to cephalopods in their
y
http://ec.europa.eu/environment/cites/info_permits_en.htm metabolic rate. Transport should also comply with
z
www.iucnredlist.org the European Convention on the Protection of
§
http://www.zsl.org/blogs/wild-science/animals-in-the-red
**
http://www.zsl.org/science/indicators-and-assessments-unit/the- Animals during International Transport (ETS no 65,
sampled-red-list-index ETS no 193).

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10 Laboratory Animals 49(S2)

Table 3. Schematic overview of the most common methods utilised for capture of cephalopod species for research
purposes. See text for comments about welfare and environmental issues assocated with each method.

Capture methods

Collection of eggs Hand net Traps Pots Hand jigging SCUBA Trawling

Nautiloid ˇ ˇ
Cuttlefish ˇ ˇ ˇ ˇ ˇ
Sepiolid ˇ
Squid ˇ ˇ ˇ ˇ ˇ ˇ
Octopus ˇ ˇ ˇ ˇ ˇ ˇ

3.4.1 Transport containers. Since seawater is crucial Bags should be packed with cushioning material
for the survival of the animals, steps must be taken to (e.g. paper, Styrofoam pellets) to ensure they do not
ensure that water will not leak at any time (e.g. by move during transport.
containing animals in double bags and placing The use of specialised aerating and insulated trans-
bags within a sealed container). It should be noted port containers is not yet common for cephalopods.
that several cephalopod species (e.g. octopuses) are However, the development of specialised transport
occasionally reported to cut and bite through thin plas- containers should be encouraged (for reviews on fish
tic bags (M. Kuba, pers. comm.), hence stronger trans- transport containers see58,60).
port containers should be used for them. In any
case, the external container should be able to contain 3.4.2 Other factors for consideration. Food depriv-
the entire water volume even if all inside containers/ ation before shipping may be desirable, where appro-
bags rupture. priate, dependent on i. shipping distance, ii. the species
Short-duration transport does not necessarily require and iii. size of animal. It is common practice among
animals to be placed into plastic bags, and other appro- cephalopod researchers to withdraw food before ship-
priate containers (large plastic bucket or box with a lid) ping. This is to help prevent fouling of the water and
may be preferred containing sufficient pre-oxygenated ammonia build-up during transport. The duration of
seawater to allow the animal to be completely food deprivation should be based upon a consideration
immersed. Animals should be kept in dim or dark of normal feeding frequency, oro-anal transit time and
conditions, and movement and vibration of containers renal ammonium ion excretion. However, food depriv-
should be minimised. ation may require authorisation by the National
For long-duration transport, similar to the protocol Competent Authority.
for transporting fishes58 and depending on body size, Food deprivation before transport, alongside
one animal should be placed with 1/3 pre-oxygenated lowered water temperature, can also help to avoid
seawater and 2/3 oxygen-enriched air in double build-up of toxic ammonia and carbon dioxide.64,65
common aquarium bags (see also description in61–63). With the aim of lowering metabolic rate before
Once the bag is aerated, and the animal placed within shipping it has been suggested that pre-cooled seawater
it, it should be properly sealed (e.g. twisted at the top at 2–3 C above the thermal tolerance minimum of an
and folded over) and doubly secured (e.g. two rubber individual species should be used, ensuring that the
bands or cable grips). For transport periods over temperature stays at that level for the duration of trans-
12 hours, aeration and oxygenation may be necessary port (see e.g. for the giant octopus66). However, the
during transport, but care must be taken to use meth- impacts of this method on animal welfare are not yet
ods which do not add adverse conditions (i.e. bubbling) known.
that may cause distress the animals. Sedation is not essential and is not recommended for
Sealed holding bags (transparent to facilitate inspec- transport of most cephalopods. However, sedation
tion if required) containing oxygenated seawater should methods (i.e. cold water67 or ‘chemical’ methods68)
be placed into insulated boxes (e.g. Styrofoam) to has been used during transport in some instances with
ensure that a temperature appropriate to the species is cephalopods.
maintained during transport. The transport box should It is interesting to note that in 1928 Grimpe
be darkened with a secure lid to keep the animals in suggested that very long duration transportation, i.e.
darkness during transport, which reduces their stress. requiring more than 2 days, should be achieved in

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Fiorito et al. 11

steps allowing ‘resting’ periods in appropriate stressful protocol should be applied. In these cases,
locations.56 only a brief acclimatisation time may be needed (in
the order of minutes to few hours). However, the
experimenter should be aware of potential handling
3.5 Acclimatisation after transport
and relocation stress and its physiological consequences
Transport inevitably causes animals stress. Therefore it that may impact on the research.
is important to allow time for them to recover from
transport-related effects, to acclimatise to the new
conditions including possible differences in water qual-
3.6 Quarantine
ity, temperature, illumination, diet, and the shape and The purpose of quarantine after reception of animals is
arrangement of the environment (i.e. the tank). Allowing to isolate cephalopods from the main population
time for acclimatisation is vital for both animal welfare accommodated in the facility to allow observation
and science, as stress can confound scientific results. and testing until animals are assessed as healthy and
Almost all cephalopods are highly stenohaline and free from potential infectious diseases. Individuals iden-
stenotherm, and care should be provided to avoid any tified as ill should either be separated for treatment, if
difference in salinity and water temperature of the the cause can be identified and treatment is available
container utilised for the transport and the tank (see section 7), or humanely killed (see section 8.11) and
where the animals will be placed. In the case of signifi- autopsied (see section 6.3).
cant difference in water temperature, an adjustment of Quarantine is also useful to isolate individuals that
the different ‘media’ after transport (e.g. placing the become sick while being maintained in the facility,
container inside the final tank for slow adaptation of allowing time for sanitary measures to be put in place
the temperature to the final one) should be considered. and ensure appropriate containment of organisms and
Cephalopods arriving in a facility should be examined waters.
for injuries or other health issues, and treated and/or Currently, quarantine is not the general practice in
quarantined (see section 3.6) or humanely killed (see sec- the cephalopod research community. However, further
tion 8.11) where necessary. It is also recommended that studies are required based on recent research of ceph-
NH4 and CO2 levels in the transport water are measured. alopod diseases and diffusion of parasites.73
Together, these observations can help in assessing the The duration of quarantine should be sufficient to
quality of transport methods and suppliers. assure health of the individual animals. The needs of
Based upon species-specific requirements (i.e. individ- individual quarantined animals vary according to the
ual or group living; see also Appendix 2) animals should biology and behaviour of the species (e.g. group hold-
be placed in a holding tank until they are habituated to it. ing maybe appropriate for gregarious species, but
The requirements and duration of this practice are spe- others may require individual accommodation; see
cies-specific (generally from 1 to 5 days) and for experi- also Appendix 2).
mental reasons may be reduced to a minimum (e.g. when Quarantine should involve complete separation
studying individual preferences towards a prey item or a between animals to be quarantined and the current
stimulus), because evidence is available for contextual laboratory population; this should be achieved either
learning to occur in most cephalopods.26,69–71 by using separate rooms or equipping facilities with plas-
To facilitate the required ‘habituation’ to the captive tic screens to separate quarantine tanks from others. In
situation, it is best if the holding tanks are designed addition, water supply should also be separate, to pre-
according to the same principles as the maintenance/ vent diffusion of any potential harm to the water circu-
experimental tanks for the species. Where food has lation and/or the environment. Similarly, equipment
been withdrawn during transport, a slow reintroduc- (e.g. nets) should not be shared between tanks.
tion is also recommended. During the quarantine period, animals should be
In the classic literature on cuttlefish and octopus, an monitored closely for unusual clinical signs or behav-
adequate predatory performance is considered a sign iours (see also sections 6 and 7), and detailed examin-
of acclimatisation to a holding tank.26,36,72 In addition, ations (including autopsy; see section 6.3) made of any
while excessive inking upon introduction to a new tank individuals who are considered to be ‘abnormal’. In the
is a sign of stress, low swimming rates, reduced likeli- cases of identification of diseased animals present in the
hood of inking in response to a small disturbance near a laboratory holding facility, this should be regarded as a
tank, can serve as indications of successful acclimatisa- possible indicator of disease in the entire stock/holding
tion (N. Shashar, pers. comm.). group, and hence particular attention should be pro-
When moving animals from one tank to another vided, and eventually they should all be treated or
within the laboratory a standardised, minimally humanely killed.

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12 Laboratory Animals 49(S2)

4. Environment and its control demand and emergency situations. To protect animals
from potential contaminants, other measures, such as
4.1 Seawater supply and quality appropriate filtering or a reverse osmosis system, may
Both natural and artificial seawater (see also below) are be required.79,80
suitable for the maintenance of cephalopods. For fish, Tests to determine the chemical composition and
Annex III of Directive 2010/63/EU requires that ‘an presence of contaminants/toxins will determine the
adequate water supply of suitable quality [is] provided treatment necessary to make the water suitable for
at all times’, and that ‘at all times water quality param- use. Seasonal factors such as phyto- or zoo-plankton
eters’ are ‘within the acceptable range that sustains blooms, tidal cycles, and seasonal seawater mass turn-
normal activity and physiology for a given species overs can have periodic effects (on a scale of hours,
and stage of development’ and such requirements days or months) for seawater and these should be
apply equally well to cephalopods. anticipated.
All systems: water flow should enable cephalopods to
4.1.1 Types of seawater circulation system. There are maintain normal locomotion and behaviour.
two principal seawater systems for keeping cephalo- Cephalopods can use rapid expulsion of water through
pods: closed systems which recycle a reservoir of sea- the funnel to power jet propulsion, which results in
water, and open systems which either draw a continuous swift movement. Cuttlefish and squid have fin-like
supply of water from the ocean (flow-through systems), structures on the mantle to assist in locomotion.
or pump seawater into a reservoir and regularly replen- Squid are in continuous motion due to their pelagic
ish it with fresh seawater (semi-closed systems). nature, thus water flow75,77 needs to be sufficient to
Closed systems have the advantage of enabling ensure appropriate life-style requirements, and ade-
control of all parameters of the environment, but are quate water quality including quick removal of ink
more costly due to the need for additional environmen- (if released).
tal monitoring and control equipment.
Open systems rely on fresh seawater being drawn 4.1.2 Water quality. As for other aquatic species, water
from the ocean. While this has some advantages (espe- quality is the most important factor in maintaining the
cially not needing expensive filters), it limits the facility health and well-being of cephalopods. Insufficient water
to keeping animals that can live within the given water quality will cause stress and disease. Water-quality par-
parameters. For example, non-native species cannot be ameters should at all times be within the acceptable
kept in this type of system without considerable efforts range that sustains normal activity and physiology for
purifying and sterilising the reflow. Naturally open sys- a given species and individual (see Appendix 2); and
tems are also limited to areas close to the shore. should remain stable, unless the life style of a given
Closed systems: Efficient and relatively easy-to-main- species requires changes (e.g. because of large vertical
tain closed aquarium systems have been developed for migrations during a day or seasonal changes)z.
cephalopods.74–78 Commercially available artificial sea- Optimum conditions vary between species (e.g. deep-
water preparations are considered adequate, provided sea benthic octopuses are especially sensitive to
they contain the necessary substances and trace elem- changes), between life-stages (e.g. paralarvae, juveniles,
ents to meet the physiological needs of the particular and adults) and according to physiological status of the
cephalopod species, and for this reason mixtures individual (e.g. females preparing to lay eggs).
designed for marine invertebrates and corals should Most cephalopods show little adaptability to chan-
be preferred. ging water-quality conditions, and so when animals
Water flow in recirculating systems or filtration need to be moved between tanks or systems, it is
within enclosures should be sufficient to remove sus- important to ensure that water parameters are mirrored
pended waste and to ensure that water quality param- and maintained. If this is not possible, gradual acclima-
eters are maintained within acceptable levels. Filtering tisation will be needed (see section 3.5), as for other
systems in recycling/recirculating seawater should be marine invertebrates and fishes.
adequately planned and maintained.79,80 Appropriate Dissolved oxygen, pH, carbon dioxide, nitrogenous
processes for monitoring water parameters should be compounds and salinity should be monitored and
implemented, and alarms in place to ensure flow and maintained according to the appropriate range for
seawater levels are adequate. each species. Appendix 2 provides a list of water quality
Open systems: seawater drawn from the ocean criteria for optimum health and welfare of cephalo-
should be tested for contaminants and pathogens, and pods; for more detailed discussion of monitoring
treated to remove them. The water supply should also water quality see below.
be evaluated to ensure that there is sufficient capacity,
including ability to cope with periods of maximum z
but this may be difficult to achieve in laboratory facilities.

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Fiorito et al. 13

4.2 Monitoring water quality (O2, pH, CO2, gas exchange at the gills (for octopus: G. Fiorito, pers.
nitrogenous material, salinity and comm.; for several cephalopod species: J. Rundle, pers.
comm.).
metals)
Information on oxygen consumption in some ceph-
Seawater parameters should be monitored (continu- alopods is provided by Winterstein81 (see also82,83,83–87)
ously by specific electrodes or intermittently by chem- and reccomended requirements are summarised in
ical methods) and recorded at an appropriate frequency Appendix 2.
(at least daily), thus allowing proactive, rather than It is important to note that monitoring oxygen levels
reactive, management of water quality. Parameters is not informative of the oxygen available to the ceph-
that need to be measured and the frequency of meas- alopod unless it is combined with measurements of pH
urement vary (see also Appendix 2), depending on (see next section).
whether the system is open or closed. For example,
while there may be no need to measure nitrites/nitrate 4.2.2 pH. Due to the effects of pH on the carriage of
in a high volume flow-through system (depending on oxygen by blood pigments, cephalopods tolerate low
the source of the water), such measurements are critical pH poorly.88–96 Regular measurement and careful
with recirculation systems. maintenance of pH is therefore critical. Acceptable
At a minimum, environmental monitoring systems pH levels depend on many water quality factors, for
should provide information on water flow, oxygen example, carbon dioxide (see below), and calcium; as
saturation and water temperature. Parameters a consequence, control of soluble gases and water sol-
measured should also be relevant to the health and utes is important. This may be a particular issue for
welfare of the particular species housed in the facility establishments that use synthetic marine salts rather
(see Appendix 2). In general, recirculation systems than natural seawater and closed filtration sys-
should be monitored for a larger number of param- tems, especially where water changes are limited.
eters, including, but not restricted to, dissolved Acceptable pH values for keeping cephalopods are
oxygen, pH, nitrogenous material, salinity, total dis- summarised in Appendix 2.
solved salts and temperature (see below). As a min-
imum, water quality analysis should be carried out at 4.2.3 Carbon dioxide. Carbon dioxide is produced
times of greatest demand on the system (usually after during respiration and dissolves in water to form car-
feeding) to identify potential problems. bonic acid, thus lowering the pH. Since stability of pH
Water and tanks should be kept clean particularly of is very important, accumulation of carbon dioxide
faeces and uneaten food. In semi-open and closed sys- should be avoided. Situations that may increase
tems, water should be treated to reduce potential carbon dioxide levels include high stocking density
pathologies, for example, using UV light or ozone. and poor aeration.
If ozone is used, measurements of ozone concentrations Care should be taken that water supply systems, par-
and/or redox potential of the reflow entering the system ticularly in the case of groundwater-based systems, do
are necessary to avoid toxicity. not introduce harmful quantities of carbon dioxide to
Alarm and notification values must be set and their the enclosures.
significance as potential indicators of problems in the
system explained to all relevant personnel. There must 4.2.4 Nitrogenous material. As cephalopods are
be an agreed, clear protocol for contacting those carnivores, hence requiring a high protein diet, the accu-
responsible for the facility when problems are identified mulation of potentially toxic nitrogenous compounds
outside of normal working hours. can be a problem, particularly in closed systems. It is
The monitored parameters should be recorded and also necessary to avoid accumulations of ink (especially
the information stored for at least 5 years. For all par- when keeping cuttlefish, that ink in large volumes).
ameters considered below and for techniques of keeping Timely removal of uncomsumed food, use of adequate
animals information is also available through a recent protein skimmers and suitable water flow rates, along
compilation of research on the culture of cephalopods.50 with careful water filtering in closed systems, will help
to reduce levels of organic waste, including ammonia,
4.2.1 Oxygen. Cephalopods have high metabolic rates, nitrites and nitrates. It is also beneficial if the flow rate
so oxygen concentration should generally be kept high in the tanks can be adjusted to different situations (e.g.
(close to saturation); and where tank inflow is not increased after inking). Additional water changes can
sufficient, supplementary aeration of the water must provide a supplementary means of removal of waste
be provided. However, supersaturating the water is products and substances such as ink.
not advisable as it may cause gas bubbles to become Build up of nitrogenous compounds may lead to
trapped in the mucus layer of the animals, thus limiting behavioural changes and/or changes in skin

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14 Laboratory Animals 49(S2)

colouration in cephalopods. For example, at nitrate Where task lighting is needed for people working in
levels >80 mg/l cuttlefish become very agitated, will the room, it should be restricted in its dispersion, and/
ink profusely and their skin tone may be dark; and or be placed below the level of the tank surface, to
larvae and hatchlings are more vulnerable to bacterial reduce disturbance to the animals. Use of automated
disease (A. Sykes, pers. comm.). dimmer controls that allow light intensity to be grad-
Levels of nitrogen compounds tolerable by different ually increased is important and recommended (G.
species are reviewed in Appendix 2 (see also Iglesias Fiorito, pers. comm.; see also107). For example, for
et al.50). decapods and nocturnal octopuses sudden changes in
light level may cause escape reactions, and in some
4.2.5 Salinity and metals in seawater. As cephalopods cases inking, thus a simulated dusk and dawn period
are marine organisms, maintaining an appropriate salt is desirable. Care should also be taken to ensure that
concentration is vital. The salinity should match the animals are not disturbed by night-time security light-
natural habitat of the animals. ing entering through windows in the holding facilities.
Commercially available artificial seawater The output of fluorescent lights can be diminished by
preparations and especially any mixture designed for using dummy bulbs to reduce light levels.
marine invertebrates and corals are considered adequate
as they contain all the necessary substances and trace
elements to keep cephalopods in good health. However,
4.4 Temperature control
in accordance with instructions for the different brands of Water temperature should be controlled within the
salt, some trace elements, in particular strontium and cal- natural range for the species; and, where necessary,
cium should be monitored and added if necessary. appropriate chilling/heating equipment must be used to
Copper and its alloys are considered to affect the ensure the optimal temperature range for the animals.
salinity and ‘poison’ the seawater56 and therefore Cephalopod species vary in their sensitivity to
should be avoided in any system holding cephalopods. changes in water temperature. In general, higher
Cephalopods are reported to accumulate and be water temperatures create problems for animals from
sensitive to heavy metals so care should be taken to temperate climates like octopus and the cuttlefish.
ensure these are monitored and maintained within Transitions of temperature should not be sudden.56,108
normal ambient ranges for the species, to limit poten- Where water changes are performed on larger scales,
tial damage (see above and also2 for relevant temperature spikes, which may cause adverse effects,
literature). should be controlled and avoided.

4.3 Lighting control 4.5 Noise and vibration control

Light influences, either directly or indirectly, almost all Background noise, and vibration from housing sys-
physiological and behavioural processes in cephalo- tems, such as pumps or ventilation units, should be
pods, including growth, development and reproduc- minimised as they are likely to impact on cephalopod
tion. Lighting requirements vary between cephalopod welfare.
species, and both wavelengths and intensity of lighting Several studies suggest that cephalopods can detect
should ‘satisfy the biological requirements of the ani- sounds even at low frequencies,109–115 and other recent
mals’, where these are known (Directive, Annex III, work shows that cephalopods are as likely as other
section 2.2a). The natural history of the species, in par- marine organisms, to suffer from low-frequency noise
ticular the normal living depth, can provide clues to traumas.116–118
help meet the species lightling preferences: for example In common with other aquatic species, cephalopods
there are many cephalopods that prefer very little light. dislike vibrations, such as drilling or banging on tank
There is limited specific knowledge on wavelength per- sides, and some species, such as cuttlefish, may respond
ception for almost all cephalopod species.97 However, it by inking. Therefore, the most important aspect of
is estimated that simulated sun-light equivalent to that sound reduction is to minimise disruption and avoid
normally experienced at 3–8 m depth at sea should be sudden noises, which could startle the animals.
acceptable for the majority of cephalopod species com-
monly used as laboratory animals (but see further 4.6 Aquatic life support systems and
information in Appendix 2).
emergencies
Photoperiod should also be maintained according to
the natural requirements of the species.98–103 However, Tanks should be built so that complete drainage is
there is evidence that some cephalopods may easily impossible when they are inhabited (although ability
adapt to changes in day/night regime.26,104–106 to drain tanks may be required for cleaning purposes).

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Fiorito et al. 15

Two independent sources of water movement/

5.2 Holding facilities for cephalopods
oxygen supply are also recommended, for example, Planning design and maintenance of new accommoda-
pumps for water circulation plus extra air sources to tion facilities for cephalopods should take into consid-
provide additional aeration. eration key points outlined by the Committee for the
Electronic alarm systems help to ensure that prob- Update of the Guide for the Care and Use of
lems in a system are detected promptly. All facilities Laboratory Animals.119
must have an emergency plan in place should problems Access to the facility should be allowed only to
arise (including out-of-hours), with clear actions that people who have received relevant training and have a
are understood by all and effectively communicated to legitimate need for access. Movements of personnel
everyone. There must be a backup system to enable an inside the facility should also be monitored and con-
appropriate response to the worst case scenario of a trolled to minimise disturbance to the animals and
complete system failure, and so avoid circumstances ensure biosecurity, which may require measures such
in which animals would have to be humanely killed as physical barriers and access restriction/control.
due to suffering from anoxia or a build up of organic Walls of holding rooms should generally be of dark
waste. neutral and continuous colours. However, very dark
colours may make it difficult to identify dirty areas,
so specific evaluation of the appropriate colour may
5. Accommodation and care be required.
5.1 Background and requirements of the Cephalopods require large volumes of seawater.
All facilities should have an emergency contingency
Directive
capacity, capable of maintaining aerated and filtered
About 50 species of cephalopod have been kept success- seawater should normal systems fail. Monitoring sys-
fully in aquaria (M. Kuba, pers. comm.; see also108). tems including remote alarm notification should be
These range from small species such as bobtail squid designed and used in cephalopod facilities.
(E. scolopes) to larger pelagic squid (e.g. Loligo vulgaris, Noise should be minimised to avoid disturbing ani-
Doryteuthis pealeii), octopuses (e.g. O. vulgaris, Eledone mals in both housing and experimental rooms. When
cirrhosa) and cuttlefishes (Sepia officinalis), and the applying sound-attenuating material to the ceiling or
giant pacific octopus (Enteroctopus dofleini). walls, always consider that it has to be sanitisable. All
At the Stazione Zoologica di Napoli, considered to vibration sources (e.g. mechanical equipment, electrical
be the first large-scale facility for the maintenance of switches, through ground-borne transmission) should
cephalopods56 (mostly for cuttlefishes and octopuses, be identified and vibration isolation methods should
A. Droesher and G. Fiorito, pers. comm.), outdoor be used to reduce noise (e.g. by placing equipment on
tanks were preferred to indoor rooms, to allow animals rubber pads). Noise-producing support functions, such
to be kept in natural light with seasonal daylength. as tank and filter washing, should be separated from
However, shading was provided to reduce direct housing and experimental areas, wherever possible.
sunlight to the animals. In the following years, indoor Fire and environmental-monitoring alarm systems
tanks were installed and artificial lighting was intro- should be selected and positioned to minimise potential
duced to supplement natural illumination disturbance to animals.
(A. Droesher and G. Fiorito, pers. comm.). All procedures and other manipulations of living ani-
The knowledge accumulated in various laboratories mals should be carried out inside the facility to minimise
around the world, with a variety of cephalopod species, stress to the animals, unless there is scientific justification
supplemented the original studies at Stazione Zoologica for doing otherwsise. Therefore, a typical cephalopod
and facilitated the design of closed systems for facility should have available: i. adult animal housing/
maintenance of species which adapt less readily to holding room(s) divided by species if possible, and
laboratory housing such as squid (for review and breeding/’hatching’ room(s); ii. quarantine room(s) (if
methods see75). needed); iii. an area for acclimatisation of animals; iv.
Annex III of Directive 2010/63/EU sets out require- procedure rooms separated from holding and breeding
ments for care and accommodation of animals. Section rooms, for experimental techniques, including regulated
A lists general requirements pertaining to all species procedures (e.g. surgery, behavioural experiments, ima-
and section B lists species-specific requirements, for ging, clinical treatment, humane killing, necropsy, etc.);
all vertebrate classes, including brief guidance for fish v. separate ‘service’ rooms for storage of food, supplies,
(but with no distinction between the different classes of chemicals, etc., and for waste (including biological
fish). Some of these Section B requirements for fish material) storage before incineration or removal.
might also apply to cephalopods,2 but cephalopods Shared facilities, where cephalopods are kept in
are not specifically mentioned in Annex III. water systems and rooms hosting a range of other

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16 Laboratory Animals 49(S2)

types of marine organisms, are not recommended. kept in groups. However, social interactions should be
Additionally prey species should never be accommo- monitored to check for adverse welfare effects; animals
dated in the same tank as their predators. should be grouped according to age to avoid fighting
In designing holding facilties for cephalopods and and possible cannibalism, particularly in the breeding
selecting the construction materials, it is recommended season or where there could be territorial antagonism.
that guidelines developed for fish are followed Such measures should not alter the overall welfare of
(for review see79). the animal, and, in general, should be respectful of the
Materials used to build aquatic facilities should be behavioural needs of each individual species.
non toxic. Any unavoidable use of material with Depending on the species, individuals may require
the potential to be toxic should be reduced to the min- dens, shelters and other devices (mostly for bottom-
imum, recorded and the information made available to living cephalopods).
staff, veterinarians and inspectors. In particular, mater- Enriched environments must be provided, to allow
ials that may release specific ions, chemicals or corro- the animals to express their normal behaviour (see fur-
sion by-products from their surfaces should be avoided. ther discussion of enrichment in section 5.11 below).
The use of metals requires consideration of their inter-
actions with seawater, and the potential effects of that 5.3.1 Tanks. Tank requirements and stocking density
interaction on the animals. vary among cephalopod species and ages (see Appendix
Special attention should also be given to the behav- 2 for a summary of requirements). For example, for
ioural needs of the animals. For example, non-gregarious benthic species, like O. vulgaris and S. officinalis, the
animals or animals that might show aggressive inter- available bottom area is an important requirement,
actions (e.g. males during mating season) may require while for pelagic species this is represented by the
housing out of sight of others. Attention must also be volume of water; the depth of the tank should be con-
paid to species-specific differences in terms of the level sidered for species with known diel (diurnal) vertical
of disturbance that may be acceptable; for example, O. migration (e.g. Nautilus pompilius).
vulgaris appears to be quite resilient whereas cuttlefish or All cephalopods should be kept in opaque tanks of
squid react more strongly to unfamiliar and sudden neutral colour. O. vulgaris and S. officinalis may also be
movements. kept exceptionally in transparent aquaria, as long as the
floor of the tank is opaque (and/or covered by sand).
Tanks can be of rectangular or of any other shape,
5.3 Housing
but for decapod cephalopods they should have
Cephalopods are strictly marine, and all require rounded corners to minimise potential injuries (see
high-quality sea-water, but their varying habitats, Appendix 2).
social behaviour and especially nature and level of loco- In general (and especially for Sepia and other deca-
motion determine how they should be housed. pods), sharp objects and rough surfaces that can cause
Aquarium size and stocking density should be based skin damage must be avoided. Jetting can lead to col-
on the physiological and behavioural needs of the indi- lisions with the walls of the tank if animals are startled,
vidual species, and requirements for their health and or there is insufficient space for escape reactions.
welfare (see Appendix 2). Tanks can be made of PVC, fibreglass, glass or any
Section 3§3b of Annex III of the Directive indicates non-toxic material capable of being adapted to achieve
that all animals, including cephalopods, ‘shall be pro- appropriate shapes and allowing a smooth internal sur-
vided with space of sufficient complexity to allow expres- face, and which is easy to clean and sterilise or decon-
sion of a wide range of normal behaviour’, including taminate as necessary. As potentially toxic materials
social behaviour, locomotion and feeding, and ‘shall might have been used during initial tank assembly
be given a degree of control and choice over their envir- (e.g. silicone-based adhesives and sealants), it is recom-
onment to reduce stress-induced behaviour’. mended to wash the tank thoroughly, leave it filled with
Stocking density will vary depending on the animals’ water for at least 24 hours, and then rinse with sea-
natural history and behaviour, water flow, size, age water, before animals are introduced.
and health. Water quality is critical (see section 4.1.2 Tanks should be equipped with a covering (e.g. tank
above). net or rigid transparent covering) that prevents animals
Most octopuses are solitary and should be kept in escaping. Lids also serve as a barrier against the acci-
isolation. Nautilus are primarily solitary in the wild but dential introduction of any foreign objects, animals or
may be housed together at low densities. chemicals. Tanks lids may be constructed of materials
The social structures of many species, including the such as plexiglass or clear acrylic to allow visual inspec-
European cuttlefish (S. officinalis) are not known, but tion. The distance between the water surface and lid
in general social animals including many squid, are best should be enough to minimise the risk of damage, for

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Fiorito et al. 17

example, in the case of squid which are capable of leav- When cleaning of tanks occupied by animals is
ing the water using their ‘jet-propulsion’. necessary, the process should be designed to minim-
ise disturbance and distress; in most cases animals
5.3.2 Tank labelling. Tanks must be carefully labelled, will need to be removed from the tank during
to identify and record the histories of individuals or cleaning. Capture and transfer methods should con-
groups of animals. form to the principles outlined in these Guidelines,
Labels should include detailed information for each and the time spent in a holding tank should be
individual, including origin, first dates in captivity and minimised.
arrival in the laboratory, sex and morphometric meas- Disinfectants should be used with extreme caution
urements if possible (e.g initial body weight, dorsal and only in dry tanks, which are then rinsed with clean
mantle length), along with the number of animals in water. Detergents should be avoided and substitutes are
the tank (which may be an estimate depending on devel- preferred.120 Animals must not be exposed to any
opmental stage). substance used for cleaning of tanks.
For animals undergoing procedures, the label should
identify: i. the procedures being performed (e.g. the label 5.5 Methods for individual identification and
could refer to a detailed protocol filed for easy access by
all relevant staff); ii. the date when the procedures were
marking of cephalopods
started; iii. the person responsible for the animals (e.g. Depending on stocking density, it can be difficult
the Principal Investigator). Records of any adverse to identify individual cephalopods. Marking or tagging,
effects shown by the animals should be also be easily other than in species with external shells such as
accessible ‘tankside’ and should be carefully maintained Nautilus, is difficult, owing to vulnerability to tissue
(see below for further discussion). Taken together, all damage. Individual cephalopods may have unique nat-
these points should make it is easy for animal care ural markings, and whenever possible these should be
staff and scientists to identify animals showing signs of used for identification.121,122 Several marking methods
welfare compromise, determine the likely cause of the have been successfully applied to different species of
adverse effects (e.g. whether procedures applied, such cephalopods (for examples see review in123). Methods
as recent anaesthesia) could explain the abnormalities, used with success, but which require anaesthesia for
and take action to mitigate them. their application – and hence scientific justification
and approval from the National Competent
Authority – have included implanted fluorescent elasto-
5.4 Cleaning of tanks mer tags in squid and octopus,124,125 subcutaneous dye
Water quality should be monitored daily as a minimum injection into the arm of octopus,123,126 and external
(see also section 4). When water changes are necessary, tagging of cuttlefish, octopus and other species.127–132
the smallest possible amount should be removed. Careful consideration of harms, benefits and justifi-
Tanks should be free of organic waste (e.g. uneaten cation is therefore needed for invasive tagging, and
food or faeces), otherwise water quality, and thus development of minimally invasive individual marking
animal health will be harmed. methods for cephalopods is an important goal.31,133
Open systems: tanks should be regularly drained and
cleaned to prevent fouling and reduced water exchange.
There should be no risk of back-flushing, and conse-
5.6 Food and feeding for adult cephalopods
quent fouling of enclosure water. The sides and bottom Most cephalopods are carnivorous and active preda-
of enclosures should be cleaned regularly to avoid the tors,134–136 hunting their prey using a range of strategies
accumulation of detritus. (review in134). However, nautiloids are scavengers and
Closed systems: waste material should be removed as some species of octopus will eat dead food items.
soon as possible after feeding. Total water replacement For many cephalopod species at different life-stages,
and whole tank cleaning should be avoided, as the bio- live prey is the only known method of feeding. This
chemistry and flora that develop in a mature system are prey may be fish or invertebrates, such as crustaceans,
essential to well-being, as known in common practice which need to be treated ethically and legally,137,138 and
for acquaria keeping. Depending on the size (i.e. num- the feeding regime should suit the lifestyle, natural diet
ber of tanks/system) care should be given to facilitate and developmental stage of the animals.
the most appropriate conditions at equilibrium. Where The duration of digestion (food intake to elimin-
complete draining out of a system is required for decon- ation) is 6–15 hours in the common laboratory species
tamination reasons, the system must be allowed to re- of cephalopods and is slower at lower temperatures in a
mature after the addition of clean seawater, prior to given species,139–141 so feeding frequency (and appetite)
adding animals. may alter with season (temperature) in open systems.

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18 Laboratory Animals 49(S2)

Data on the richness of cephalopod diets in their nat- Refusal to eat can be an early sign of illness (see also
ural habitats is limited, but known to include, amongst section 6.1.1).
others, zooplankton, molluscs (including other ceph- Cuttlefish and squid are especially sensitive to inad-
alopods), polychaete worms, crustaceans, chaetog- equate nutrition; the most evident signs include: pro-
naths, sea urchins, fishes and jellyfish.26,142 An truding eyes, poor body condition and floating
estimation of the relative breadth of diet has been (especially in juveniles). Consequently, in general
attempted for some cephalopod species, including spe- over-feeding is preferred, as long as excess food is
cies most frequently used as laboratory animals,26 and removed in an appropriate time-frame for the feeding
shows that some species’ ‘natural’ diets are restricted to habits of the species.145 However, ad libitum feeding of
certain prey items (i.e specialists), such as Spirula spir- S. officinalis may cause buoyancy problems, so this is
ula, which feeds on detritus and zooplankton,143 whilst not advised (K. Perkins, unpublished data).
others are more opportunistic species (i.e. generalists) Artificial diets have been developed for cuttlefish and
such as S. officinalis or O. vulgaris (for review see26). other species108 and are continuing to be explored in
However, estimation of diet variety is substantially aquaculture research (Table 4; see also50). However,
biased by research effort. whilst an artificial diet may be ethically preferable
In laboratory conditions, animals usually adapt to and carries reduced risk of infection, studies to date
prey on several different types of food.36,108 indicate that growth and possibly welfare of the ani-
Nautilus requires food with a high level of calcium mals is reduced.146,147
carbonate, such as shrimp with carapace, lobster moult The frequency of feeds is important and depends on
shells or fish heads. Most cephalopods have a higher the species and water temperature in the tank. The dur-
metabolic rate than fish, and their daily food intake ation of digestion also depends on the species, and
which is rich in protein can be considerable: for exam- other factors including the animals’ size, maturity and
ple, 3–10% body weight per day.144 The feeding regime, the type of food (for review see148). In O. vulgaris, gut
palatability and method of food presentation should transit times are quite rapid (about 12 hours at
ensure that animals are adequately fed. Young and/or 18–19 C) suggesting that crop capacity is not great
wild caught animals need particular attention. In some and so daily feeding should be the norm.141,149,150
cases, enrichement with favoured foods and touching Daily feeding is also common practice for most coleoid
the animals’ arms with food may trigger feeding. cephalopods. However, other evidence from adult

Table 4. Use of alternatives and/or artificial/synthetic food to natural prey for rearing of some cephalopod species. The
table is based on an overview of recent literature (most representative papers are included) mostly for aquaculture
purposes (unless otherwise stated). For review see also Iglesias et al.50

Species Artificial food Food item References

508–510
Sepia officinalis Yes Pellet
Surimi
No Shrimps e.g.511
151
Yes Lysine diet 4
512
No Natural frozen diet
Octopus maya Yes CPSPa 513

514
Yes Purina @ 51%
Yes Shrimp pellet þ CPSPa 515

508,516–518
Octopus vulgaris Yes Moist pellets (fish and prawn mixed with alginate or
gelatin as binders)b
Yes CPSPa,b 519

520
Yes Diet S (50% water, 20% gelatin, 10% egg yolk, 5%
S. aurita, 15% T. sagittatus)
521–527
No Crustaceans; aquaculture by-products
a
CPSP: namely ‘Concentrés de Protéines Solubles de Poisson’ is a concentrated fish hydrolysate currently trademark of COPALIS (http://
www.copalis.fr/en/home/products-and-applications/animal-nutrition/aquaculture-breeding.html); see also Kristinsson and Rasco528
b
This study is also aimed to the understanding of nutritional requirements of octopus

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Fiorito et al. 19

cephalopods, particularly cuttlefish and octopus, sug- Nautilus is particularly sensitive to air, and repeated
gests that they may not need to eat every day.146,147,151 air exposure is anedoctally reported to have negative
effects on the health of the animals (R. Smallowitz,
5.7 Food and feeding for larvae and unpublished data).
Octopuses can be moved using nets (suggested dark
hatchlings
nylon 2-mm mesh) with a long sleeve to reduce the risk
Evidence is provided that different dietary needs are of escape; exposure to air should be minimised. A con-
required for cephalopod species during the early tainer method has been developed for O. maya159 and,
stages post-hatching.28,152,153 For example, hatchlings although not currently in use, represents a useful
of S. officinalis often have a yolk sac which provides approach indicative of methods that should be devel-
nutrition until they start feeding a few days later; in oped for animal transfer within a facility.
contrast, O. vulgaris paralarvae need to feed immedi- Nets and containers should be clean, disinfected and
ately in the water column. However, not all taxa of ceph- rinsed before use. Agitation during moving should be
alopods have been successfully reared in laboratories, and minimised, as all cephalopods have a sensitive statocyst
so information on the dietary requirements of hatchlings system.160
is limited (for review see50). Evidence available for some Handling and other human interactions should be
species suggests that embryonic development often monitored and recorded, as the frequency and nature
requires trace nutrients that are present in natural sea- of the interactions can influence behavioural perform-
water,154,155 in which case development might be hin- ance of individual animals.
dered in closed artificial systems. It has also been
suggested that ‘dissolved gases and nutrients may also
5.9 Environmental enrichment
contribute to metabolic and nutritional requirements
via absorption through the epidermis’.144,156 In addition, Environmental enrichment should not compromise the
a close relationship between the fatty acid profile of the need for adequate levels of hygiene and the ability to
dietary components and of the individual at early stages observe the animals’ health (section 6 below) without
after hatching has been reported.157 This emphasises the causing too much disruption. The impact on health and
importance of improving understanding the nutritional welfare of environmental enrichment should be evalu-
needs of juveniles, especially if artificial diet is being con- ated objectively,161–163 particularly to avoid the appli-
sidered for rearing purposes. cation of ‘environmental changes’ which may be
detrimental to the animal well-being, and to ensure
5.8 Handling and moving cephalopods in health or water quality are not compromised.
Section 3§3b of Annex III of the Directive states that
the laboratory ‘Establishments shall have appropriate enrichment
Handling procedures should be carried out only by com- techniques in place, to extend the range of activities
petent, trained personnel using techniques that minimise available to the animals and increase their coping activ-
the potential for injury and reduce stress to the animals ities including physical exercise, foraging, manipulative
(see also section 10). It is recommended that laboratory and cognitive activities, as appropriate to the species.
coats and gloves should not be of white/pale colours, as Environmental enrichment in animal enclosures shall
the handler can be mistaken for a ‘predator’. be adapted to the species and individual needs of the
The skin of cephalopods acts as an organ158 and is animals concerned.’ The same section also states that
very delicate and so every effort should be made to ‘the enrichment strategies in establishments shall be
minimise handling and removal of animals from the regularly reviewed and updated’.
water. It is especially beneficial to standardise handling These provisions require on-going consideration of
procedures, as anecdotal evidence indicates that ceph- the effects of laboratory housing on animal welfare and
alopods can habituate to handling. efforts to enhance well-being wherever possible.
It is preferable to move the animals in water using Exemptions from these, and other, requirements out-
containers where they can be gently restricted before lined in Annex III have to be approved by the National
moving from one tank to another or any other location. Competent Authority, and must be for scientific,
Training animals to enter a container, possibly using animal welfare or animal health reasons.
small rewards, may reduce stress and habituate them Environmental enrichment aims to enhance the well-
to the transfer. being of animals in captive conditions, by identifying
Cuttlefish and squid should be immersed at all times and providing stimuli that enable animals to express as
and a dark net should only be used to coax the animal wide a range of their normal behaviours as pos-
into a container. sible.164,165 Enrichment is proven to be effective for

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20 Laboratory Animals 49(S2)

many species, including fishes,166–168 cephalopods and regular health monitoring and plans for dealing with
other invertebrates.138,169–175 health breakdowns (see section 7). The starting point
Enrichment may be accomplished through changes for fulfilling these requirements is objective monitoring
in the tank environment, for example, by varying fac- and recording of the health and welfare of the animals
tors, such as the shape of the tank, flow of water, and recognition of the factors likely to cause deviations
variety of live prey items (if these are essential), conspe- from optimal status.
cifics and environmental complexity; and also by pro- The primary factors that could cause a decline in
viding opportunities for animals to engage in specific health and welfare and which require monitoring are
activities and exercise some choice. effects of:
Enrichment strategies should be tailored to the needs
of the particular species concerned. For example, open- g environmental and housing conditions (including:
water species may require large but less complex capture, transport, handling, stocking density,
environments. Social animals should be housed in tank design); nutrition; variations in: water tem-
groups. Benthic cephalopods are better kept in complex perature, oxygen levels, pH, salinity and water con-
environments with suitable substrates (sand, gravel or taminants (sections 4 and 5);
pebbles) and dens. g infectious disease (section 7); and
Nautiluses should have access to vertical space for g experimental (regulated) procedures (section 8).
movements and attachment at a variety of levels, thus
meeting their natural habit of daily vertical Irrespective of the cause, objective criteria for assess-
migrations.176,177 However, not too many vertical ment of the overall health and welfare status of animals
attachments should be added, as nautiluses naturally are required to:
swim up and down whilst circling around the perimeter
of tanks and require space to do so. Adding texture (i) ensure that animals arriving in the laboratory are
(artificial coral reef) to at least one wall of the tank healthy;
may make it more attractive to the animal (and may (ii) ensure that housing and care are adequate for the
promote egg laying; G. Barord, pers. comm.). maintenance of good health and welfare;
In octopuses, interaction with objects is a common (iii) assess the impact of experimental procedures (sec-
form of enrichment and is recommended; providing a tion 7) in terms of severity and identification of
den as refuge is not considered to be enrichment, as it is pre-established humane end-points;
a basic requirement for octopuses, and for all benthic (iv) identify and implement measures to rectify health
species that use refuges in the wild. Artificial shelters and welfare problems and enhance the well-being
can take the form of many different objects (e.g. bricks, of animals, and refine procedures so that they
ceramic pots, plastic jars), but dark and opaque dens cause less harm to the animals; and
are preferred over clear ones. (v) monitor the efficacy of any therapeutic
Suggestions for the type of objects (artificial and/or interventions.
natural) to be added in tanks as enrichment for most
common cephalopod species are provided by Grimpe.56 As for other animals, the key parameters used to
Recent systematic studies are missing and data avail- assess the health and welfare of cephalopods are
able are mostly anedoctical. behaviour and appearance, supplemented in some
Caution should be taken to avoid objects added to cases by measurement of a number of physiological
holding tanks that could harm or limit full expression ‘biomarkers’.
of the behavioural repertoire of the animal. Animals should be inspected immediately on arrival
Mirrored surfaces should be avoided, since may in the laboratory and at least daily thereafter; a
create agonistic reactions expressed by some individuals consistent method should be used for recording obser-
towards the ‘ghost’ reflected image (G. Fiorito, pers. vations, evaluation and actions to be taken modified
comm.). Accounts of tank design for coastal and reef as required for each species. An example of the types
squid species provide also information on environmen- of observation that could be made is shown in Table 5
tal enrichment for these animals.76,178 and provides a starting point for the development of
species specific observation sheets. Oestmann et al.145
recommend that general behaviour, indicative of
6. Assessment of health and welfare well-being, in cephalopods is assessed 2–4 times per
Annex III, Article 3.1 of the Directive requires that day; and G. Fiorito (pers. comm.) recommends at
establishments have a strategy to ensure that the state least twice a day.
of health of the animals safeguards animal welfare and For animals that are being used in an experimental
meets scientific requirements. This should include (regulated) procedure (section 8), the observation

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 Table 5 A-C. Potential generic indicators of health and welfare in cephalopods (primarily cuttlefish, squid and octopus) that could be used in daily assessment and
adapted for monitoring animals following a procedure (see section 7). For each sign (see section 5 for details and references) a guide is given to show how each can be
graded (indicated from green to red) to indicate an escalation of aspects of PSDLH from mild to moderate and severe. The table makes no assumptions about the
underlying cause or what the animal is actually experiencing. The table utilises the principles of health and welfare assessment developed by Morton and
Griffiths385,387 and widely adopted for welfare assessment,485 adapted for cephalopods by Andrews et al.8 and incorporated into Directive 2010/63/EU severity
assessment framework (Expert Working Group 2012: http://goo.gl/DozPKi). It should be appreciated that for practical implementation this table will need to be
adapted for each species, validated by research in multiple laboratories and revised accordingly. Note that the table is included here to prompt consideration of the
Fiorito et al.

challenges involved in objective assessment of PSDLH in cephalopods and to stimulate research.

Table 5A. Appearance (Physical state) - see text section 6.1.2 for details.
Monitor animal with increased Monitor for signs of resolu- Requires immediate action
frequency of observation depend- tion or increased severity; (including euthanasia) when
Positive welfare status (‘health ing upon parameter; Additional Seek advice and treat where observed or at the end of a
Types of sign and good welfare’) checks of water quality possible defined monitoring period
Skin colour (arms, head and Normal skin colour, pattern and Occasional inappropriate flash- Frequent abnormal displays; Entire animal pale and fails to
dorsal and ventral surfaces of reflectance/iridescence, appro- ing, wandering clouds, deimantic uncoordinated colour change colour when
mantle and arms [suckers]) priate prompt changes to exter- display in absence of an overt sti- changes between arms, head challenged.
nal stimuli (prey, threat, mulus; transient pallor such as or mantle; some continuously
conspecific). that seen during general anaes- pallid areas or areas with an
thesia (reversible); unusual skin unchanging colour or pattern
markings or colouration should (often associated with a
always be monitored for changes swelling or skin lesion).
with time.

Skin texture (dorsal and ven- Skin smooth with a thin mucus Small swelling (relative to size of Continuous display of papillae Swelling associated with
tral surfaces) layer except when there is a sti- animal), not in a location that possibly indicative of an breach of the skin; gas filled
mulus appropriate display of interferes with vision or feeding aroused state. Larger swel- swelling likely to interfere
papillae; no swellings. and with no breach of the skin. ling suddenly appearing; a with posture.
Occasional behaviourally unre- small swelling increasing in
lated display of papillae. size; a swelling interfering

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with vision or ability to feed
(buccal area); swelling with
signs of infection (e.g. fluid
filled cyst); excessive skin
mucus production.

Skin integrity Skin intact (no underlying muscle Small, punctate breaches on Larger and more numerous Full thickness (muscle visible
visible) over entire body (dorsal arms or mantle (often caudal breaches especially with and possibly penetrated) skin
and ventral surfaces). regions-’butt burn’) showing a irregular detached edges; lesions in multiple parts of
distinct adherent wound edge small breaches that increase body (arms and mantle)
indicative of healing; no overt in size or develop a stable covering >10% of apparent
signs of infection. colouration distinct from surface; wound dehiscence
adjacent skin. following a surgical proce-
dure especially cranial or
mantle if liver capsule opened
because of gut herniation risk;
externalised portion of cuttle
bone or gladius.
21

(continued)
 22
Table 5A. Continued
Monitor animal with increased Monitor for signs of resolu- Requires immediate action
frequency of observation depend- tion or increased severity; (including euthanasia) when
Positive welfare status (‘health ing upon parameter; Additional Seek advice and treat where observed or at the end of a
Types of sign and good welfare’) checks of water quality possible defined monitoring period
Abnormal body morphology Normal positional relationship In octopus arms unaligned with In octopus an arm with a Tentacles un-retracted in
between arms, head and mantle mantle during jetting; in cuttle- permanent acute angle indi- cuttlefish and squid; Mantle
appropriate to location in tank. fish pendulous/dangling arms cative of a muscle trauma. deformation in cuttlefish
during jetting. Dangling pallid arms in indicative of damaged cuttle
cuttlefish. bone; dorsal ridge on
cuttlefish.

Eyes Normal prominent position, clear Unilateral clouding of cornea; Eyes sunken indicative of Bilateral clouding of corneas
cornea and pupil diameter and nystagmus. weight loss; pupils incor- (functionally blind-unrespon-
orientation appropriate for light rectly orientated in relation to sive to visual stimuli); fixed
level and cranial axis. head; exophthalmos. constricted or dilated pupils
unresponsive ambient light
change; absence of consen-
sual pupil response but see
section 6.1.2 b.

Number of arms or tentacles All arms, tentacles and suckers Part or all of one arm missing Loss of one tentacle club Loss of both tentacle clubs
present and intact and no indi- with signs of wound healing. (cuttlefish, squid). (cuttlefish, squid) and >3
cation of regeneration. arms in octopus.

Animal found dead N/A N/A If an animal is found dead in

the tank especially following a
procedure the cause should
be investigated immediately
(including autopsy) An
assessment should be made

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of the degree of suffering
prior to death as this will be
required for the report of
‘actual severity’ of the
procedure.
Laboratory Animals 49(S2)
 Table 5B. Behaviour (psychological state) - see text section 6.1.1 for details.
Monitor animal with increased Requires immediate action
frequency of observation depend- Monitor for signs of resolution or (including euthanasia) when
Positive welfare status (‘health ing upon parameter; Additional increased severity; Seek advice observed or at the end of a
Types of sign and good welfare’) checks of water quality and treat where possible defined monitoring period
Unprovoked behaviours
Fiorito et al.

Apathetic and/or withdrawn Animals normally explores tank, Reluctance to leave den/refuge Has not been observed to leave Does not leave den/refuge even
is curious about novel objects in area; rarely seen exploring tank. den/refuge on two consecutive when challenged.
tank. days; adopts defensive posture in
den (Octopus).

Abnormal body position in the Animal able to maintain a posi- Animal continually swimming Squid located near/on floor of Squid that do not move from the
tank or the water column tion in the tank/water column and appears to experience diffi- tank for extended periods; cut- floor of tank; cuttlefish that do
with ease and to move in relation culty in maintaining a stable tlefish spending prolonged peri- not move from near the water
to a stimulus (e.g. food, light position in the water. ods at/near surface; octopus with surface; octopus in a fixed loca-
change, conspecific). prolonged periods with part/all tion with most or all the body out
of the body out of water. of water.

Stereotypic behaviour Normal diversity of behaviour Occasional. Daily but not continuous. Present continuously (irrespec-
with no indication of repetitive, tive of when the animal is
overtly purposeless activity. observed)

Abnormal motor or locomotor Locomotion and other motor Inability to coordinate arms/ten- Further deterioration or resolu- Convulsions, seizures or exten-
coordination activity (e.g. prey capture) is tacles during attack on 2 conse- tion in 48hours; stiff movement; sive muscle spasms.
precisely coordinated. cutive occasions; inability to bradykinesia; ataxia.
maintain a straight line; persis-
tent tremor/twitching in limbs.

Cleaning/grooming Cleaning behaviour is most Animal spends progressively Continues grooming when pre- Absent grooming or continuous
obvious in octopus that can reach more time demonstrating sented with food or a distraction; grooming as indicated by contin-
all parts of the body with arms grooming behaviour or signs that mucus accumulation; skin infec- uous wiping of mantle by the
and is a normal period activity. grooming is reducing leading to a tion or algal deposits may be a arms in octopus.
Sucker rings floating in the water deterioration in skin condition or marker of significantly reduced

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may be a surrogate marker for obvious rings hanging from grooming.
grooming. suckers.

Wound/lesion directed The existence of this behaviour is In octopus probes wound occa- One or more arms continuously One or more arms continuously
behaviour controversial and likely to be sionally in first 24 hours post in contact with wound or in contact with wound in 24 hours
most relevant following an inva- procedure; with an arm lesion attempting to reach wound in 24 post procedure and wound
sive procedure (injection site, may examine arm with mouth; in hours post procedure. shows signs of dehiscence or
surgery). cuttlefish attempts to reach infection.
dorsal mantle with an arm.

Changes in social interactions For social species interaction Animal becomes withdrawn from Animal withdraws for 24 h from Withdrawal from all normal
with conspecifics (e.g. display) is a normal the group on occasions and does all normal social interactions. social interactions on consecu-
behaviour. not always respond to signals tive days; Inappropriate and per-
from conspecifics. sistent aggression.

Autophagy Not a normal behaviour so any Removal of a few suckers or a Removal of distal 50% of an arm. Removal of an entire arm.
occurrence of autophagy should skin lesion on the arm may indi-
be investigated promptly. cate incipient autophagy.
23

(continued)
 Table 5B. Continued
24
Monitor animal with increased Requires immediate action
frequency of observation depend- Monitor for signs of resolution or (including euthanasia) when
Positive welfare status (‘health ing upon parameter; Additional increased severity; Seek advice observed or at the end of a
Types of sign and good welfare’) checks of water quality and treat where possible defined monitoring period
Feeding
Changed urge/speed to attack Rapidly approaches and cap- Reduced urge; increased time to Progressive increase in attack No desire to attack or unable to
prey and possibly time to tures/takes food. Attack latency attack. latency and uncoordinated subdue live prey.
subdue live prey within 1 SD of the normal range attack; misses target.
established for a given lab/spe-
cies/prey type; for live prey
attack should be coordinated and
prey subdued quickly.

Provoked behaviours
Defaecation Defaecation may be triggered by ? ? ?
handling (cf. mammals) but the
significance as an index of
‘stress’ in cephalopods is not
known.

Inking Inking is part of a defensive On consecutive days animal inks Inking behaviour/signs of ink in Persistent inking in the absence
response but the threshold for when the tank is opened or a tank continues for a third day; of an overt stimulus; continuous
induction in relation to stimuli human is visible (wearing dark signs of ink leaking uncontrolla- leakage of ink from ink duct/anal
likely to cause PSDLH is clothing); signs of ink in the tank. bly from ink duct/anal canal (loss canal.
unknown. Threshold differs of control).
amongst individuals exposed to
the same stimulus (e.g.
handling).

Response to humans and non- Cephalopods are naturally cur- Fails to respond to presence of Continuation of behaviours for a Behaviours continue for a fourth
food items placed in the tank ious and will usually interact with human or novel non-food object third day. day.
(see also withdrawal/apathy humans without aggression. on consecutive days. Apparent

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above) Objects placed in the tank are aggressive behaviour indicated
usually explored and octopus by directed squirting at a human;
may use them for den withdraws to den on appearance
construction. of human.
Laboratory Animals 49(S2)
 Table 5C. Clinical signs (physiological/biochemical state) - see text section 6.1.3 for details.
Monitor animal with increased Requires immediate action
frequency of observation depend- Monitor for signs of resolution or (including euthanasia) when
Positive welfare status (‘health ing upon parameter; Additional increased severity; Seek advice observed or at the end of a
Types of sign and good welfare’) checks of water quality and treat where possible defined monitoring period
Digestive
Fiorito et al.

Food intake (criteria criti- Cephalopods are ready feeders Fails to take food on two conse- Fails to take any food on 3 con- Fails to take any food on 4
cally depend upon species, with a relatively high metabolic cutive days (assumes a daily or secutive days including an consecutive days including
body weight and age) rate so any reduction in appetite every two days feeding schedule) attempt with a novel food or live when pieces of food are
should be monitored carefully. or fails to completely eat a prey if animals not normally placed in the arms /near
normal size meal. given live prey. mouth.

Faecal output (consider in No data on faecal weight/com- Reduced; presence of parasites Very reduced. Absent (if animal has fed
combination with food position and normal frequency of or cysts; cytological markers of recently or is still feeding
intake) defaecation. Likely to be a large epithelial damage. may indicate gut obstruction).
normal range. Faeces may be
hard to detect/collect especially
fresh.

Vomiting/regurgitation Not normally present so any Rare. Often occurs following ingestion Always occurs following
occurrences should be a cause of food. ingestion of food.
for concern but controversy over
existence.

Rates
Ventilation Ventilation is normally regular, Small rate change (increase or Sustained rate change; periods Slow, shallow, poorly coordi-
clearly inflates the mantle decrease), but remains coordi- of tachypnoea /apnoea/dys- nated (mantle/siphon); fre-
(depth), has a steady frequency nated; no indication of laboured pnoea/hyperpnoea; uneven depth quent periods of apnoea/
and is coordinated with siphon breathing. (augmented breaths). dyspnoea/hyperpnoea.
opening and closing. Frequency
can be measured and depth
estimated in both conscious and
anesthetised animals by an

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observer.

Heart rate (bradycardia and Heart rate appropriate for beha- ? ? ?

tachycardia) viour but may be affected by drug
treatments including anaesthe-
sia. Currently no telemetric
methods available for HR moni-
toring in unrestrained conscious
animals but can be monitored in
anaesthetised animals to check
physiological status.

Blood biomarkers
Increased concentration of Utility requires ‘normal’ values to Transient increase in catechola- Large increase in phagocytes Increase in phagocytes unre-
catecholamines and phago- be established utilising methods mine (<24hours) indicates expo- maintained for 48 h indicates an sponsive to treatment and
cyte number/type which do not result in changes sure to a mild stressor. infection/illness/sustained accompanied by other signs
and which allow good temporal stressor exposure. of an infection/illness.
resolution.
25

(continued)
26 Laboratory Animals 49(S2)

frequency may be increased depending upon the nature

(including euthanasia) when
observed or at the end of a
Requires immediate action

defined monitoring period

of the procedure and its anticipated impacts on animal
welfare. Factors to be considered are described in detail

20% over 1 week?

below, but most require further validatation, including
consideration of their severity (see section 2.2.3 and
8.2).
It should be noted that prompt identification of
problems is essential so that i. action can be taken to
reduce and preferably eliminate any suffering and ii. in
the case of procedures, to ensure that humane
end-points are promptly implemented where appropri-
Monitor for signs of resolution or
increased severity; Seek advice

10% loss of body weight over 1

ate and that severity limits are not exceeded (sections

2.2.3 and 8).
and treat where possible

6.1 Objective assessment of health and

welfare
Proposed parameters are described in detail below and
summarised in Table 5. Welfare assessments should be
week?

performed in the animals’ home tank and without

removal of the animal from the water wherever
possible. Each element of the assessment will ideally
require some form of quantification to enable recogni-
ing upon parameter; Additional
Monitor animal with increased
frequency of observation depend-

tion of points at which particular parameters reach a

pre-set humane end-point and to enable actual severity
Reduced rate of growth.

of a procedure to be reported.
checks of water quality

Observation and evaluation of the following criteria

can help to determine whether ‘something is wrong’
with the animals, and, considering the overall pattern
of observations, can help decide strategies for rectifying
any health and welfare problems.

6.1.1 Observation of spontaneous and provoked

.animal behaviour
Positive welfare status (‘health

season, species, age, reproduc-

Maintenance of normal growth
depending on food availability,

a) Feeding. The common laboratory species of cephalo-

pod have voracious appetites and eat relatively large
amounts of food in relation to body weight, reflect-
ing a relatively high metabolic rate.
and good welfare’)

Therefore, altered feeding behaviour manifests as a

reluctance to take food or an increase in the time to
tive status.

attack or subdue live prey, and is usually the first

and most apparent behavioural indicator that there
could be a health or welfare problem. For example,
in octopuses fed on crabs or mussels, the tank
should be checked for empty carapaces and shells
Reduction in body weight (or

the checklist and which may

have a negative impact upon
behaviour not anticipated in
other external morphologi-

to ensure the animals are ingesting prey and not just

cal indicator) over specific

attacking them. In O. vulgaris the willingness to

Observations of other
Table 5C. Continued

attack can be tested equally well with an artificial

crab as with a live crab.179
Free observations

b) Location in the tank and water column. Each species

time periods
Types of sign
Body weight

normally locates in a characteristic place in the tank

welfare.

and water column.

Nautiluses spend much of their time attached to the
sides of tanks, and undergo daily vertical migrations

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Fiorito et al. 27

(see above), so animals spending large amounts of an injured part of the body (I. Gleadall personal
time at the bottom of the tank other than when observation cited in;8 reports of animals ‘guarding’
engaged in feeding are exhibiting abnormal behav- the mantle or cranium post-surgery by G. Fiorito,
iour. unpublished data, and also189), but this behaviour
Cuttlefish alternate between hovering/swimming in has not been systematically investigated and could
the water column and resting on the bottom, par- also be linked to facilitation of healing by secreted
tially covered by the substrate, and an animal spend- antimicrobial peptides. Wound-directed behaviour
ing a considerable period of time at or near the was not observed in a study of tentacle amputation
surface of the tank should be inspected closely for in the squid Loligo pealeii,9 although in two species
signs of physical damage to the mantle. Such of cuttlefish (S. officinalis and S. pharaonis), the use
changes have been observed following a pharmaco- of a partially (80–90%) amputated arm for prey
logical treatment, as described by Agin et al.,180 as a manipulation and body posturing was avoided for
consequence of cycloheximide injections. up to 3 days post lesion.190
Squid rarely rest on the bottom of the tank, so their In cuttlefish, reaching over the dorsal mantle
presence there for an extended period should be (‘scratching-like’ behaviour) has been observed a
regarded as abnormal, as should extended periods few days after a transient rise in ammonia concen-
spent at the surface. tration leading to skin damage.145 Tentacles in
For octopuses, a ‘problem’ in the tank may be cuttlefish and squid should be retracted except
indicated if the animals spend excessive time cling- when the animal is engaged in an attack.
ing to the lid of the tank with most of the body out The arms are used for skin cleaning in octopus;
of the water. excessive cleaning activity and/or frequent presence
c) Swimming and locomotor activity and coordination. of sucker-rings in the tank could be indicative of
Each species has a characteristic method of moving abnormality. In all cephalopods, a loss of adhesion
in the tank: by walking, swimming or a combination in the suckers should be a cause for concern.
of both.31 Repetitive locomotion in cephalopods, e) Interactions with humans and conspecifics. While
such as jetting backwards continuously, or in the cephalopods, in general, are very responsive to any
case of octopuses performing swimming motions novel features introduced in their tank, octopuses
while attached to a tank wall, can be a sign of are especially curious about their environment.
stress. Any abnormalities of coordination should Healthy octopuses acclimatised to laboratory hous-
be noted. For example, a defect in the statocyst ing will often leave their den when the tank is
leads to an inability to control orientation during inspected and will interact with a hand placed
swimming. This ‘spinner’ behaviour has been below the surface of the water (for an historical
reported in species of cuttlefish, squid and octo- account see191).36,192 Reluctance to interact with
pus.181 Although there are likely to be minute-to- humans should be a cause for concern. It should
minute changes in the level of locomotor activity also be noted that there is some evidence that at
(see e.g. Figure 1 in Boyle182), each species has its least one species of octopus (E. dofleini) may recog-
own overall daily pattern of activity cued by the nise individual humans;193 therefore, care should be
photoperiod.98,100,130,183–186 Rest/sleep-like–activity taken to ensure that staff who are involved in any
cycles are documented in S. officinalis,102 O. vul- procedure likely to be aversive should not be
garis101 and Octopus macropus;103 nocturnal vertical involved in routine feeding or inspection as there
migration is known to occur in N. pompilius.29,177 is a possibility of inducing a conditioned aversion/
Changes could be an indication that ‘something is avoidance.
wrong’. If visually exposed to conspecifics, octopuses may
d) Use of arms and tentacles. The behavioural reper- alter their predatory response due to agonistic inter-
toire of arm movements in cephalopod species is actions, but habituation resulting in a resumption of
reviewed and described in Borrelli et al.31 A tax- normal behaviour has been observed under con-
onomy of arm movements for octopuses is provided trolled laboratory conditions.194,195 Squid and
by Mather.187 An animal spending an extended cuttlefish are social species and changes in social
amount of time with the arms curled over the interactions with conspecifics again may indicate a
body (a defensive posture), either in the den or the welfare/health problem.
corner of the tank, should be monitored for other f) Squirting, inking, defaecation and regurgitation.
indications of distress. In Nautilus withdrawal of all Squirting: all cephalopods use expulsion of water
tentacles into the shell with the opening obstructed from the mantle via the siphon in breathing and
by the hood is a defensive behaviour.188 There are locomotion; and this is particularly noticeable in
scattered reports of octopus using an arm to ‘guard’ the jetting escape reaction. Squid and cuttlefish

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28 Laboratory Animals 49(S2)

may direct jets of water at a person attempting to difficult to detect. However, if the ability to regurgi-
capture them, and this behaviour is particularly not- tate/vomit upper digestive tract contents is confirmed
able in O. vulgaris where jetting is also a component then it should be added to the list of possible indica-
of the deimatic display.31,134 Water jets directed at tors of illness, as is the case in vertebrates.199
an observer is indicative of a moderate aversive
reaction; in some cases this can also be a sign of
‘recognition’.195 .6.1.2 Appearance
Inking: is a defensive response in cephalopods (apart
from nautiloids which do not have an ink sac), so a) Skin colour, pattern and texture. Skin colour and
inking should always be taken as an indication that pattern are primarily regulated by motorneurones
the animal perceives a threat or is stressed. from the suboesophageal chromatophore lobes of
However, there is individual variability in the the brain, with contributions from reflecting cells,
threshold for induction of inking as some O. vulgaris depending upon the location on the body and the
will ink profusely in response to handling (M.G. species.134,200–202
Valentino and P. Andrews, unpublished data) that At the time of writing, there is no evidence to show
does not evoke the same response in other individuals that changes in the colour or pattern of the skin in
(G. Fiorito, pers. comm.). In addition, inking does any cephalopod species are specifically associated
not necessarily result from the animal receiving a with changes in health or welfare of the animals.
presumed noxious stimulus, such as an electric Oestmann and coworkers145 caution that normally
shock (I. Gleadall personal observation cited in;8 functioning chromatophores and iridiocytes may
G. Fiorito, pers. comm.). Therefore, absence of mask underlying skin defects. In Nautilus discolor-
inking should not be interpreted as an absence of ation of the mantle (with loss of buoyancy) is a
anxiety or distress. A continuous trickle of ink from sign of poor health.203 However, loss of ability to
the animal should be investigated as it may indicate a match substrate or background (see e.g.204–207) or
problem with the neural control mechanism or with sustained pallor with loss of normal patterning
ink duct sphincter competence. Animals should not should be taken as an indication of a problem,
be allowed to remain in a closed tank in which inking as should excessive or inappropriate flashing in
has occurred, and care should be taken to ensure that squid208 and wandering clouds in coleoid spe-
ink does not enter other tanks as it is an alarm cies.209 Note should also be taken of colour
signal.196 Intramantle inking has been reported as a changes in response to a provocative stimulus,
post-transport stress behaviour in Octopus bimacu- such as the deimantic display often observed in
loides.197 response to a perceived threat. Skin texture in
Defaecation: there is insufficient knowledge of defae- octopuses and cuttlefish can be changed by the
cation patterns and their control in cephalopods to formation of papillae, particularly prominent
determing whether any changes may be linked to above the eyes and on the mantle and is indicative
pain, anxiety or stress, as is the case in many verte- of an aroused or vigilant animal.31
brates. Although faecal ropes may emerge in octopus b) Skin and external shell integrity. Any breach to the
exposed to general anaesthetics, this could be due to skin of a cephalopod is potentially problematic
loss of anal sphincter control. The production of because of the possibility of bacterial infection (sec-
faecal ropes in octopus is a useful indicator of tion 7.2.2) causing systemic sepsis, preventing heal-
normal digestive tract functioning in a feeding ing, and local inflammation causing hyperalgesia.
animal, but it is not known whether disease can Bleeding from wounds may not be readily apparent
alter the faecal fluid content or defaecation frequency as, although oxygenated haemolymph is pale blue
(constipation/diarrhoea). However, chemical and (extracellular haemocyanin), it will be rapidly
cytological examination of fresh faecal samples can diluted in the tank and deoxygenated haemolymph
provide important insights into the health of the is colourless.
animal and as collecting faecal samples is non-inva- Healing of small wounds in octopuses, such as tran-
sive, its utility in cephalopod health monitoring section of the distal 10% of the length of the arm,
should be explored. appears to be rapid, with the exposed area in some
Regurgitation: there are two isolated observational animals being almost completely covered by skin in
reports of regurgitation/vomiting of upper digestive about 24 hours (T. Shaw and P. Andrews, unpub-
tract contents one in E. dofleini (I. Gleadall personal lished data), but larger wounds and particularly
observation cited in8) and the other in Sepioteuthis those to the mantle appear to take longer to heal
sepioidea.198 The location of the beak within the even without infection.210 Damage to the skin most
crown of arms would make this behaviour very frequently occurs at the distal part of the mantle in

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Fiorito et al. 29

animals (particularly squid and cuttlefish) that fre- position with eye orientation224 so an abnormal
quently impact the wall of the tank (‘butt-burn’: J. body posture may indicate a nervous system prob-
Rundle, pers. comm.), with four impacts per hour lem or a physical defect that the animal cannot com-
being recorded in a study investigating the long- pensate for (e.g. a broken cuttlebone, a fluid-filled
term health of cultivated cuttlefish in soft-sided chamber in Nautilus, gas trapped in the distal
tanks.211 In cuttlefish and octopus, the ventral sur- mantle of octopus). Damage to arms can also
face of the mantle contacting the substrate should affect posture as Tressler et al.190 reported unba-
also be examined, and anecdotal evidence that ill or lanced swimming (body axis tilted to the lesioned
senescent octopuses avoid rough substrates may side) lasting up to 3 days in cuttlefish in which 80–
indicate that the skin in this region is particularly 90% of the length of third right arm was removed.
sensitive to damage. Animals showing signs of The head in octopuses is particularly mobile and a
healed skin damage should be inspected closely to raised head, particularly if moving from side to side
ensure that it is healing, as death may ensue rapidly or bobbing has been regarded as sign of ‘agitation’
if the lesion increases in size and penetrates the in O. vulgaris by Boyle.182 However, head bobbing
underlying muscle.212 and similar behavioural patterns are indicative of
Breaks in the shell of nautiloids may compromise increased arousal, as reviewed by Borrelli and
their buoyancy mechanism and so require treat- coworkers.31
ment.
The cause of any breach in skin or shell occurring
after an animal’s arrival in the laboratory should .6.1.3 Biomarkers
be identified and action taken to prevent recurrence
(e.g. carefully examine the tank and items in it for a) Body weight. The optimum frequency with which
sharp edges, deep clean and disinfect the tanks, see animals can be handled for routine weighing,
section 5.6). taking into account that anaesthesia may be neces-
c) Eyes. The eyes should be inspected to ensure that the sary, is not known. It has been suggested225 that
cornea and lens are transparent, as opacity is one of frequent handling may impede growth, but this
the signs of natural senescence (see below). Pupil requires systematic investigation. Cephalopods, par-
diameter should decrease over a few seconds in ticularly when young, increase body weight daily
response to a sudden increase in illumination (for (assuming sufficient food) so failure to increase
Nautilus see;213 for cuttlefish and octopus;214 for weight or a loss of weight following an experimental
squid215), although there is some evidence (S. offici- procedure may be the earliest objective measure-
nalis and E. cirrhosa) that the response is not con- ment of declining health or welfare, but the poten-
sensual.214 The classic contributions of Beer216 and tial additional harms of frequent weighing will need
Magnus217 should be also considered in this frame- to be assessed.
work. The slit-like pupil remains close to horizontal Dorsal mantle length (DML) is also frequently used
irrespective of the position of the body, and this is as an index of body size in cephalopods although
particularly noticeable in octopus.150 Both the pupil the relationship to body weight (TBW) is not linear.
diameter and statocyst–ocular responses The K-Fulton condition index, which combines
(nystagmus) are mediated by the brain and hence length and body weight measurement and is used
give an insight into central nervous system in fish, has been adapted for cephalopods
functionality.181,218–220 (K ¼ (TBW/DML3)  100).226 In O. vulgaris infected
d) Body posture. Two aspects need to be considered: i. with Aggregata octopiana, the K-Fulton condition
the relationship between the mantle, head and arms/ index decreased as the sporocyst counts in the
tentacles (i.e. the overall appearance of the animal), caecum increased.226 Consideration should be
and ii. the orientation of the animal in relation to given to using this index as part of routine growth
the floor and sides of the tank. and health and welfare monitoring in cephalopods,
In Nautilus the shell should be vertical; however, air as applied to many species of fish,227–233 and in
bubbles can become trapped in the eyes and under other circumstances to other vertebrates (see,
the hood, leading to adverse health effects.221,222 e.g.234,235).
Information on treatments related to poor health In stock animals, weekly measurement of body
conditions is available in Barord et al.223 Trapped weight may also be a useful index of health and
air can be released by slowly turning the animal, welfare status, providing this can be done with min-
laterally from side to side. imal distress to the animal (e.g. in seawater), but the
All cephalopods have well-developed statocyst sys- percentage loss of weight over time that is indicative
tems to maintain body posture and coordinate body of illness is not known. The digestive gland has a

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30 Laboratory Animals 49(S2)

lipid reserve;236 Mangold and Bidder estimated as unanaesthetised cephalopod (but see244,245). In
9–13% of digestive gland weight in S. officinalis.148 addition, studies of animals with indwelling cath-
However, the impact of food deprivation on this is eters show that both parameters are very labile150
not known. suggesting that, even with appropriate method-
Growth data based upon body weight are species ology, they may not be helpful as indices of
and laboratory specific with the latter depending health or welfare. In particularly compliant indi-
upon food type and feeding frequency, water tem- vidual O. vulgaris, it is possible to observe the
perature, stocking density, animal age, activity level beating of the systemic and branchial hearts in
(influenced by tank size and photoperiod) and para- the mantle without anaesthesia, and to use
site load. There are limited growth curve data for Doppler ultrasound to investigate cardiac function
representative cephalopod species; for example for: and image the viscera (G. Ponte, pers. comm.).
Nautilus,237 cuttlefish and squid,238 and The resolution achieved is much improved from
225,239
octopus. previous attempts with cephalopods.244,246–248
b) Ventilation (breathing) frequency. Ventilation fre- This potentially represents a revolution for future
quency can be monitored by an observer provided physiological studies with these animals (D. Fuchs
that the animal is not disturbed, but a video system and G. Ponte, unpublished data; Vevo 2100
may provide an alternative in the absence of other Visualsonics, The Netherlands). Such methodology
non-invasive methodology, as standardised by may be suitable for detailed investigation of ani-
Borrelli.26 Although an increase in ventilation fre- mals showing signs of illness and could be useful
quency may be an indication of physiological stress for monitoring some physiological functions
(e.g. particularly a fall in inspired pO284,240,241), it is during general anaesthesia.
also indicative of arousal to innocuous stimuli and d) Other biomarkers: analysis of blood. There are no
ventilation frequency also correlates positively with validated blood biomarkers indicative of the
activity levels, as for S. officinalis and O. vul- health or welfare status of a cephalopod, and the
garis.182,242 Observation of breathing should also development of such markers is hampered by diffi-
note whether the pattern is even or is interspersed culty in obtaining blood samples using minimally
with periods of apnoea/tachypnoea. invasive techniques comparable to those available
Although frequency is relatively easy to monitor,26 for vertebrates (but see also Table 8). Descriptions
some assessment should also be made of depth of blood sampling in the literature employ some
(mantle stroke volume) as again excessively deep, form of general anaesthesia as, for example, done
shallow or laboured breathing may also indicate a in the bobtail squid E. scolopes.249 In animals
problem and Smith et al. comment that mainten- sedated for investigation using a low concentration
ance of oxygen uptake (in O. vulgaris) relies more of a general anaesthetic (see section 8.5.5), blood
on stroke volume than increasing ventilation fre- sampling and analysis may be a helpful aid to diag-
quency.240 nosis and treatment but the relative harms and bene-
Deep/forceful breathing may manifest as currents in fits of undertaking this procedure solely for welfare
the water or ripples in the surface if the animal is assessment need to be considered.
close. In the coleoids, the way in which the mantle
distends during inspiration should be noted to The following parameters should be considered.
ensure it is bilaterally symmetrical, that the entire Haemocytes. Blood samples enable culture for bac-
mantle is involved, and inspiration and expiration teria and examination of smears by electron micros-
are coordinated with the closing and opening of the copy for viruses. The utility of haemocyte counts
siphon respectively. During general anaesthesia, and morphology in general and phagocytes specific-
ventilation frequency, depth and coordination all ally as indicators of infection or stress is limited
become suppressed.243 Therefore, similar changes because sampling methods (especially repeated sam-
in a non-anaesthetised animal are likely to reflect pling involving anaesthesia) themselves seem to
depression of brain drive and should be investigated increase haemocyte concentration,250,251 although
immediately. the concentration is increased further by bacterial
Stress state in Nautilus is usually expressed as a infection the effect is transient (i.e. present at 4 but
‘rocking behaviour’ (which reflects hyperventila- not 24 hours in E. cirrhosa).126 The increase in hae-
tion), with the animal clearly rocking from front mocyte counts in response to intramuscular injection
to back. of Escherichia coli lipopolysaccharides in O. vulgaris
c) Cardiovascular parameters. Currently there is no begins within 4 hours of injection and is returning to
established non-invasive method for routine meas- control levels by 24 hours.251 Vehicle injection (phos-
urement of heart rate or blood pressure in an phate buffered saline) produced a smaller increase in

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Fiorito et al. 31

haemocytes indicating that a rise in haemocytes may included in the methods section of published papers
be a useful indicator of generalised stress as well as (see ARRIVE Guidelines272), but which is rarely
of infection. known in studies of cephalopods, unless they are
Chemistry. Levels of the respiratory pigment laboratory reared.
haemocyanin can be measured by the haemolymph Within a wild-caught population of a particular
copper concentration.252 Routine measurements of cephalopod species, in a circumscribed location and
the common inorganic ions (e.g. Naþ, Kþ, Caþþ, time of year, cephalopods of higher body weight are
Mgþþ, Cl and SO4þþ) and protein253–257 would likely to be older, but the relationship between body
be helpful in establishing their utility as parameters weight and age is not linear, particularly in octo-
for diagnosing disease. For example, in O. vulgaris puses.238,273,274 The absence of precise age data compli-
a decrease in most inorganic elements and/or in cates experimental design.
haemocyte concentrations is observed when infec- While there are variations due to the ecological niche
tion by the gastrointestinal parasite A. octopiana of individual species, cephalopods generally live for
increases.258 Finally, measuring activity levels of about a year. With the exception of nautiloids, ceph-
respiratory enzymes and total protein concentra- alopods undergo an exponential early growth phase
tion may provide additional information on the during which they mature to adult size rapidly.
health status of an animal.259,260 However, this growth phase can be influenced by
Humoral agents. Plasma noradrenaline and many factors, such as temperature, food availability
dopamine increase transiently (5 min) in response and space, which makes body size a poor indicator of
to stress induced by air exposure in E. cirrhosa.255 an animal’s age.238,274–276 The age of sexual maturity is
However, it is difficult to envisage how such transi- variable and also appears to depend on the ecological
ent changes could be applied in routine health moni- niche of the species. As reviewed by Rocha et al., some
toring. Circulating levels of a number of hormones cephalopods (e.g. Loligo opalescens among squid and
may give insights into health (e.g. steroids) and O. vulgaris among octopods) are semelparous (i.e.
reproductive status, but normal ranges need to be breed and then die soon after) while others (e.g.
established before these could be useful for health Nautilus sp., S. officinalis among cuttlefishes, L. vulgaris
and welfare monitoring. Other molecules that may among squid and Octopus chierchiae among octopods)
be of relevance for health monitoring include com- are iteroparous (i.e. breed multiple times, generally with
plement system molecules, anti-microbial peptides longer lifespan).277 For a summary of reproductive
(AMPs) and other innate immunity-related proteins strategies of some cephalopods species refer to
released by haemocytes, as they increase rapidly in Appendix 3.
infectious disease.261–266 In light of these considerations, ageing is relevant in
the context of physical senescence (i.e. ageing changes
e) Other biomarkers: analysis of faeces. One of the in animals over time/after breeding, especially in
most promising methods to evaluate the physio- females, once their eggs have hatched), but also when
logical conditions of animals in laboratory settings experimental procedures are applied to animals and age
is through the examination of faeces. Samples may could influence the results.
be utilised to estimate various biomarkers Possible signs of cephalopods in senescence include
including steroids (e.g. corticosteroids, estrogens, reduced/absent drive to eat, poor skin quality, cloudy
testosterone267), as well as to evaluate, for eyes, and changed activity pattern and behaviour.278–280
example, the digestibility of alternative diets as in It may be difficult to distinguish this state from an
the case of fish,267–270 or to identify possible parasite animal that is showing similar signs due to disease.
infections or cytological indicators of intestinal Good record keeping of time kept in the laboratory
damage.271 and age whenever possible, alongside general health
We recommend the development of faecal analysis records of individuals may help to differentiate the
methods to assist in evaluation of health and welfare two situations.
of cephalopods in laboratory settings. It is unknown whether cephalopods experience any
form of pain or suffering during senescence, but the
precautionary principle should be applied when deter-
6.2 Health and welfare of ageing mining humane end-points (see section 8.3) for studies
involving senescent cephalopods.
cephalopods: a special case?
The senescent state makes animals more susceptible
It is very difficult to determine the age of living ceph- to a number of problems which, if they occurred in
alopods. Age is a parameter that is known for almost non-senescent animals, would be regarded as indicators
all other species used in research and should be of illness.145,278,280 These include: skin breaches

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32 Laboratory Animals 49(S2)

including ulceration; primary and secondary cutaneous Information on likely cause of death may be
(e.g. Aeromonas sp., Vibrio sp. and Staphylococcus sp) required for consideration by the local Animal
and systemic (e.g. Flexobacter, Vibrio) bacterial or Welfare Body or the National Competent Authority,
fungal (e.g. Labyrinthula sp., Cladosporium sp.) infec- especially if there is unexpected mortality following a
tions; increased parasite load.281,282 procedure but note that mortality should never be used
The senescent animals are not only more susceptible as an end-point for a procedure.
to infections, particularly of skin,283 but they also Steps to be considered for inclusion in post mortem
appear to have a reduced ability to recover once evaluations include:
infected. Haemolymph sampling: when animals are humanely
In general, animals showing signs of senescence killed for welfare reasons, it will be possible to collect
should be humanely killed, unless there is sound scien- haemolymph immediately surgical anaesthesia is
tific or animal welfare justification for keeping them achieved, but before death ensues (see section 8.5.5 for
alive. techniques). A bacterial septicaemia is suspected when
A discussion of ethical aspects of both caring for and the haemocytes have aggregated into visible clumps.
using senescent cephalopods in research is available in Systemic bacterial infections should be confirmed by
Smith et al.3 bacterial culture of the haemolymph.
Careful routine monitoring of the physical condition Skin examination: external lesions should be blotted to
of captive cephalopods at all life stages is essential for remove excess mucus, then, aseptically, samples obtained
their proper care. using swabs and submitted for bacterial culture. Smears
obtained from the swab or skin scrapings should be air
dried and stained for bacteria or fungi.
6.3 Post-mortem evaluation
Anatomical examination: descriptions of the gross
Post-mortem evaluation of cephalopods is often a neg- internal anatomy of the main cephalopod species can be
lected aspect of health and welfare monitoring. found in the following classic references: N. pompilius;303
It enables thorough inspection, revealing abnormalities S. officinalis;304 L. vulgaris;305 O. vulgaris;306 E.
not readily visible when the animal was living, the cirrhosa.307
cause of death can be confirmed or ascertained, histo- In brief, following a detailed external inspection
logical samples collected, and a database of findings including skin breaches, abnormal colouration,
can be gathered to support future post mortem damage to appendages and deformities the mantle
evaluations. cavity is opened by an incision, following the anatom-
The overall aim of such detailed evaluation is to ical approach that gives best accessibility in each species.
facilitate better health and welfare assessments, and The viscera are examined visually and particular
implementation of humane end-points, in future stu- note taken of the state of the hearts, gills and the digest-
dies. Tissues such as the beak, statoliths and vestigial ive gland (hepatopancreas), which is the largest and the
shells can also be collected, which may provide infor- main metabolic organ. Organs should be inspected for
mation on the age of the animal (for example for: abnormal colour (particularly hepatopancreas), shape,
O. vulgaris;273,284 Sepioteuthis lessoniana;285,286 other size, texture (e.g. oedema, hard lump caused by a cyst
cephalopod species287–300). or tumour), and presence of parasites (particularly
Cephalopod tissues are rich in protease enzymes, intestine) or foreign bodies.
which cause rapid tissue autolysis post mortem.301,302 The presence, or not, of food (digested/
Autopsies should be performed immediately after undigested) in the crop, stomach and caecum/intestine
humane killing an animal, for example, on welfare should be noted as well as faecal ropes in the rectum to
grounds when humane end-points have been reached, assess gastrointestinal tract functionality. Digestive
or at the end of a novel procedure and/or when the tract samples should be analysed for the presence of
cause of welfare effects is uncertain; or as soon as an parasites.
animal is found dead (see section 8.11), but only once The degree of filling of the ink sac should be noted as
death is confirmed (see section 8.12). an empty one may indicate that the animal has inked
Cephalopods do not exhibit post mortem rigidity so profusely in the tank prior to death, which might not
rigor mortis cannot be used to confirm death, and other otherwise be apparent if the animal was found dead in a
methods need to be employed (see section 8.12). tank with circulating seawater.
Autopsy findings should be reported in the first Haemorrhage is impossible to detect as the blood is
instance to the person responsible for overseeing the colourless when deoxygenated, and oedema may be
welfare and care of the animals, and any actions hard to detect without histology.
needed to safeguard animal welfare in future should Tissue samples can be fixed by immersion in neutral-
be agreed, recorded and implemented. buffered 10% formalin, and standard histo-

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Fiorito et al. 33

pathological techniques applied although fixation in Skin damage makes the animal susceptible to sec-
buffered glutaraldehyde will be required for ultrastruc- ondary infections (particularly bacterial) which can be
tural studies and for identification of viruses. fatal if untreated.314
Creation of a repository of data and/or reports on
cephalopod pathology would provide an important 7.1.3 Disease caused by feeding live food. Although
resource in the effort to ensure good health and welfare feeding with live food may be preferred to an artificial diet
in captive cephalopods used in laboratories. This (see section 4.2), it is important to avoid the use of species
is a current project of the non-profit Association that are recognised for their role as hosts of important
for Cephalopod Research (see www.cephalopodre pathogenetic parasites. For example, coccidian
search.org/projects), which is also included as Aggregata sp.258,315,316 (for review see73) or viruses317–319
goal of the COST Action FA1301 (CephsInAction; may infect cephalopods through food items such as crust-
http://www.cost.eu/COST_Actions/fa/Actions/ aceans. In the case of the use of crabs as a prey item,
FA1301; www.cephsinaction.org). special attention should be given to distinguish between
those carrying parasites and to remove them from ceph-
7. Disease: causes, prevention and alopod facilities.
It is also noteworthy that penetrative injury to the brain
treatment has been reported to occur in O. vulgaris320 due to the setae
The major known risks to health and welfare in ceph- of ingested polychaete scaleworms (Herminone hystrix) so
alopods are environmental parameters, and especially their presence in laboratory tanks should also be avoided.
water quality issues, physical injury and infection (espe- See also section 7.2 below for discussion on infec-
cially due to parasites), all of which may be interrelated. tious diseases of cephalopods.
In addition, the psychological well-being of the animals
should be considered (for a preliminary discussion 7.1.4 Action points when disease is
see:308,309), as presented in section 6. suspected. Animals showing signs of illness should
be placed in quarantine (see section 3.6) to reduce the
7.1 Introduction to the issues related to potential spread of the causal agent, and any animals
found dead removed and autopsied (see section 6.3).
diseases of cephalopods Water from tanks of quarantined animals should not
contaminate water supplies to other animals or
7.1.1 Environmental influences on disease. Host- the environment, and personnel handling potentially
pathogen interactions can be strongly influenced by infectious animals should wear protective clothing
the environment in which an animal lives. In addition, (see section 9). Seriously ill animals not responding to
stressful conditions deriving from inadequate physico- treatment (where treatment is possible) should be
chemical parameters (e.g. increased or decreased tem- humanely killed (see section 8.11) and autopsied imme-
perature, presence of undesirable chemicals, low diately (see section 6.3).
oxygen saturation) may result in impaired defense Investigation of disease outbreaks should not only
responses against pathogens (review in310), thus include identification of the immediate cause (e.g. infec-
increasing the probability of a disease outbreak. tious agent), but also underlying origin such as adverse
Maintenance of water quality is essential for minimis- water quality, contamination of food or effects caused
ing infectious diseases and tank design (including enrich- by other animals. Failure to correct such factors will
ment) is important for avoiding self-induced physical often result in further outbreak of disease.
trauma (e.g. ‘butt-burn’, see 6.1.2b above) and reducing Careful records must be kept of all occurrences of
general ‘stress’. illness or mortality irrespective of identification of
Close attention to these factors should make animals cause, so that patterns can be identified over time
more resistant to infection as well as improving psycho- (e.g. there might be higher mortality/infection rates
logical well-being. from certain suppliers).

7.1.2 Effects of physical trauma. Injuries may be

7.2 Infectious agents in cephalopods
inflicted by some methods of capture (e.g. tentacle loss Immunity in cephalopods differs from vertebrates due
by squid jig;311 see also312) and handling without appro- to the absence of an adaptive immune response.321,322
priate care (e.g. skin damage by net reported in313), or However, these animals do have an innate (non-
during transport as, for example, for O. vulgaris that specific) immune response, mediated by both humoral
may fight if transported together and eventually bite or (e.g. haemagglutinin) and cellular (haemocyte)
cannibalise each other (see description of fighting in31). mechanisms.73,252,323–325

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34 Laboratory Animals 49(S2)

As in other molluscs, circulating haemocytes are for Betanodavirus,342 which is the aetiologic agent of a
responsible for infiltration, aggregation, encapsulation, serious viral disease known as VER (viral encephalop-
cytotoxic reactions and phagocytosis of foreign par- athy and retinopathy) that has been detected in a wide
ticles. Cowden and Curtis estimated that the phagocytic range of vertebrate and invertebrate hosts worldwide
capacity of octopus haemocytes was low;326 while high and caused severe mass mortalities in both farmed
phagocytosis of carbon particles has been described in and wild marine organisms.343 Betanodavirus was
E. cirrhosa.327 Phagocytic capacities of the haemocytes also identified in skin lesions, in the eye and in the
of the common octopus, O. vulgaris, challenged in vitro branchial heart of O. vulgaris.344 Squid have been sug-
using zymosan as a test particle,325 and those of the gested also as possible vectors of zoonotic viral agents
haemocytes of E. dofleini (see citations in328) have such as Norovirus.345–347
been reported. Recently, an extensive analysis of octo- Infections from viruses may sometimes be
pus haemocytes at morphological, flow cytometry and asymptomatic (see examples from fishes:348,349) but
functional level (including phagocytic capability as well pathogenicity may be higher if temperature increase,
as reactive oxygen species (ROS) and nitric oxide pro- as in the case of global environmental changes.350 In
duction) after challenging with different stimuli has has fishes, symptoms of viral infection may include cloud-
been carried out by C. Gestal and coworkers.73,329 ing of the eye, anorexia, changes in body colour and
In addition, several biologically active molecules likely uncoordinated swimming.
to be involved in responses to infection and injury are
known to be present in the haemolymph of cephalo- 7.2.2 Bacteria. In cephalopods, pathogenic bacterial
pods, such as lectins, proteinases, including antipro- infections are caused by several microbes; for an over-
tease and lysozyme activities.126,266,330–332 view see Table 6. These include various species of
The immunobiological system in cephalopods is Gram-negative Vibrio (review in336,351). However,
quite effective, as reflected by the scarce reporting of Vibrio bacteria can also be symbiotic, as for the case
illness in captivity for this class over many years, but of the Hawaiian bobtail squid (E. scolopes) where
this low incidence could also reflect under-diagnosis, Vibrio fischeri is a mutualist in the light organ,352,353
particularly of systemic disease that may not have an as well as Psedomonas sp. and other bacteria that are
external manifestation, or under-reporting. symbionts in Nautilus sp.354
Secondary bacterial infections in skin lesions have
7.2.1 Viruses. Viruses are the most abundant compo- been reported in squid,355 cuttlefish356 and octopus,357
nent of aquatic microbial communities (for review refer and skin lesions are considered to be the most common
to333–335). However, there are few records of virus-indu- conditions in which infections occur.351 Bacterial infec-
cing pathologies in cephalopods as reviewed in Hanlon tions may spread to conspecifics sharing the tank.77
and Forsythe.336 The first known evidence of viral In addition, bacteria may cause skin ulcers on mantle,
infections in cephalopods was provided in specimens head and arms, hyperplasia of the epidermis and
of O. vulgaris and in the cuttlefish S. officinalis.337,338 increased mucus production (e.g. in Lolliguncula
In the octopus, oedematous, modular tumors brevis;355 in O. joubini and O. briareus;357 for review
embedded in arm musculature and tissue degeneration see336,358).
were observed in animals showing anorexia, apathy and While infections occurring on the skin are most
often autophagy.337,339 The lesions were linked to the commonly reported, they are not the only tissues sus-
presence of viral particles suggested to belong to the ceptible to bacterial infection, since Rickettsiales-like
group of iridovirus, according to their size, morphology organisms have been found in the gills of laboratory
and location.340 In S. officinalis, virus-like particles reared O. vulgaris, observed as basophilic intracytoplas-
were identified in the gastric epithelium and described matic microcolonies within epithelial cells, on which
as similar to reoviruses of vertebrates, but details on the they cause hypertrophia and occasionally necrosis. No
symptoms induced are not provided.338 Virus-like par- significant harm has been observed in the host, but
ticles have been also reported in the epithelial cells of under conditions of stress or intensive husbandry, it
the tubules of the digestive gland of Loligo pealei, and has been suggested that these bacteria may have a det-
in the renal appendages of several octopod species.336 rimental effect on the host’s respiratory gaseous
More recently, Gregory and coworkers341 reported exchange although this has not been shown
another possible infection of iridovirus in cephalopods experimentally.359
(i.e. Nautilus sp.). Intracytoplasmic inclusion bodies Gram-negative bacteria Vibrio lentus have been also
were observed in tissues from an animal found dead identified in the branchial heart of wild O. vulgaris and
in aquarium without premonitory signs of disease. reported to induce mortality in 50% of octopuses in the
Furthermore, Todarodes pacificus (utilised as a food first six hours, with lesions showing a typical round
item in aquaculture) have been reported to be positive pattern on the arms or head.360

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 Table 6. Most common bacteria reported in cephalopods. Information included hereunder is deduced from various works and reviews336,355,357,359–361,363,530.
Fiorito et al.

Sepia Loligo Loligo Lolliguncula Sepioteuthis Octopus Octopus Octopus Octopus Octopus Enteroctopus
officinalis forbesi pealei brevis lessoniana vulgaris briareeus bimaculoides joubini maya dofleini

Acinetobacter anitratus 3
Aeromonas cavia 3

Aeromonas sp. 3
Micrococcus sp. 3
Myxobacteria spp. 3
Pseudomonas sp. 3 3 3 3 3

Pseudomonas stutzeri 3 3 3
Rickettsia sp. 3
Vibrio parahaemolyticus 3

Vibrio alginolyticus 3
Vibrio anguillarum 3
Vibrio carchariae 3 3 3

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Vibrio damsela 3 3
Vibrio harveyi 3
Vibrio lentus 3

Vibrio pelagius 3
Vibrio sp. 3 3 3
Vibrio splendidus 3 3
35
36 Laboratory Animals 49(S2)

Finally, cloudy-to-opaque corneal tissue as well as Amongst these, one of the most abundant and fre-
opaque lenses in Loligo forbesi and S. lessoniana have quent parasites are anisakid nematodes, which have
been reported due to infection with Gram-positive bac- been reported to cause important pathological effects
teria (Microccocus sp.) found in the vitreous-induced in several cephalopod host species.374–376 Larvae of
swelling of the infected eye and causing opacity of the Anisakis simplex are pathogenic to humans when raw,
cornea.361 under-cooked or lightly marinated fish or squid are
ingested.377 Crustaceans, such as copepods and iso-
7.2.3 Fungi. Reports of fungal infections in cephalopods pods, also parasitise the gills and mantle cavity of ceph-
are scarce and mostly relate to eggs and embryos. Hanlon alopods, affecting the body condition of the host.378
and Forsythe336 refer to infection by Labyrinthula sp. in Apart from the potentially pathogenic organisms (e.g.
adult O. vulgaris; in these animals grey patches of inacti- Vibrio, Aeromonas, Pseudomonas and Flavobacterium
vated chromatophores appeared followed by progres- sp.; ciliates and dicyemids), none of these diverse organ-
sively larger and whiter patches in which the entire isms is known to cause severe health problems in captive
epidermis and dermis was missing. Thraustochytrid and cephalopods. However, as some of the mechanisms
labyrinthulid fungi have also been isolated from skin exploited by parasites to produce changes in host’s
lesions in E. cirrhosa, but it is not clear whether these behaviour would seem to be highly conserved through-
organisms are causal agents or secondary infections.362 out the evolution of both vertebrates and inverte-
Harms et al.282 reported a case of mycotic infection in brates,379–382 it would be unwise to exclude such
adult captive cuttlefish showing skin lesions in the interactions in cephalopods without specific research.
dorsal mantle. Cytology revealed hemocyte granulomas
surrounding fungal hyphae, and culture yelded 7.3 Antibiotic treatment of infectious
Cladosporium sp. Infection from the same organism
was also reported by Scimeca and Oestmann (1985,
diseases
cited in351) in octopus, while Fusarium sp. has been Antibiotics have been utilised in some instances to treat
found infecting the chambered nautilus, N. pompilius.351 cephalopods in laboratory experiments as reviewed in
Table 7. Several routes of administration have been
7.2.4 Parasites. Most wild cephalopods host parasites used (i.e. oral, parenteral or tank/bath immersion); in
include protozoans, dicyemids and metazoans. addition Berk and coworkers383 have suggested a tech-
Generally, these are found in skin, gills, digestive nique for gavage in squid that could be adapted to
tract, digestive gland and kidneys.73,363–370 octopus and cuttlefish. Intramuscular injections of anti-
Among the protozoans, one of the main parasites biotics have been given at the base of the arms taking
infecting both wild and cultured cephalopods is the special care to avoid the axial nerve cord.358 Sherrill
gastrointestinal coccidian of the genus Aggregata, et al.356 have suggested the use of oral, parenteral, or
which produces severe disease in cuttlefishes and octo- tank/bath immersion prophylactic antibiotics as
puses, by causing a malabsorption syndrome, diminish- reasonable for captive cuttlefish subjected to physio-
ing nutrient absorption and reducing the immune logical stress, since this treatment may delay disease
response capability.226,258 In addition, the parasite progression and improve longevity. This method
may produce behavioural alterations in the infected should be avoided unless there are exceptional, scien-
host inducing excitation, impaired ability to camouflage tifically justified circumstances, as it is clearly preferable
and aggressive behaviour.316 Mortality has been attrib- to identify and remove the source of the stress.
uted to the infection, and it has been reported that a Despite published evidence, caution should be
few days before dying an infected octopus became inac- applied when using oral or parental routes of adminis-
tive in the shelters and unresponsive to stimuli.316 tration since these are stressful for animals and may be
Dicyemids are endosymbionts that inhabit the renal difficult to perform safely.
sacs of cephalopods including cuttlefish, loliginid squid In any case, prophylactic use of antibiotics is not
and octopuses.370–372 No host damage has been recommended because of the risk of promoting bacter-
reported due to dicyemids, but a possible contribution ial and fungal resistance, masking infection and
to ammonium ion elimination from the host urine has allowing secondary infection. It should not be used to
been proposed370. However, dicyemids could be a prob- ‘prop up’ poor tank hygiene.
lem if the parasite load is elevated enough to cause Cephalopods used for scientific purposes should
physical obstruction of the renal sac. be maintained free from infections and contact with
Cephalopods are intermediate or parathenic hosts infection sources avoided. To this end, the use of
for a variety of metazoan parasites, namely trematodes, high-performing filtration systems (i.e. combining
digenea, cestodes and nematodes transmitted via the mechanical, biological and physical filtrations) is
food chain.370,373 highly recommended in combination with careful

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Fiorito et al. 37

Table 7. Substances given to some cephalopods to treat infection, but not recommended for routine use in laboratory
facilities; see text for details. The table summarises for each species the treatment (i.e. dosage, route and duration) and
substances tested. All drugs included in this table belong to the class of pharmaceuticals utilised as antibacterial agents,
unless otherwise stated. The studies cited refer to treatment of infections, with the exception of Gore et al.530 who
investigated a pharmacokinetics. For a short discussion see also Scimeca351 and Forsythe et al.358 Therapeutic inter-
ventions should be discussed with a veterinarian.

Species
Drug Dosage Routea Duration References
Sepia Sepioteuthis Lolliguncula Octopus
officinalis lessoniana brevis joubini
145
Chroramphenicol 40 mg/kg PO 7d ˇ ˇ
358b
75–100 mg/kg PO/IM twice* 6 d ˇ
530
Enrofloxacin 5 mg/kg IM/IV 8–12 h ˇ
530
10 mg/kg PO 8–12 h ˇ
530
2.5 mg/L Imm 5 h/d* 7–10 d ˇ
145
Gentamicin 20 mg/kg IM 7d ˇ ˇ

531
Tetracycline 10 mg/kg PO ˇ
Furazolidone 50 mg/L Imm 10 min* 2 d ˇ Gore et al. 2004,
cited in351
355
Nitrofurazone 2 mg/L Imm 1 h* 2 d ˇ
145
2 mg/L Imm 72 h ˇ ˇ

25 mg/L Imm 1 h* 2 d ˇ Gore et al. 2004,

cited in351
Metronidazolec 100 mg/L Imm 16 h ˇ Gore et al. 2004,
cited in351
a
Administration route: PO, per os (i.e. provided through food items); Imm, immersion in a solution; IM, intramuscular injection;
IV, intravenous injection.
b
But see also Table 1–3 in Hanlon and Forsythe.336
c
Antiprotozoal agent.

screening of animals entering the facility and efficient equivalent to, or higher than, that caused by the
quarantine procedures. The importance of tank design introduction of a needle in accordance with good
in minimising the potential for skin damage and subse- veterinary practice’.
quent increased probability of infection should not be It should be noted that this definition is not confined
overlooked. to procedures that induce pain, but also includes pro-
cedures that cause other forms of suffering, such as
anxiety, fear, stress and distress. Table 8 illustrates
8. Scientific procedures, severity and this point by listing some studies which include proced-
harm-benefit assessment, anaesthesia ures that are likely to be subject to regulation under the
and humane killing Directive.
8.1 Definition of a ‘procedure’
8.2 Identifying and reducing the adverse
Directive 2010/63/EU defines a regulated ‘procedure’
as, ‘Any use, invasive or non-invasive, of an ani-
effects of procedures
mal [e.g. living cephalopod] for experimental or All adverse effects that could be caused to animals by
other scientific purposes, with known or unknown particular scientific procedures must be identified and
outcome, or education purposes, which may cause predicted at the project planning stage (prospective
the animal a level of pain, suffering or lasting harm assessment), then adequately monitored throughout

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38 Laboratory Animals 49(S2)

Table 8. Selected examples of research in cephalopods which involves an intervention that it is considered would come
within the definition of a procedure (see also section 8 of this work) within the Directive. Studies published recently have
been selected where possible to show that the Directive will impact on current research areas. It should be noted that
non-surgical interventions that may induce PSDLH fall within the definition of a procedure. The fact that a particular
technique has been used in a previously published study does not guarantee that the same technique would now be
permitted by the national competent authority under the Directive.

Research topic or technique and species studied References

10,190,431
Amputation of a portion of an arm under general anaesthesia followed by recovery
Octopus vulgaris, Sepia officinalis, S.pharaonis, Doryteuthis pealeii
102
Deprivation of ‘sleep’ for 48 h by continuous visual stimulation
Sepia officinalis
251
Administration of E. coli lipopolysaccharide by intramuscular injection into the arm under
general anaesthesia followed by recovery and subsequent repeated sampling of haemo-
lymph
Octopus vulgaris
440
Investigation of the efficacy of different general anaesthetic substances techniques and
mechanisms of anaesthesia
Sepia officinalis
532
Production of hatchlings with deleterious phenotypes/genotypes by exposure of the eggs
to: a harmful environment, or mutagen, or genetic manipulation
Loligo vulgaris
208,533
Implantation of electrodes for either recording or stimulation into the brain under anaes-
thesia followed by investigation of the effects in the conscious/sedated animal
Octopus vulgaris, Doryteuthis pealeii
249
Removal of samples of haemoloymph from the dorsal aorta under anaesthesia with recov-
ery
Euprymna scolopes
396,402
Administration of drugs to modify nervous system functionality
Doryteuthis pealeii, Sepia officinalis
130,132
Implantation of temperature and depth-logging archival tags under general anaesthesia
with recovery and monitoring for up to 5 months
Sepia officinalis
246,247
Non-invasive measurement of brain and arm morphology under anaesthesia with recovery
Octopus vulgaris
215
Immobilisation of animal and exposure to light stimuli to investigate the pupillary reflex
Lolliguncula brevis
534,535
Food deprivation for 7 or more days
Sepia officinalis
26,420,504,506,507
Aversive training paradigms to test acquisition, consolidation and memory recall
Sepia officinalis, Octopus vulgaris

the procedure. Steps must be taken to: i. refine each ‘eliminating or reducing to a minimum any possible
procedure, so as to minimise and preferably eliminate pain, suffering, distress or lasting harm’ [PSDLH]
its adverse effects, and ii. alleviate any animal suffering caused to the animals. Note that 3Rs strategies
that occurs during the conduct of procedures or whilst should be implemented whenever feasible, at all times
animals are recovering. from birth to death of the animals including: sourcing,
This is a legal, as well as ethical, requirement under transport, housing and care, handling, and fate of ani-
Directive 2010/63/EU, which requires implementation mals, as well as the procedures themselves.
of replacement, reduction and refinement (3Rs) strate-
gies (section 2) wherever possible, with the aim of

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Fiorito et al. 39

8.3 Monitoring animals undergoing carried out within the framework of a [authorised] pro-
procedures and setting humane ject’ (Directive, Article 12.2), which is subject to a
harm-benefit analysis, ‘to assess whether the harm to
end-points
the animals in terms of suffering, pain and distress is
Assessment of the severity of adverse effects must be justified by the expected outcome taking into account
carried out before, during and after procedures (see also ethical considerations, and may ultimately benefit
details in section 2.2 above, which describes require- human beings, animals or the environment’.
ments for setting prospective ‘severity limits’ and retro- Hence, for legal as well as moral reasons, investiga-
spective reporting of the severity of procedures, along tors should carry out a harm-benefit analysis, as
with questions for consideration). described above, prior to conducting any procedure.
Schemes for monitoring adverse effects during the In the following discussion, we cite published studies
procedure should cover the criteria outlined in section that provide evidence about possible harms caused by
6 and Table 5 for routine daily assessment of animal common procedures. These are included as examples
welfare; these should be supplemented with any other, that will help to predict and identify harms in future
specific, adverse effects that might be caused by the par- projects, but we are not suggesting that these studies
ticular procedure(s). Criteria for assessment, and fre- would necessarily be considered justified according to
quency and timing of observations, should be agreed the harm-benefit analysis conducted under the new EU
before studies commence; then regularly reviewed as stu- Directive.
dies progress, and, wherever necessary, added to or
amended. 8.5 Some common procedures in
A humane end-point must also be defined for each
cephalopod research
procedure, to describe (in terms of indicators of the
nature and degree of suffering) the earliest point at The following sections summarise current knowledge of
which a specific intervention must be made to end an the regulatory status, adverse effects and possibilities
animal’s suffering, e.g. by: i. removing the animal from for refinement of some common procedures. It is evi-
the study, ii. providing analgesia, iii. humanely killing dent that this knowledge is patchy and there is need for
the animal and/or terminating the study. The use of further work, especially to help refine procedures.
‘score sheets’ for monitoring can be particularly helpful Nevertheless, where possible, provisional recommenda-
in determining when humane end-points have been tions for good practice are made.
reached, and when severity limits are being
approached.384 To be effective, this monitoring requires 8.5.1 Behavioural studies. Cephalopods have been
a team approach, with good planning, and appropriate used extensively for a variety of behavioural studies,
training for all involved. Methods for the observation and as reviewed in several works.2,25,36,175,192,195,388
assessment of adverse effects are relatively well developed Classical behavioural studies have used a variety of
for many vertebrate species including fish.384–387 aversive stimuli (e.g. electric shock;72 acid solutions;389
There is a need for further development of objective bitter;390 mechanical391) as part of training protocols.
criteria for assessing severity that can be used by the Because of their potential to cause distress and possible
entire EU cephalopod community to ensure consist- suffering, such studies would certainly fall within the
ency. This is a current project of the non-profit definition of a regulated procedure under the Directive
Association for Cephalopod Research (see www.cepha and should be avoided wherever possible. For example,
lopodresearch.org/projects). electric shock or application of acid solutions should be
Working on a consensus view for severity assessment unacceptable, and these and other harmful stimuli
of procedures is also a goal of the FA1301 COST Action should be replaced with reward-based conditioning
(CephsInAction; http://www.cost.eu/COST_Actions/fa/ and, at the least, stimuli that do not cause pain.
Actions/FA1301; www.cephsinaction.org). An equiva- Exposure of an animal to a stimulus known to evoke
lent initiative has been set up for describing characteristics an escape response (i.e. inking, jetting locomotion,
of laboratory mice (http://www.mousewelfareterms.org/ dymantic display) could also be argued to cause dis-
doku.php),8 and and for severity classification classifica- tress, especially if the exposure is repeated, and hence
tion of scientific procedures involving fish.384 is likely to be a regulated procedure. Deprivation of
food for prolonged periods, deliberate exposure to ele-
vated noise or adverse change in water temperature, pH
8.4 Harm-benefit assessment
or chemistry, and direct exposure to a predator would
Of course, one way of eliminating animal suffering is also be likely to fall within the definition of a proced-
not to carry out the procedure at all. In this context, it ure, depending on the severity/degree of change.
must be remembered that ‘procedures may only be

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 40
Table 9. Routes used for haemolymph sampling and drug administration in exemplar species of laboratory cephalopods species. Species are listed on the basis
of the most commonly utilised for such procedures. Abbreviations: NS, not stated; NA, not applicable; R, sample removed; A, drug administered; EtOH, ethanol;
SW, seawater.
Anaesthetic
when injection Volume removed [R] Substance injected
Species Body weight (g) given Site Needle size Administered (A) Fluid removed Reference
251
Octopus vulgaris 98–1268 55 mM MgCl2 Branchial hearts 30G R 70–100 ml Haemolymph
(mean 533) þ 1% EtOH
395
Octopus vulgaris 200–500 Cold water Branchial heart Microlance 3 A 500 ml Filtered seawater
No anaesthetic
251
Octopus vulgaris 98–1268 No anaesthetic Arm (2) NS A 1 ml/kg divide between Phosphate buffered saline
(mean 533) two arms or Lipopolysaccharide
(15 mg/kg)
536
Octopus vulgaris 200–400 No anaesthetic Branchial heart Microlance 3 A 1 ml/kg Filtered seawater or
scopolamine (2 mg/kg)
537
Octopus vulgaris 290–1040 NA Implanted cannula in NA R 40% of blood volume in Haemolymph
dorsal aorta or afferent total (20 ml in a 1Kg
branchial vessel animal)
503,538,539
Octopus vulgaris 200–1500 No anaesthetic Intramuscular (site NS) 25G  5/8 in. NS L-NAME (75 mg/kg), D-
NAME, artificial seawater
540
Octopus vulgarisa NS No anaesthetic Intramuscular at base NS A 400–600 ml Reserpine (4 mg/kg)
of arm 300 ml Pargylline hydrochloride
(100 mg/kg)
243
Octopus vulgaris 200–500 No anaesthetic Arm in the region of the NS NS 2% xylocaine
brachial nerve to pro-

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duce nerve block
401,456
Octopus vulgarisb 200–500 NA Implanted cannula in NA A 100 ml substance Acetylcholine, carbachol,
dorsal aorta þ 100 ml SW dopamine,encephalin, nor-
adrenaline, GABA, 5-HT,
kainic acid, L-glutamate,
methysergide, nicotine,
nor-adrenaline, pentagas-
trin, taurine, tubocurarine
(doses: from 10–100 mg)
250
Eledone cirrhosa >250 2.5% EtOH Branchial vessel 21G  1.5 in R 300 ml/100 g Haemolymph
255
Eledone cirrhosa 500–800 2.5% EtOH Branchial vessel 26G  0.5in R 1 ml/animal haemolymph
(continued)
Laboratory Animals 49(S2)
 Table 9. Continued
Anaesthetic
when injection Volume removed [R] Substance injected
Species Body weight (g) given Site Needle size Administered (A) Fluid removed Reference
Fiorito et al.

250
Eledone cirrhosa 493–1050 2.5% EtOH Web tissue at arm base 21G  1.5in A (NS) 1% Alcian Blue
for marking
249
Eupymna scolopes NS 2% EtOH Cephalic vessel 26.5G R 10–20 ml (for multiple haemolymph
between eyes sampling) 50–100 ml (for
single sample)
180,396
Sepia officinalis 590–900 No anaesthetic Into the side of the NS A 1 ml/kg Cycloheximide (10 mg/kg)
neck at a depth of Octopressin (3–60 mg/kg)
10 mm Cephalotocin (3–60 mg/kg)
150 mM NaCl
282
Sepia officinalis 220 3% EtOH Cephalic vein 25G  9 mm R 500 ml haemolymph
282,530
Sepia officinalis 220 3% EtOH Cephalic vein NS A NS Enrofloxacin (10 mg/kg)
? ? Enrofloxacin (5 mg/kg)
145
Sepia officinalis NS No anaesthetic Intramuscular at base NS A NS Chloramphenicol (40 mg/
of arm kg, daily)
Gentamicin
(20 mg/kg, daily)
541
Sepia officinalis NS 1% EtOH Fin nerve branch A 2 ml 5% Texas red dextran
(DML 4–8 cm)
398
Sepia officinalis 200–1200 2%EtOH þ 17.50/ Brain vertical lobe Microcannula A 2 ml over 3 min Kainic acid (25–100 mM)
00
(OD: 125 mm) L-Glutamate (100–800 mM)

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MgCl2 (injections also contained
methylene blue and DiI
for site marking)
383,402
Doryteuthis pealeii 65 No anaesthetic Crop/stomach Tygon tube (OD: A 250 ml T-817 3.6 mM (a neuropro-
760 mm)) tective agent)
417
Doryteuthis pealeii c 200–400 NA Anterior vena catheter PE50 cannula R NS Haemolymph for measure-
previously impanted extruded ment of pH, PCO2, [HCO3]
under anaesthesia
208
Doryteuthis pealeii 68.5 No anaethetic Intramuscular, head, NS A 1 ml/kg Gallamine triethiodide
(mean of N ¼ 3) arms or mantle (2.37 mmol)
a
Intramuscular injection of reserpine at the same dose also studied in Eledone cirrhosa and Sepia officinalis542
b
Similar but more limited studies also performed in Eledone cirrhosa, Sepia officinalis and Alloteuthis sp.401
c
Similar studies performed also using Illex illecebrosus417
41
42 Laboratory Animals 49(S2)

Protocols using positive reinforcement (for example investigate the efficacy of a putative neuroprotective
see:104,392–394) should be used wherever possible.2 agent in blocking the effects of human tau protein on
transmission in the squid giant synapse.402 This method
8.5.2 Administration of substances. Administration requires restraint of the animal and may require removal
of substances can cause harms to animals as a result of from the water and sedation. As the brain in cephalo-
the route of administration and/or the substance itself. pods encircles the oesophagus care should be taken to
Table 9 lists commonly-used routes of administration, use the narrowest gauge tube as possible, and it should
but does not recommend a particular technique since, also have a round end to minimise the chances of punc-
despite the number of examples included, there have turing the gut particularly at the oesophageal/crop junc-
been no systematic studies investigating the optimal size tion. Substances administered by this route will reach the
of needles or injection sites and volumes in cephalopods. crop and stomach directly.
In addition, although adverse effects of injections have Drugs and other substances such as nanoparticles
not been reported, in view of the limited literature this have also been administered per os (i.e. by inclusion
needs further investigation from a welfare in the food,;403 G. Ponte, unpublished data). Further
perspective.251,395 experiments may help in better refine this approach.
Cephalopods do not have readily accessible large
superficial blood vessels; therefore, in general 8.5.4 Administration of drugs as investigational
experimental agents and therapeutic drugs are given agents. When undertaking studies using pharmaco-
to unanaesthetised animals by bath application logical agents, the wider effects of the drug must also
(assuming absorption via skin and gills), or injection be considered in assessing the overall impact of a treat-
via subcutaneous and intramuscular routes. ment on the welfare of the animal, and any unexpected
The efficacy of subcutaneous injections is not known, side-effects should be recorded and minimised/avoided
but drug absorption may be slow because of a low where possible. For example, Agin et al.180 used cyclo-
capillary density. However, this is not based on phar- heximide, a protein synthesis inhibitor, to investigate
macokinetic studies and only a limited number of sub- the machinery involved in long-term memory in the
stances have been studied.123,395 cuttlefish. However, it induced positive buoyancy that
Locations for intramuscular injections include the interfered with animals’ ability to catch prey.
arms (particularly proximal parts in octopus) and Relatively little is known about the pharmacology of
‘neck’ (in cuttlefish) reported to have a high vascular central and peripheral neurotransmitter systems.1,404,405
density.123,180,208,251,396 Care should be taken not to In addition, very limited is the knowledge on the
damage arm nerve cords and ganglia by injection in pharmacological characteristics of drug receptors in
the arms (especially in octopus), nor the cuttlebone or cephalopods. Therefore, caution should always be exer-
gladius in cuttlefish and squid respectively. The use of cised when drugs, whose pharmacological properties
ultrasound may be helpful in directing injections to have been defined in mammalian systems, are used as
avoid vulnerable structures.246,247 investigational agents in cephalopods.
Substances have been injected into the branchial If such studies are undertaken in group housed spe-
hearts of O. vulgaris, but this requires eversion of the cies, it will be necessary to identify individual animals
mantle. The animals recover rapidly from this proced- (see section 4.1.2) so that individual variations in drug
ure and no adverse events have been reported; however, response can be identified. Additionally in group-
although behaviour rapidly (<1 hour) returned to housed species, special attention should be paid to
normal,395 a systematic study of welfare of the animal agents that may increase aggression (e.g. by alteration
has not been fully carried out. of brain neurotransmitters) or that may impair the abil-
ity of an individual to escape or defend itself and action
8.5.3 Other methods. It should be noted that the wel- taken to reduce or eliminate these adverse effects.
fare effects of the following methods has not been
assessed. Intravenous (including vena cava) and intra- 8.5.5 Haemolymph (blood) collection. It should be
dorsal aortic routes have been used for substance noted that cephalopod blood does not clot, but haemo-
administration by direct injection.e.g.282 Direct admin- cytes aggregate and vessels constrict to prevent blood
istration into the brain has been successfully attempted loss.150,406 However, as haemolymph is pale blue (oxy-
in a number of studies. e.g.397,398. Finally, surgical genated) or colourless (deoxygenated), haemorrhage
implantation of vascular catheters has been used as a may be very difficult to detect.
method of drug administration and for pressure A summary of routes used in several studies for
recording.399–401 haemolymph sampling is presented in Table 9. There
A method for gavage administration of drugs to ceph- are no systematic data on the welfare impacts of blood
alopods has been described by Berk et al.383 and used to sampling methods in cephalopods, but in several

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Fiorito et al. 43

studies behaviour was reported to return to normal fol- advanced in cephalopods when compared with verte-
lowing the sampling.249,251,395 brates, particularly in relation to: i. intra-operative
In large cephalopods (i.e. E. dofleini), cuttlefish and monitoring and maintenance of physiological param-
E. scolopes, small blood samples have been obtained eters (e.g. blood pressure, PO2, PCO2, pH, temperature;
under anaesthesia via a needle inserted into the cephalic see also section 8.8.4); ii. identification and control of
vein dorsal to the funnel.249,282,407,408 This method haemorrhage; iii. controlled general anaesthesia and
has also been successfully applied for haemolymph analgesia (see section 8.8); iv. optimal techniques for
sampling in O. vulgaris (G. Ponte and G. Fiorito, the repair of muscle and skin tissue and wound closure
pers comm.). In addition, small single samples of (see section 8.6.2) and healing in general; v. post-opera-
haemolymph can be taken directly from the branchial tive monitoring and special care that may be needed if,
hearts in O. vulgaris (250 ml) and E. cirrhosa (<300 ml/ for example, feeding is transiently impaired; vi. infec-
100 g body weight; 1 ml/animal in animals of 500–800 g, tion risk (intra- and post-operatively) and requirement
as shown in250) using a hypodermic needle, although for prophylactic antibiotic cover (see section 7.3).
this requires general anaesthesia to permit manipula- Although it will be some time before there is
tion of the mantle to expose the hearts.250,251,255,403 In welfare guidance on all the above topics, anyone
the bobtail squid (E. scolopes) single haemolymph sam- contemplating undertaking a surgical procedure in
ples of 50–100 ml can be withdrawn from the dorsal cephalopods will need to consider all of the factors,
aorta by direct needle puncture under anaesthesia.249 and submit relevant information, as part of the project
Where frequent sampling of blood is necessary, it is evaluation and authorisation process, and during the
likely that this will require implantation of conduct of any authorised surgical procedures. This
catheters.240,407,408 Again, the welfare impact of this will include:
procedure has not been fully assessed.
The maximum volume of blood which can be collected (i) ethical ‘justification’ for the procedures, in terms
at a single sampling in particular cephalopods has not of harm vs. benefit of the outcomes;
been assessed from a welfare perspective. In mammals, (ii) identification of potential adverse effects and the
it is recommended that no more than 10% of the blood steps taken to refine the procedures, so as to min-
volume is removed at any one time.409 For fish the imise the adverse effects;
Canadian Council on Animal Care (CCAC)zz recom- (iii) processes for intra- and post-operative monitor-
mends a maximum withdrawal of 1 ml blood/kg weight. ing of the animals;
Blood volume in octopus is estimated at 5–6% of (iv) timely application of methods to minimise post-
body weight,410,411 hence using the mammalian values operative suffering, e.g. analgesia and other spe-
as a guide, a maximum of 5–6 ml blood/kg weight cific care; and
would be advised, but, as noted above, only 1 ml/kg (v) clearly defined humane end-points (section 8.3) to
according to CCAC guidelines for fish. set an upper limit to the suffering that an animal
However, in publications where multiple sampling experiences.
has been used, authors either collected a reduced
volume on each occasion (e.g. 10–20 ml for multiple Some general principles for performing surgery on
sampling vs 50–100 ml for single samples in bobtail aquatic animals can be found in the fish literature, and
squid) as done by Collins and Nyholm249 or have set these should be adapted where possible to
a time for recovery between samples (e.g. 4 hours in cephalopods.412–414
E. cirrhosa).126 As for all other procedures, anyone attempting any
surgery in cephalopods must be ‘adequately educated
and trained’ in the principles and practical techniques
8.6 Surgery
of surgery, and must be ‘supervised in the performance
Cephalopods have been subjected to a broadly similar of their tasks, until they have demonstrated the requis-
range of surgical procedures as have been performed in ite competence’ (Directive Article 23§2), for example, to
vertebrates, but in general surgical techniques are not the designated veterinarian or other competent person
described in detail in publications; this is no longer (see section 10 for further discussion).
considered acceptable and we strongly recommend fol- A full description and evaluation of surgical
lowing ARRIVE Guidelines on reporting.272 techniques in cephalopods is outside the scope of this
Surgical approaches and techniques, along with document but the following four specific aspects are
understanding of their welfare effects, are not as highlighted, along with a detailed discussion of anaes-
thesia in section 8.8 below.
zz
see: http://www.ccac.ca/Documents/Education/DFO/4_Blood_
Sampling_of_Finfish.pdf

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44 Laboratory Animals 49(S2)

8.6.1 The operating room and environment. Surgical combination with mantle perfusion with a chilled
procedures should be performed in a dedicated room anaesthetic solution, as cooling can act as an adjuvant
located close to the animals’ home tanks to minimise to anaesthesia,243,418 but should not be used as an
animal transport, and induction of anaesthesia should anaesthetic alone. Cooling will also reduce metabolic
take place in the surgical procedure room. Good surgi- rate, which may be advantageous when cardiorespira-
cal lighting is essential, but care should be taken that tory function is impaired as a result of anaesthesia.
this does not cause localised heating of the animal. The skin must be kept moist and this can be done
Although a sterile operating environment is highly with a sterile surgical drape moistened with sterile sea-
desirable to prevent cross-contamination from human water. Care should be taken to minimise the potential
to cephalopod (and potentially vice versa, see section 9), for seawater to enter the wound site. Although anaes-
and to ensure a consistent scientific baseline, mainten- thesia to a depth sufficient to markedly suppress or stop
ance of sterility is not practical unless: sterile seawater ventilation may not be desirable from a physiological
and anaesthetic solutions are used throughout the oper- perspective, surgery involving incision of the mantle
ation, and the surgeon and any assistants are fully muscle and suturing may be very difficult in the absence
trained in sterile technique and are wearing appropriate of such marked suppression.
clothing. General information on asceptic surgical tech- Whilst the efficacy of mantle perfusion with gassed
niques can be found in a LASA 2010 report.415 anaesthetic/seawater solution for maintenance of blood
As a minimum, it is recommended that: gases may be questioned when there is severe suppres-
sion of cardiac function by the anaesthetic/anaesthesia,
i. all apparatus or surgical instruments contacting the such perfusion may still be advisable to reduce anaes-
animal during surgery should be sterilised or at a thetic wash out from the blood/tissues, to prevent des-
minimum cleaned thoroughly with anti-bacterial iccation of visceral structures and prevent/reduce
and viricidal agents (e.g. diluted Halamid§§ or hypoxic damage to critical tissues such as branchial
Virkon***, F. Mark, pers. comm.); hearts and gills. This may not be necessary for short
ii. all material contacting the wound site such as surgi- duration (<10 min) minor surgical procedures, pro-
cal swabs and sutures should be sterile; and vided that full surgical anaesthesia can be assured.
iii. all personnel contacting the animal in the surgical
environment should have cleaned their hands in 8.6.3 Wound closure and healing. There are no studies
accordance with aseptic technique and/or use sterile assessing optimal materials to use for repair/closure of
surgical gloves (blue nitrile gloves are recommended skin, muscle, connective tissue (e.g. hepatopancreas
for handling animals, to avoid pale colours but capsule), blood vessels or cranial cartilage in cephalo-
these are not sterile and so should not be used for pods, and publications do not often detail the materials
surgery); used. The inclusion of such information in future pub-
iv. the surgical site should be cleaned; but at present lications is essential.
there is no information on the effect of commonly Closure techniques should follow normal practice for
used skin cleaning preparations on cephalopod skin surgery in vertebrates, using round-bodied needles to
integrity and healing; reduce tissue trauma. Braided non-absorbable silk123,243,
v. the surgical site should be isolated as far as possible polyglyconate sutures282 and cyanoacrylate adhe-
from any source of contamination (e.g. seawater/ sives132,401,419–422 have been utilised. Several authors
anaesthetic solution). report that cephalopods will try to remove sutures with
their arms (F. Mark, unpublished data),240 although this is
not a universal finding and may reflect differences in sur-
8.6.2 Maintaining physiological function. Water used gical technique. Sutures sealed with cyanoacrylate have
to irrigate cephalopod gills during surgery should be been used, but in some instances they may cause skin irri-
circulated, treated and monitored to maintain appro- tation (possibly due to being inflexible) and may not main-
priate anaesthetic levels, oxygen, pH, temperature and tain integrity for longer periods of time in seawater.
salinity, and to remove particulates. Pörtner et al. note An evaluation of five commonly used suture materials
that the sensitivity to hypoxia is greater in squid than including braided silk, monofilament nylon and poligle-
either cuttlefish or octopus.417 caprone has been undertaken in the mollusc Aplysia
Consideration should be given to using a cooled californica.423 All materials induced similar adverse
operating table (temperature monitored) in skin and subcutaneous tissue reactions, but the authors
recommended the use of braided silk because it induced
§§
N-chloro tosylamide, sodium salt; see: http://www.halamid.com/ a less intense granuloma reaction. This result was unex-
Aquaculture-desinfection.htm, last visited August 2014.
***
Peroxygenic acid; see Hernndez et al.416 and http://www2.dupont.- pected as in studies of aquatic vertebrates monofilament
com/Virkon_S/en_GB/, last visited August 2014. sutures are less reactive than braided silk.423

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Fiorito et al. 45

We would encourage anyone undertaking surgery in The harms vs benefits of performing this procedure
cephalopods to undertake histology on the wound site at under general anaesthesia have not been assessed.
the end of study, and include findings in any publications, We propose that irrespective of the use of general anaes-
with the aim of generating a database of good surgical thesia the arm tip should be treated with a local anaes-
practice. In addition to suture material, the most appro- thetic (in the absence of systemic analgesics). Only the
priate suture patterns (e.g. discontinuous, continuous) absolute minimum amount of tissue should be taken
and needle size for skin closure in cephalopods has yet (taking into account animal size) especially in cuttlefish
to be established, and this is knowledge especially import- as removal of large amounts of arm tissue transiently
ant as the skin is particularly delicate in cephalopods. interferes with food manipulation and results in abnor-
Studies involving chronic implantation of devices mal body posture.190 In squid and cuttlefish, the fins may
such as archival (‘data logging’) tags185,417,424–426 need provide an alternative site for biopsy as they also appear
to consider possible chronic reaction of the tissues to to heal rapidly and regrow.427 Although arms, fins and
the device and the impact that this may have on the other tissues will regenerate, attention should be pro-
normal behaviour of the animal. Mounts implanted in vided to avoid unnecessary sampling.
cuttlefish to support archival depth and temperature
tags were well tolerated over a period of up to 5
months although post-mortem tissue thickening (pos-
8.8 General anaesthesia
sibly fibrosis) was observed around the implant and this The Directive requires that ‘procedures are carried out
increased in thickness with the duration of implant- under general or local anaesthesia’ unless anaesthesia is
ation.130,132 Chronic tissue reactions are also a potential judged to be ‘more traumatic to the animal than the
issue for implanted identification tags (see section 5.7). procedure itself’ and/or ‘is incompatible with the
Descriptions of the natural course of wound healing purpose of the procedure’ (Article 14§2). ‘Analgesia
following skin damage to the dorsal mantle in E. cir- or another appropriate method’ must also be ‘used to
rhosa can be found in Polglase et al.189 Authors also ensure that pain, suffering and distress are kept to a
found that bacterial infection of a mantle wound minimum’ (Article 14§1), for example, peri- and post-
impairs healing.210 Healing and regeneration of the fin operatively (see section 8.9 for further discussion).
dermis in S. officinalis is described by Yacob et al.427 Furthermore, drugs that stop or restrict the ability of
and regeneration of the mantle connective in several an animal to show pain (e.g. neuromuscular blocking
species of octopus by Sereni and Young.428 agents) must not be used without an adequate level of
The arms in cephalopods have a remarkable capacity anaesthesia or analgesia. When such agents are used, ‘a
to heal and regenerate when a segment is removed by scientific justification must be provided, including
transection with the histological changes described in details on the anaesthetic/analgesic regime’ (Article
detail in O. vulgaris, E. cirrhosa, S. officinalis and S. 14§3). After completion of the procedure requiring
pharaonis190,429–431 In O. vulgaris following transection anaesthesia ‘appropriate action must be taken to min-
of the distal 10% of the length of the arm as part of imise the suffering of the animal’, for example, by use of
study to investigate regeneration, the exposed area was analgesia and special nursing care (Article 14§5).
almost completely covered by skin in about 24 hours in During and after general anaesthesia and surgery,
some animals (T. Shaw and P. Andrews, unpublished animals should be carefully and regularly monitored
data). using a welfare monitoring scheme, and a record kept
Cephalopods frequently injure arms, tentacles and of observations and interventions to reduce or alleviate
fins in the wild;311,312,432–435 therefore a well-developed adverse effects. Of particular relevance is wound-direc-
healing and regeneration mechanism is perhaps ted behaviour but other potential welfare indicators are
expected. This suggests that, provided sufficient time is listed in Table 5. It is currently believed that operated
allowed, surgical wounds, appropriately repaired, should animals should be housed individually at least until full
heal successfully provided they do not become infected. recovery from general anaesthesia is assured, but this
In addition to general anaesthesia surgery also will clearly need particular consideration in gregarious
requires the use of analgesics and this is discussed in species.
section 8.9 below. Many scientific procedures in cephalopods will
require the use of general anaesthesia but despite more
than 60 years of literature detailing studies involving
8.7 Tissue biopsy anaesthesia, covering at least 17 agents, information is
Tissue biopsies for DNA isolation and PCR analysis lacking on which agents in which species provide the
for genotyping cephalopods have been obtained by most effective, humane general anaesthesia (i.e. which
taking small samples from the tip of an arm or tentacle definitely blocks nociception and pain perception,
with a sharp, sterile blade.436,437

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46 Laboratory Animals 49(S2)

generates no aversion, enables rapid induction and magnesium chloride to relax small invertebrates prior
allows animals to recover quickly without adverse to fixation.446
effects). Messenger et al.447 concluded that MgCl2 exerts an
Recent studies have reviewed the use of agents effect on the central nervous system, and subsequent
claimed to have anaesthetic properties in cephalopods studies (G. Ponte, M.G. Valentino and P.L.R.
and criteria for evaluation of anaesthe- Andrews, unpub. obs.) showed that electrical stimula-
sia.8,61,131,418,438–440 In a recent contribution, isofluor- tion of efferent nerves in ‘anaesthetised’ O. vulgaris
ane has been utilised to induce ‘deep anesthesia’ in O. (as per criteria below) with MgCl2 (3.5%) evoked chro-
vulgaris.441 However, more detailed studies are required matophore contraction (arm and mantle), arm exten-
to assess the application of this agent to induce anaes- sion and mantle contraction showing a lack of effect at
thesia in cephalopods. peripheral sites of motor control.
In some cases, a range of behavioural responses is However, more recently, Crook et al. have shown
reported to occur during exposure of the animals to that local subcutaneous and intramuscular injection
anaesthetic agents (i.e. inking, jetting, escape reactions, of isotonic MgCl2 suppressed the afferent nerve activity
increased ventilation);208,243,438 however, it should be in nociceptors activated by crushing a fin.11 This dem-
noted that most studies report immersing the animal dir- onstrates that should such high local concentrations
ectly in the anaesthetic at the final anaesthetic concentra- occur in animals immersed in MgCl2, it may have anal-
tion, and this may not be the best technique to minimise gesic/local anaesthetic effects. Further studies of its
trauma (see below). It should be also noted that criteria mechanism of action are urgently required.
for general anaesthesia are not consistent between studies Ethanol is widely used as an anaesthetic agent in
and that behaviours observed during induction and to cephalopods, but it is not clear whether it blocks pain
assess depth may differ between species.439 perception and/or is aversive. Some variability is
Moreover, studies of general anaesthesia in cephalo- reported in the response of animals exposed to it (see
pods have investigated single agents and the familiar Table 10A), but this could reflect impurities in the dif-
concept of ‘balanced anaesthesia’ involving more than ferent sources of ethanol used439 and other factors such
one agent, used in mammalian studies (for reference as temperature.
see409,442) has not been explored in cephalopods For example, ethanol is considered effective in
(but see exceptions in Packard200,443). O. vulgaris, but has been reported to produce inking
and escape reactions,243 suggesting that it is aversive.
8.8.1 General anaesthetic agents. Detailed descrip- However, these reactions are not noted if the tempera-
tions of the commonly used anaesthetic agents (magne- ture is below 12 C.448 Moreover, ethanol has been
sium chloride, ethyl alcohol and clove oil) and their reported to be ineffective in cold water octopus species,
advantages and disadvantages in the common labora- as cited in Lewbart and Mosley following a personal
tory species can be found in recent reviews,8,439,440 and communication from I.G. Gleadall.418 However, this
key features are described in Table 10. observation seems contradicted by other personal
Although a large number of agents have been experience on Antarctic octopods (F. Mark, pers.
investigated for anaesthetic efficacy in cephalopods, comm.).
some are now considered unacceptable on either Clove oil has been the subject of limited study so it is
welfare or safety grounds (e.g. urethane),444 and so difficult to make a judgment about its use especially as
are not considered here. Similarly, we are not consider- there appear to be marked species differences in the
ing those utilised in a single experiment, and pending response (see Table 10D). Further studies with clove
more evidence they are not considered herein. oil, and its active constituent eugenol, are required to
Magnesium chloride (MgCl2) is the most extensively fully assess its utility as an anaesthetic for cephalopods.
studied and used agent, probably because it appears to Both MgCl2 and ethanol have been reported to induce
be the least aversive. However, it disturbs haemolymph general anaesthesia as defined in section 8.8.2 below to a
Mg2þ levels, and so may not always be appropriate, for level sufficient to perform relatively short duration
example, when blood samples are required to investi- (30 min; see Table 10A,B) surgical or invasive proced-
gate normal magnesium ion levels. ures (see also Tables 8 and 9). However, it must again be
Furthermore, there has been a recurrent concern emphasised that the analgesic, aversive and amnesic effects
that MgCl2 may be acting at least in part as a neuro- of these agents have not been studied in any detail and the
muscular blocking agent;441,445 but see comments in molecular mechanism of their general anaesthetic action in
Graindorge et al.398 However to date there is no cephalopods has not been elucidated.
direct experimental evidence to support this concern In addition to further research on the agents
in cephalopods, as reviewed in Andrews et al.8 The themselves, it is also apparent from the limited data
supposition may have arisen from the original use of in Table 10 that there is emerging evidence of

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 Table 10A-D. Examples of studies using ethyl alcohol (EtOH), magnesium chloride (MgCl2) alone or in combination, or clove oil for induction and maintenance of
general anaesthesia in exemplar cuttlefishes, squid and octopuses. Only publications with primary data are included; for recent reviews of other agents and species
see: Andrews et al.8, Gleadall438, Sykes et al.61 Studies utilising the same agents solely for euthanasia are not included.
Fiorito et al.

For each case we report: species, temperature at which the study have been carried out (T), body size (expressed in grams, unless otherwise stated), concentration of
the agent utilised (expressed in %, unless otherwise stated), time to anaesthesia (in seconds), criteria for time to anaesthesia, duration of anaesthesia (in seconds,
unless othewise stated), purpose of the study, recovery time (in seconds or minutes, as required), references and comments, if available. Number of subjects utilised
and their gender are reported, if available from the original work, with body size. Abbreviations: F, females; M, males; NS, not stated; NA, not applicable; DW, distilled
water; SW, seawater. See original works for full description. Note that other criteria for time to anaesthesia are also used to identify onset of general anaesthesia and
are discussed in the text.

Table 10A. Ethanol as an agent.

Concentration Time to Criteria for time Duration of Purpose of References and
Species T ( C) Body size (%) anaesthesia (s) to anaesthesia anaesthesia (s) anaesthesia Recovery time comments

440
Body colour, Investigation of
35.1  8.3a 1.0 434.0  192.3 64.7  26.2 s Aim of the study was
swimming anaesthetics
S. officinalis 19.3  1.4 42.2  9.4a 2.0 88.3  41.2 180 91.2  36.7 s to sedate animals for
behaviour, funnel (no procedures
42.7  6.6a 3.0 73.3  29.1 101.7  49.3 s handling not for
suction intensityb applied)
surgery

NS Cessation of arm
Branchial heart 543,544
S. officinalis NS M (N ¼ 7) 2.0 NS movement and no NS NS
injection
F (N ¼ 6) righting response

DML: 4–8 cm 541

S. officinalis 21 1 NS NS NS Fin dye injection NS
(N ¼ 6)

220 3% for Mantle granuloma 282

S. officinalis NS NS 44 min NS

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F 1 min then 1.5% excision

200–400 545
S. officinalis 20–22 1.5 NS NS NS Mantle cannulation NS
(N ¼ 3)
430
S. officinalis 10–14 DML: 2–5 cm 2 NS NS NS Arm tip removal NS

DML: 5.2–6.4 cm
S. officinalis 0.8–1.0 % No response to:
(seec)
190
22–23 (in gradual NS light, pinch by NS Arm tip removal 60–300 s
DML: 5.1–5.8 cm increments) forceps; pallor
S. pharaonis
(seed)
Cessation of
swimming þ unrespon- Haemolymph
sive to touch sampling from 249
E. scolopes NS adult 2 600 NS <30 min
(note: ventilation cephalic blood
þ chromatophore vessel
activity continues)
(continued)
47
 48

Table 10A. Continued

Concentration Time to Criteria for time Duration of Purpose of References and
Species T ( C) Body size (%) anaesthesia (s) to anaesthesia anaesthesia (s) anaesthesia Recovery time comments

208

Unresponsive to Animals attach to

Investigation of
1 696 handling, immobile, container, jetting
D. pealeii 14 68.6e 43.1 min anaesthetics (no NS
3 240 loss of righting behaviour, unusual
procedures applied)
response colour/patterns; 0%
mortality

4–12 min 198

Absence of body
90 Anaesthetic (proportional to
S. sepioidea NS 42.2–290.9f 1–3 <120 s hardness, flexible ‘no pernicious
(handling) efficacy study exposure time and
tentacles, pallor side effects’
concentration)
547
Implantation of
1.0 Immobility þ transpar-
g Visible Implant Higher mortality
S. lessoniana NS 3.2–16.9 cm 1.5 30 s ent with dark band on 120 s 20–30 s
Fluorescent amongst young
2.0 mantle and head
Elastomer tags animals with 2%

Electrode
200–350 101
O. vulgaris NS 1.0–2.0 NS NS NS implantation NS
(N ¼ 15)
in brain

Anterior and
673–1369 156
O. vulgaris 20–24 2.5 NS NS NS posterior basal NS
(N ¼ 8)
lobe removal

500–1500 545

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O. vulgaris 20–22 2 NS NS NS Mantle cannulation NS
(N ¼ 6)

Branchial vessel 537

O. vulgaris 290–1040 2.5 NS NS NS NS
cannulation

Total relaxation and

2.5
1000–1500 mantle manipulable Branchial vessel 325
O. vulgaris 15 (in cold NS NS NS
(N ¼ 28) to access branchial sampling
seawater)
vasculature

Branchial heart
injection, brain
h Cessation of 456
O. vulgaris 22–25 150–500 2.0 234  33 Up to 10 min lesion, dorsal aorta 27  13 s
ventilation
catheter implantation,
pallial nerve section
(continued)
Laboratory Animals 49(S2)
 Table 10A. Continued
Concentration Time to Criteria for time Duration of Purpose of References and
Species T ( C) Body size (%) anaesthesia (s) to anaesthesia anaesthesia (s) anaesthesia Recovery time comments

131
Fiorito et al.

At 1.5% (considered
1.0 optimal) showed
O. vulgaris 22.3  0.5 1268  291i 1.5 from 240 to 50 Skin pallor NS PIT tag implantation 180–360 s correlation between
2.0 body weight (700 g-
1130 g) and time (60–
100 sec) to anaesthesia

500–800 Body pattern 431

O. vulgaris 18 2 300 NS Arm tip amputation 120–300 s
F (N ¼ 6) change

730–817
25–26 1 420–480 1 min 180–420 s
(N ¼ 2) 439
Unresponsive to
external stimuli, Mixture of shallow anaesthesia at
150–490 14 to 20 min
O. vulgaris 19–21 2 90–600 loss of righting surgical interventions 300 1%; also provides
(N ¼ 7) (and more)
reflex, cessation (not described)k information on other
335 of ventilationj octopus species
21 3 360 >14 min NS
(N ¼ 1)

Dorsal mantle skin 189

E. cirrhosa 10–11 350 (mean) (N ¼ 12) 2 NS NS NS NS
lesion

Branchial vessel hae- 255

E. cirrhosa 14–15 500–800 2.5 NS NS NS NS
molymph sampling
a
Juveniles (N ¼ 6 for each concentration).
b
Detailed description of stages of anaesthesia provided in the original study.
c
10–12 weeks post hatch; N ¼ 9.
d
13–14 weeks post hatch; N ¼ 4.
e

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DML: 18.5 cm (mean of N ¼ 5).
f
DML: 7.6– 17.1 cm.
g
Young and sub-adult; N ¼ 46.
h
M þ F, N ¼ 10.
i
N ¼ 3 for each concentration.
j
Additional detailed description in the original study.
k
A study of anaesthesia only.
49
 50

Table 10B. Magnesium chloride as an agent.

Time Duration of
Concentration to anaesthesia Criteria used for anaesthesia Purpose of Recovery References and
Species T ( C) Body size (% or g/L) (s) time to anaesthesia (s) anaesthesia time comments

447
Pallor, arm flaccidity,
cessation of ventila- for use to implant fin
tion, loss of righting Surgery EMG electrodes see
S. officinalis 15 365–890a 7.5b 300–720 0–25 min 120–1200 s 548
response, unrespon- (no details)
sive to noxious MgCl2 reported to be ‘more
stimulus reliable’ than EtOH

Floating at surface,
skin pallor, cessation Implantation of data
DML: 122–240 mm of breathing and storage tag-includes 20 min 132
S. officinalis NS 1.9 600 <5 min
(adult animals) medial fin motion, skin incision and dril- (full recovery)
unresponsive to gentle ling cuttlebone
mantle pressure
130

In sub-adults using 1.9%

DML: 170–205 mm 9–19 min
Floating at surface, MgCl2 time to anaesthesia was
(adult animals) 1.9 12.1  3.25 min
skin pallor, cessation Implantation of data 29–58 min (mean
N¼9 NS recovery
of breathing and storage tag-includes 36.7  14.17 min, N ¼ 4). Note:
S. officinalis NS <5 min time longer for
medial fin motion, skin incision and dril- the sub-adults were caught in
sub -adults
DML: 173–457 4–8 min unresponsive to gentle ling cuttlebone October but the adults were
132–180 mm 3.3 5.9  1.2 min mantle pressure caught in May, therefore
(sub adults) N ¼ 10 season could be a confounding
factor
440
48.2  5.1 180
20 g/L 468.7  88.9 Body colour, 381.2  62.1 s
(N ¼ 6; juveniles) (handling) Investigation of Study aimed to sedate
swimming behaviour,

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anaesthetics animals for handling not
S. officinalis 19.3  1.4 funnel suction inten-
Juveniles (no procedures for surgery. MgCl2 considered
sity. Detailed descrip-
27g/L 368.7  77.8 applied) 353.2  101.7 s the ‘best’ agent of the six
62.9  12.9 (N ¼ 6) tion of stages in paper
studied
Pallor, arm flaccidity,
cessation of ventila-
DML: 210 mm tion, loss of righting 447
L. forbesi 13 7.5b 90 300 Anaesthetic efficacy 98 s
M response, unrespon-
sive to noxious
stimulus.
208
Anaesthetic efficacy
Unresponsive to hand- 3.8% mortality
30.5 g/L 162.8 min and implantation of
D. pealeii 14 54.6c 186 ling, immobile, loss of NS Repeated induction investi-
(0.15 mol) (max 302 min) electrodes in statocyst
righting response gated; sedation time increased
nerves
with induction number
(continued)
Laboratory Animals 49(S2)
 Table 10B. Continued
Time Duration of
Concentration to anaesthesia Criteria used for anaesthesia Purpose of Recovery References and
Species T ( C) Body size (% or g/L) (s) time to anaesthesia (s) anaesthesia time comments
Fiorito et al.

198
4–18 min
Absence of body hard- (proportional to Inking and mantle colouration
Anaesthetic efficacy
S. sepioidea NS 42.2–290.9d 1.5–2 300–420 ness, flexible tenta- 90 handling exposure time changes on initial exposure.
study
cles, pallor and Also investigated MgSO4 at 3–
concentration) 4% (similar to MgCl2)

Cannula implantation 417

I. illecebrosus 8–15 300–500 7.5e A few minutes Muscle relaxation NS 300–420 s
in vena cava

Pallor, arm flaccidity,

447
cessation of breathing,
120 loss of righting Study also investigated 20%
O. vulgaris 22 7.5%b 780 NS Anaesthetic efficacy 480 s
F response, unrespon- MgSO4 reported to be ‘slightly
sive to noxious less effective’
stimulus.

Lack of spontaneous
58–1532
movement, complete 246f
O. vulgaris NS M (N ¼ 71) 3.5% 900 NS Brain ultrasonography NS
relaxation and cessa-
F (N ¼ 78)
tion of breathing

Removal of arm 549

O. vulgaris 17 NS 7.5%b NS NS NS NS
segment
539
O. vulgaris NS 500–1000 7.5%b NS NS NS Brain lesion NS

Lack of spontaneous
158–428 3.5% movement, complete Removal of distal 10% T. Shaw et al.,
O. vulgaris NS 1200 20 min 15–30 min
(N ¼ 17) (in SW) relaxation and cessa- of one arm pers. comm.

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tion of breathing

Pallor, arm flaccidity,

14 301 (F) 1200 cessation of ventila- 0 min 460 s
b 447
E. cirrhosa 7.5% tion, loss of righting Anaesthetic efficacy
15 845 (F) 900 response, unrespon- 3 min 420 s
sive to noxious stimuli
a
DML: 145–180 mm, M (N ¼ 7).
b
Isotonic solution in DW with an equal volume of SW (i.e. 3.75%).
c
DML: 14.8 cm, average of N ¼ 26.
d
DML: 7.6–17.1 cm.
e
In DW mixed 1:1 with SW; final concentration 3.75%.
f
See also Margheri et al. for similar study of arm ultrasonography.247
51
 52

Table 10C. Magnesium chloride and ethyl alcohol mixture as agents. In the column ‘Concentration’ values for EtOH and MgCl2 are indicated with their respective
concentrations.
Criteria used Duration of
Concentration Time to for time to anaesthesia Purpose of Recovery References
Species T ( C) Body size (EtOH þ MgCl2) anaesthesia (s) anaesthesia (s) anaesthesia time and comment
398

Drug microinjection Addition of

S. officinalis NS 200–1200 2% þ 17.5 ø 80–90 NS NS in brain; electrolytic NS MgCl2 is to ‘prevent any
lesion muscular contraction
during surgery’

166–1268
Haemolymph sampling;
M (N ¼ 20) 251
O. vulgaris 24  0.5 1% þ 55 mM 900 NS NS injection of LPS/PBS NS
89–1256
into arm
F (N ¼ 15)

See supplementary
Tetanisation A few data in Shomrat
O. vulgaris NS 200–500 1% þ 55 mM 25–45 min NS NS
(Vertical lobe) minutes et al.
420

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Laboratory Animals 49(S2)
 Table 10D. Clove oil as an agent. Clove oil is diluted in SW unless otherwise stated. For the four studies with clove oil it must be noted that only two cite the source.
Criteria used Duration of
Time to for time to anaesthesia Purpose of Recovery References
Species T ( C) Body size Concentration anaesthesia (s) anaesthesia (s) anaesthesia time and comment
Fiorito et al.

440

Body colour, Study aimed to sedate

Investigation of
46.5  9.0 0.05 ml/Lb Anaesthesia swimming behaviour, animals for handling
S. officinalisa 19.4  1.4 NA anaesthetics-no NA
31.1  8.4 0.15 ml/Lb not achieved funnel suction not for surgery.
procedures
intensityc Clove oil obtained from
Omya Peralta, Germany
208
Unresponsive to Anaesthetic efficacy
83.5 Anaesthesia handling, and implantation of Traumatic reaction; died
D. pealeii 14 1 ml/L NA NA
(DML: 190 mm) not achieved immobile, loss of electrodes in statocyst within 4 min.
righting response nerves Clove oil source NS
131

20 mg/L Surgical anaesthesia not

Anaesthesia
O. vulgaris 22.3  0.5 NS 40 mg/L Skin pallor NA PIT tag implantation NA achieved at any concentration
not achieved
100 mg/L tested; exposure times not
given. Clove oil source NS
449

Mortality at >550 mg/L

50 mg/L 559  52.6 586  53.6 s
Pallor, arm Also studied efficacy at
100 mg/L 317  32.8 620  60.8 s
inactivity, loss Study of 15 and 20 C and showed
150 mg/L 277  17.5 678  65.2 s
O. minord 25 NS of suction, NA anaesthetic that, as temperature
200 mg/L 265  23.4 724  60.3 s
cessation of efficacy decreased, induction and
250 mg/L 240  24.0 797  70.8 s
breathing recovery times increased.
300 mg/L 230  15.9 964  72.5 s
200 mg/L considered optimal.
Clove oil from Sigma USA
a

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Juvenile animals were utilised in this study.
b
N ¼ 6 for each concentration.
c
Detailed description of stages of anaesthesia provided in the original study.
d
Diluted in 95% EtOH and then 1:10 in SW; N ¼ 10 for each concentration.
53
54 Laboratory Animals 49(S2)

differences in ‘efficacy’ of these agents according to in depth and frequency of mantle contractions
age102 and body weight131 of animals; and temperature with attempts to eject the solution via the
of the solution.449 siphon. Subsequently the frequency decreases
It should also be noted that the majority of system- progressively with time after exposure, and the
atic studies of anaesthesia in cephalopods involve the coordination between the mantle and siphon
commonly used laboratory species, and particular care become uncoordinated. With prolonged expos-
should be taken when attempting to anaesthetise other ure, mantle and siphon contractions cease.
species, as responses to the same agent may differ (iii) Decreased chromatophore tone. Although animals
markedly. For example, benzocaine (ethyl p-amino become pale overall with increasing time of
benzoate) produces a violent reaction followed by exposure to the anaesthetic, flashing colour
death in the squid D. pealeii,208 but violent reactions changes have been reported on initial exposure
are not reported in the octopus E. dofleini where it has to anaesthetic agents (e.g. in D. pealeii208 or in
been used for euthanasia.450 S. officinalis440). The overall paling of the
animal is indicative of a decrease in the central
8.8.2 Criteria for general anaesthesia. A detailed dis- nervous system drive to the chromatophore
cussion of criteria for general anaesthesia in cephalo- motorneurones.201
pods, based on a review of recent studies on (iv) Decreased locomotor activity, arm/tentacle tone
cuttlefishes, squid and octopuses is now available.8,440 and sucker adhesiveness. The initial reaction to
They will only be outlined here, and further work is anaesthetic exposure may be an increase in activ-
needed to define species-specific criteria for general ity (i.e. agitation, for review see Gleadall439), but
anaesthesia. activity gradually decreases, including swimming
Quantification of the physical (externally visible) activity and fin movement, as for example in
parameters listed below might enable assessment of cuttlefish and squid.132,451 Octopuses will tend
putative ‘stages’ or ‘planes’ of anaesthesia, and studies to settle on the bottom of the tank as the arms
in cuttlefish440 and octopuses131,243,449 illustrate this and suckers begin to lose tone and adhesion, but
approach. In particular, ventilation depth and fre- anaesthetised cuttlefish may float near the surface
quency and chromatophore activity are the parameters of the tank.132 The arms should be flaccid and
most amenable to continuous real time quantification readily manipulated.449
to monitor the onset of ‘anaesthesia’. Currently there (v) Loss of normal posture and righting response. As
are no studies of electroencephalogram (EEG) activity animals (e.g. squid and cuttlefish) become deeply
in cephalopods under general anaesthesia, and all the ‘anaesthetised’ they lose the ability to maintain a
parameters illustrated below rely on the assumption normal position in the water column or adopt an
that the agents used to induce anaesthesia do not act abnormal position with the arms, head and
only as neuromuscular blocking agents. mantle at angles not normally seen in conscious
animals. For example, in squid and cuttlefish the
(i) Decreased or absent response to a noxious stimu- arms and head may appear unsupported by the
lus. This is the most important test that the mantle collar muscles; octopuses adopt a flat-
animal is sufficiently anaesthetised for surgery tened appearance on the floor of the tank rather
or other procedures to commence. Without than the usual posture with the head raised. In
blocking pain perception general anaesthesia addition, animals placed on their dorsal surface
cannot be considered to have been achieved. make no attempt to right themselves. The right-
Studies have used a mechanical stimulus (e.g. a ing response returns after ventilation and chro-
pinch) applied to the arm, mantle or supraorbital matophore activity return,243 and this is
skin as a test of insensibility to a noxious stimu- probably a good indicator of overall recovery
lus.132,243,447 The selection of this type of chal- from anaesthesia, as both effects require complex
lenge appears appropriate, as it is now known coordination of neuromuscular activity.
that cephalopods possess mechano-sensitive per- (vi) Absence of a response to light. The absence of a
ipheral nociceptors,10,11 and in future this know- reaction to a strong light has been used as one
ledge will enable the identification of better- sign of general anaesthesia (e.g. in Messenger
defined stimuli to test for insensibility. et al.447), but this is poorly characterised.
Assuming that there is evidence to suggest that
the animal is insensible, the following criteria
should also be evaluated. 8.8.3 Induction. A common practice for induction is to
(ii) Depression of ventilation. The initial reaction to immerse the animal in the anaesthetic solution (made
exposure to the anaesthetic may be an increase up in seawater) at its final concentration. However, to

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Fiorito et al. 55

minimise trauma it is preferable to expose the animal to essential that the mantle is perfused with oxygenated sea-
a rising concentration of the agent (as for example in water/anaesthetic. Such perfusion will only be effective if
Yacob et al.427), which will also allow any adverse reac- the branchial and systemic hearts continue to function,
tion to be quickly identified. but little is known of cardiac function under anaesthesia.
The animal should remain completely immersed in However, it has been observed that heart rate is very low
the anaesthetic solution for rapid effect. In addition, in O. vulgaris anaesthetised with MgCl2 (M.G. Valentino
the use of a specialised closed anaesthetic chamber and P.L.R. Andrews, unpublished observations) and in
should be considered. The chamber could also be used animals immersed in cold water.243
as a transport box from the home tank to the operating Monitoring of physiological function under anaes-
room, and it may be possible to habituate at least some thesia and during surgery is clearly an area requiring
species (e.g. octopus and cuttlefish) to the box and train research so that the extent of hypoxia/hypercapnia is
them to enter. This will reduce stress to the animals, and known and its impact on post-operative recovery and
a closed chamber will prevent octopus escaping. As a procedures can be assessed. However, O. vulgaris
general rule, animals should always be transported in appears to be able to recover rapidly from protracted
seawater and movement should be minimised. periods of apnea150 and Pörtner et al.417 comment that
Anaesthetic solutions should always be freshly cuttlefish and octopus are less sensitive to hypoxia
made, using filtered seawater, which is gassed (prefer- than squid (as might be expected from their different
ably with oxygen rather than air) and equilibrated to lifestyles). Doppler ultrasound (e.g. as in D. Fuchs and
home tank temperature before immersing the animal. G. Ponte, unpublished observations; Vevo 2100
It is not good practice to anaesthetise an animal in a Visualsonics, The Netherlands) offers the best tech-
solution that has been used to anaesthetise another nique for monitoring cardiovascular function, but
animal, as the water may contain chemical alarm sig- non-invasive methods for real time monitoring of
nals. Animals must not be left immersed in an anaes- blood gases (such as oximetry) and metabolic status
thetic solution in which they have inked. (e.g. NMR spectroscopy as in Melzner et al.455) need
Although limited in scope, the pre-anaesthetic sed- further development.
ation technique applied by Packard200 has not been
followed by any other systematic study of methods to 8.8.5 Recovery. The mantle should be flushed of resi-
minimise the stress of general anaesthesia in cephalo- dual anaesthetic solution and the animal then placed in
pods, as has been done for fishes.452 clean aerated/oxygenated seawater. Ventilation can
Moreover, there is no general agreement about often start without intervention (depending upon the
whether cephalopods should be deprived of food duration of anaesthesia), but gentle massage of the
prior to anaesthesia. Some studies remove food for 24 mantle is frequently used in cuttlefish, squid and octo-
hours440 while others do not.208 pods until spontaneous ventilation, as indicated by
We are aware of only one report of food regurgita- mantle and siphon movements, restarts. Other func-
tion by S. sepiodea during ‘anaesthesia’ in magnesium tions (sucker adhesion, chromatophore tone, righting)
sulphate,198 although defaecation is relatively common. recover after ventilation recommences, usually in the
In view of the above, the anaesthetic protocol for reverse order to which they were lost.
cephalopods requires careful planning, including con- Many studies monitor the time at which various
sidering whether or not to withdraw food and, if so, for functions return, but the time taken for full recovery
how long. of normal function from particular anaesthetic proto-
cols is not known and, as most studies of anaesthesia do
8.8.4 Maintenance and monitoring. Once the animal is not involve surgery, the impact of surgery upon recov-
fully anaesthetised (see above for criteria), it will usu- ery is not known, but see Shomrat et al.420 As currently
ally be necessary to remove it from the anaesthetic assessed, recovery appears rapid (less than 15 mins, e.g.
chamber to perform a procedure. Anaesthesia must in243,420,440) and dependent on the procedure(s) per-
be maintained for the entire duration of the procedure, formed, animals will usually take food quickly after
and physiological functions supported.282,453,454 ‘anaesthesia’ when returned to their home tank.395,420
Several authors describe apparatus (adapted from However, further monitoring criteria are needed to
fish anaesthetic apparatus) for maintenance of anaes- ensure that animals have fully recovered from the
thesia during surgery (e.g. for cuttlefish:132,418,454 for anaesthesia and any surgical procedure. If recovery
squid:417,451), and these could also be better tested, from anaesthesia is as rapid as appears to be, and the
and also adapted for octopus. anaesthetic agents used do not have residual analgesic
Marked suppression or cessation of ventilation properties, it is vital that suitable analgesics are admin-
(indicated by mantle/siphon contraction) is a common istered – which at this time of writing may best be done
feature of general anaesthesia in cephalopods, so it is

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56 Laboratory Animals 49(S2)

by infiltrating surgical sites with local anaesthetic (see remain in moderate or severe pain, suffering, distress or
next section below). lasting harm’. Other animals should also be humanely
killed at the end of procedures, unless ‘a decision to keep
an animal alive’ has been taken ‘by a veterinarian or
8.9 Analgesia and local anaesthesia
another competent person’, when the possibilities
Directive 2010/63/EU, Article 14§4, requires ‘an animal described below should be considered. Methods of huma-
which may suffer pain once general anaesthesia has worn nely killing cephalopods are discussed in section 8.11
off, shall be treated with pre-emptive and post-operative below.
analgesics or other appropriate pain-relieving methods, Release or re-homing: An animal ‘may be. . . returned
provided that it is compatible with the procedure’. to a suitable habitat or husbandry system appropriate to
At the time of writing, there is no information on the species’, provided that: ‘its state of health allows it;
the efficacy of any analgesics in cephalopods, although there is no danger to public health, animal health or the
both ketoprofen and butorphanol have been natural environment; and appropriate measures have
recommended.445 been taken to safeguard [its] well-being’ (Article 19).
As nociceptors have been recently studied in This could include release to the animals’ natural envir-
cephalopods,10,11 it should be possible to investigate onment, transfer to public aquaria, educational or other
the efficacy of systemically administered substances competent holding facilities. However, in general, ceph-
for potential analgesic activity. In addition to identifi- alopods should not be returned to the wild, except in
cation of mechano-nociceptors, Crook et al. also studies where, following a procedures, animals are
showed that injury to a fin in squid induced spontan- released immediately at the exact location where they
eous activity and sensitisation at sites distant from the were captured, during a relevant season for migratory
lesion including the contralateral body;11 similar sensi- species, having been certified fit by a veterinarian or
tisation of both the wound site and at distant sites has other competent person (Articles 17§2 and 19). Any
been reported in octopus.10 This implies that poten- requirements of other national and international legisla-
tially surgery at any surface site (but possibly anywhere tion regarding the release of animals to the wild must also
including the viscera) could evoke a more general sen- be met.
sitisation of nociceptors. If this is the case, it is essential Re-use: Animals may also be considered for re-use,
that suitable analgesic agents are quickly identified. provided certain conditions are met.
In the absence of the availability of systemic Article 16 defines re-use as ‘use of an animal already
analgesics, it is recommended that local anaesthetics used in one or more procedures, when a different
are used to produce localised analgesia either by infiltra- animal on which no procedure has previously been car-
tion into a wound site or local nerve block. Xylocaine ried out could also be used. By definition, re-use applies
(2%) and mepivacaine (3%) have both been shown to be to situations in which the objectives of the first and
effective in producing a block of transmission in the arm second procedures are unrelated.yyy
nerve cord lasting at least 1 hour (G. Ponte, M.G. Reuse is only permitted when:
Valentino and P.L.R. Andrews, unpub. obs.).149,456 It
should be noted that local anaesthetics acting on the . ‘the actual severity of the previous procedure(s) was
fast tetrodotoxin (TTX) sensitive voltage gated sodium ‘mild’ or ‘moderate’;
channels may not be effective in species such as the blue- . the animal’s ‘health and wellbeing has been fully
ringed octopus which possesses endogenous TTX.457 restored;
Selective nerve block with infiltration of a local . the further procedure is classified as ‘mild’, ‘moder-
anaesthetic should also provide an interim means of ate’ or ‘non-recovery’ (see section 8.1); and
preventing more generalised nociceptor sensitisation . the proposed re-use ‘is in accordance with veterinary
(see above), as it has been demonstrated that afferent advice, taking into account the lifetime experience of
nerve block by injected isotonic MgCl2 prevented both the animal’.zzz
local and distant sensitisation.11

8.10 Fate of animals at the end of a

procedure yyy
This distinguishes reuse from situations where the scientific object-
ive can only be achieved by using the same animal in more than one
At the end of a procedure as defined in section 8.1 procedure (this is known as continuing use, although the term is not
above, a decision about the fate of the animal is used in the Directive).
zzz
required. The Directive identifies three possibilities: For further discussion and examples, see pp. 8–10 in EU National
Competent Authorities endorsed document (2011), available at:
Humane killing: Article 17 requires that ‘at the end of a http://ec.europa.eu/environment/chemicals/lab_animals/
procedure’ an animal must ‘be killed when it is likely to interpretation_en.htm

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Fiorito et al. 57

8.11 Methods of humane killing with a rising concentration [optimal rates to be deter-
The ultimate fate of cephalopods in the majority of mined], ending with a final concentration of at least
studies will be humane killing. All personnel involved 3.5% in the chamber used for humane killing; possibly
in humane killing should be trained and be familiar enhanced by using chilled solutions or with the clove oil’s
with the principles of good practice, such as those set active ingredient eugenol, followed by immediate mech-
out by Demers et al.458 anical destruction of the brain’ (Andrews et al., p. 61).8
Article 6 requires that, whenever animals are killed: It was further proposed that if the brain was needed,
the immersion period should be extended to more than 30
. it should done with minimum pain, suffering and minutes to ensure unconsciousness as required in
distress by a competent person; and Directive 2010/63/EU (Annex IV, 1(a)) prior to removal
. one of the methods of killing listed in Annex IV of the brain. If the brain is not removed for study, con-
(section 3) of the Directive should be used, followed firmation of permanent cessation of circulation (see 8.12
by confirmation of death, using one of the methods below) is also considered as a possible method for com-
listed in Annex IV section 2. pleting killing according to Directive 2010/63/EU (Annex
IV, 2(a)).
However, whilst methods listed for fish might be
applied to cephalopods, Annex IV offers no specific 8.11.2 Mechanical methods. When carried out by
guidance on methods for humanely killing cephalo- highly skilled operators, death by mechanical destruction
pods. Although the CCAC459 take the view that the of the brain takes only a few seconds, but the nature and
priority is a rapid loss of consciousness, these guidelines degree of any suffering is unknown. For this reason we
concur with the view of Hawkins et al. from a discus- take the view that cephalopods should not be killed by
sion of CO2 killing in vertebrates that ‘it is more this, or any other, mechanical method without prior sed-
important to avoid or minimise pain and distress than ation/anaesthesia. However, it may be possible to utilise a
it is to ensure rapid loss of consciousness’ (p. 2).460 ‘mechanical method’ if it can be justified and is authorised
We have described some possible methods below, by the National Competent Authority as a specific regu-
but the efficacy, and level and nature of any suffering lated procedure within a project application.
caused, have not been comprehensively evaluated for Electrical methods such as ‘Crustastun’ used for
all of these techniques, and further research is needed. humanely killing crustacea, such as lobsters and
Animals should not be killed in the rooms used to crabs,461 might also be considered and evaluated for
house other animals nor within sight of conspecifics. their suitability in terms of animal welfare. It will be
It must also be ensured that blood or chemical alarm particularly challenging to develop humane methods
signals cannot be detected by other animals (e.g. by for use when the brain is required intact, but where
entering the water system). Whichever method is used the use of anaesthesia may be a confounding factor.
in a given species, the potential impacts of factors such
as body weight, age, sex, season and water temperature
8.12 Confirmation of death
on the efficacy of the method must be considered.
Use of a method for confirming death following
8.11.1 Chemical methods. Chemical methods for humane killing is mandatory, and options are listed in
killing cephalopods are based on an overdose of anaes- Annex IV§2 of the Directive. Two of the methods listed,
thetic agents, by using either a higher concentration and/ i.e. ‘dislocation of the neck’ and ‘confirmation of onset
or longer exposure time than that needed for anaesthesia. of rigor mortis’ are impossible for cephalopods – the
As also outlined above, these methods all have the poten- latter because it does not occur in cephalopods.
tial to cause adverse effects prior to unconsciousness, such This leaves three possible methods: i. confirmation
as skin or eye irritation, or sensation of asphyxia. To of permanent cessation of the circulation; ii. destruction
reduce and avoid any such suffering, animals should be of the brain; or iii. exsanguination.
exposed to a gradually rising concentration of the anaes- Confirmation of permanent cessation of the circulation
thetic, and not directly immersed in a solution at the full and exsanguination. Octopuses, cuttlefish and squid have
concentration needed to cause death. In tropical and tem- two branchial hearts that move blood through the capil-
perate species, cooling may be used as an adjuvant to the laries of the gills.462 A single systemic heart (the only one
anaesthetic for humane reasons, and could also reduce in nautiloids) then pumps the oxygenated blood through
post-mortem tissue damage if tissue is required for the rest of the body. The heart(s) may continue beating
in vitro studies. for some time after permanent cessation of breathing, so
A previous review of this topic proposed the following transection of the dorsal aorta/vena cava may be used.
protocol as suitable for S. officinalis, D. pealei, O. vulgaris Transection of the dorsal aorta/vena cava will be effective
and E. cirrhosa: ‘At least 15 minutes immersion in MgCl2, in inducing exsanguination if the systemic heart is able to

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58 Laboratory Animals 49(S2)

pump effectively (i.e. the anaesthetic used does not ‘competent persons’ (Article 9) should be involved.
supress cardiac function); also note that the systemic As part of competency assessment issues related to
heart is distension sensitive.463 Finally, the possibility of health and safety practices of cephalopod capture
transection of the branchial aorta afferent to the heart, at should be explored.
the level of the auricle, should be further explored con- b. Animal carers and technicians. This includes any-
sidering the easy access to them through the mantle cavity one involved in cleaning and feeding animals;
nearby the gills (G. Ponte and G. Fiorito, pers. comm.). cleaning animal rooms and equipment (e.g. tanks,
The effectiveness of exsanguination as a method of filters).
killing is not known. c. Animal technologists or research laboratory techni-
Freezing (below 18 C for several hours) after kill- cians. These are personnel who may be involved in
ing may be a further means of confirming cessation of manipulating animals during experiments, sampling
circulation and hence death that does not necessarily biological fluids, euthanasia and necropsies.
entail destruction of the body. d. Principal and other Investigators: All personnel
Destruction of the brain may be difficult to ensure in involved in performing research experiments includ-
some species because of the location and relatively ing in vivo regulated procedures and in vitro hand-
small size (e.g. Nautilus sp.) although this can be over- ling of live tissue.
come by training and a detailed knowledge of the e. Designated veterinarian (or other suitably qualified
cranial anatomy of the relevant species. expert).
The methods used for humane killing and confirm- f. Personnel responsible for the disposal of animal
ation of death should always be included in publications. remains.
Article 18 of the Directive requires member states ‘to
facilitate the sharing of organs and tissues of animals
killed’ where appropriate. Researchers should be encour- 9.2 Risk identification, prevention and
aged to use tissue from animals killed in other projects
for in vitro research (e.g. tissue bath pharmacology),
protection
rather than killing an animal specifically/only to obtain 9.2.1 Physical risk. Bites of cephalopods are produced
tissues; and consideration should be given to setting up by the hard beak-like jaws associated with powerful
banks of frozen and fixed tissue to optimise animal use. musculature of the buccal mass located at the center
of the arm crown. Such bites do not always penetrate
the skin of human beings (e.g. see p. 68 in Wells).150
9. Risk assessment for operators The effects of penetrating bites are exacerbated by
This section will focus on the potential risks from the enzymes, venoms, other bioactive substances and
direct handling of cephalopods in a laboratory setting, microorganisms in the saliva. The possibility of injury
but will not cover the more generic risks associated with should not be overlooked even when animals are trans-
working in either a laboratory (e.g. tissue fixatives, ported in a plastic bag.464
reagents) or a marine aquarium environment (e.g. The arms of all cephalopods are relatively strong, and
tank cleaning agents, slipping, electricity in a wet envir- this is especially the case in larger octopuses where the
onment). However, all personnel involved in research grip is enhanced by the numerous suckers. Areas of ery-
should be appropriately educated, trained and compe- thema may be induced if attempts are made to detach an
tent to perform any task relevant to the research. animal by pulling in air, rather than allowing it to leave
Personnel should be actively involved in risk assessment the arm naturally under water. Special precautions
and management, and incident reporting encouraged. should be used if handling members of the teuthoid
family as their arms/tentacles have hook-like appendages.
Staff should be trained in how to remove animals that
9.1 Personnel to consider
have become attached to their arms using the minimum
The following personnel should be considered and their of force and without inducing the animal to bite.
risks assessed: The use of Personal Protective Equipment (PPE),
such as gloves or gauntlets resistant to penetration,
a. Fishermen, divers or others responsible for the cap- may be suggested, but care should be taken to ensure
ture of cephalopods in the wild. Although such that the gloves do not harm the delicate skin of ceph-
people may not be employees of the institution/facil- alopods and that safe handling is not impaired by wear-
ity, as far as possible, the institution/facility should ing gloves. In addition, the typical behaviour of the
be assured that safe practices are being employed. animals should be well recognised and mostly for
The Directive specifies that, in cases where justifica- signs of imminent aggression, escape attempt and
tion is provided, to obtain animals from the wild other putative abnormal behaviours.

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Fiorito et al. 59

9.2.2 Chemical risk symptoms may last for 12–24 hours. There is no anti-
Direct contact with mucus, faeces and biological venom, therefore treatment includes pressure immobil-
fluids. Biological materials can represent a risk of allergy, isation and immediate transport to a medical facility
intolerance and/or toxicity particularly with repeated while monitoring respiratory and neurologic status.473
exposure. Exposure to mucus, faeces and ink may occur No reactions specifically attributable to the venoms
during routine cleaning and handling and other fluids from other species of cephalopod have been described,
during autopsy. Faeces and blood (haemolymph) are but there are several reports of localized reactions to
also potential routes of infection. We are not aware of bites from cephalopods although these seem rare. Wells
reports of reactions to these biological fluids, but in reports having been bitten himself 10 or 20 times
case of doubt the use of waterproof gloves is recommended; without event, but also describes a reaction to an O.
in addition, in case of inadvertent contact with any bio- vulgaris bite on the forearm in a student who had
logical substances, hands should be properly washed previously never been exposed to cephalopods.150
immediately. The response included swelling of the forearm (com-
Handlers and those undertaking autopsies should parable to a bee sting) and overnight pain, both of
also be aware of any experimental procedures which resolved the next day. A local skin reaction
previously undertaken involving the administration of probably related to proteolytic activity has been
potentially hazardous substances (e.g. infectious agents, described after red octopus (O. rubescens) bite.474
radioactive material, drugs, nanoparticles) to the ani- Haemolytic activity against mammalian red cells has
mals so that assessment of potential risks can be been reported in vitro with low concentrations of
undertaken. saliva from E. cirrhosa,475 but we are not aware of
any evidence for haemolysis in vivo, although caution
Venom, enzymes and other pharmacologically should be exerted.
active substances. The secretion from the posterior sal- Reactions to a bite will depend upon the sensitivity
ivary glands of coleoid cephalopods (see Table 4.1 in of the individual and this may be a particular issue with
Wells150) is injected into prey via the salivary papilla to atopic individuals or those who have become sensitised
immobilise and digest it with a mixture of venoms (i.e. by repeated exposure. The reaction to a bite may not be
cephalotoxin465), enzymes (e.g. chitinase, carboxypepti- immediate as indicated by a case report of giant cell-
dase, hyaluronidase, phospholipase A2) and other bio- rich granulomatous dermatitis/panniculitis one month
logically active substances (e.g. 5-hydroxytryptamine, after a bite from an octopus (species not given) on the
dopamine, substance P) as reviewed by Ruder et al.466 wrist.476 Bites are also a source of infection (see below)
A localised or systemic response could be induced by and again the reaction may be delayed.
one or more of these substances particularly in sensitive Precautions should be the same as for the protection
individuals, but documented examples of systemic reac- against bites (see above). All occurrences of bites by
tions to bites are rare except in the case of the blue- cephalopods should be recorded in the laboratory
ringed octopus. safety book, medical/paramedical advice sought parti-
In fact, the venom of blue-ringed octopuses cularly in cases where the skin is broken and the clinical
(Hapalochlaena spp.) can be fatal467 unless there is outcome monitored. Anderson et al. reported anec-
prompt medical attention.467,468 The toxin involved is dotally that immediate hot water treatment was effect-
the potent sodium channel blocker TTX469 that is ive in neutralising the localised effects of the bite of O.
found in the posterior salivary glands, skin, branchial rubescens.474
hearts, gills and Needham’s sac,470 so care should also
be taken with handling these animals post mortem. Seawater and ink. Cephalopods in general and
Recently, TTX has been found in the eggs with the octopuses in particular can forcibly squirt seawater
levels increasing after laying;471 therefore, the risk with and/or ink directly at handlers. In addition to melanin,
this species does not only come from adults. Other data ink contains an array of bioactive substances including
show that the venom is produced by symbiotic bacteria enzymes (e.g. tyrosinase, tyrosine hydroxylase) and
(Aeromonas, Bacillus, Pseudomonas and Vibrio) found other chemicals (e.g. dopamine, 5,6-dihydroxyin-
in the salivary glands.472 Clinically, the bite of the blue- dole).477,478 There is a theoretical risk that the seawater
ringed octopus is most often painless but freely bleed- may be contaminated by pollutants or infectious agents
ing. Erythema and edema at the bite site usually occurs, in open systems but seawater or ink in the eye could
but the most important effects are those that are sys- cause irritation and also distract the handler from their
temic. Most severe envenomations are characterised by task increasing the risk of a bite or animal escape.
generalised weakness, slurred speech, circumoral par- Wearing eye or face protection should be considered
aesthesias, respiratory difEculty and dysphagia. Such when handling cephalopods.

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60 Laboratory Animals 49(S2)

9.2.3 Biohazards they are handled wearing gloves. Arginine kinase from
The animals. Animals, especially those taken from Octopus fangsiao has been shown to react with IgE in
the wild, can transmit infectious agents (zoonoses) to the serum of octopus-allergenic subjects,483 emphasising
humans and as cephalopods host a number of bacteria the importance of identifying individuals who may be
(Gram þ and ), viruses and parasites; this is a potential especially sensitive to cephalopods before they begin
risk for anyone in contact with cephalopods. The major work so that the risk can be assessed and managed.
risk of transmission is via accidental ingestion or a bite.
This section will not cover the potential pathogen-
icity of different agents, however, mention should be
9.3 A summary of practical advice
given to, for example, Anisakis and Aggregata that 9.3.1 Assess and manage the potential risks. Each
are known to be the cause of the zoonotic disease, as person involved with cephalopods should be assessed,
reviewed by Yang et al.479 and monitored for potential risks, notes taken of the
Most information regarding infection with Anisakis species involved and the work to be undertaken before
comes from human consumption of uncooked cephalo- any work assigned. For example, the risks in moving a
pods, but poor hand hygiene and laboratory practice – potentially lethal blue–ringed octopus or a 30 kg E.
especially when undertaking autopsies of fresh animals – dofleini between tanks are different from moving a
means that hand-to-mouth transmission is a possibility. 200 g cuttlefish. Protocols of good laboratory practice
An additional potential source of parasites (and possibly (GLP) – Standard Operating Procedures (SOPs),
bacteria, viruses and toxins) is the fish, crustacea and should be developed in conjunction with the Health
molluscs used as food for cephalopods so wearing and Safety officer or other person, incorporated into
gloves and hand hygiene should also be considered. training programmes (see section 9) and common
The main documented risk is bacterial infection protocols (e.g. handling, cleaning, humane killing) dis-
from bites although the bacteria may originate from played or kept in a file in the facility and in the room
contaminated water as well as the animal itself.480–482 dedicated to procedures. Risk assessment will also need
Particular attention should be paid when handling to comply with local ‘out of hours’ policies. All working
cephalopods with skin lesions as these wounds are often areas should be equipped with required PPE (overalls,
infected (see section 4.4). hypoallergenic gloves, safety glasses, eye wash) and
have a telephone with an emergency number displayed.
Seawater. Seawater itself is a potential reservoir and
transmission vehicle for infectious organisms, chemical 9.3.2 Operator health. Most staff undergo some form
pollutants and toxins (e.g. from algae) particularly in of health assessment at the beginning of employment.
open systems. In seawater, many pathogens can be respon- Anyone working with cephalopods should be asked if
sible for infections, e.g. Staphylococcus aureus, they are allergic to these animals or if they are atopic so
Streptococcus pyogenes, Mycobacterium marinum, Vibrio that risks can be managed. All staff with regular expos-
vulniOcus, Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae, Aeromonas hydro- ure to cephalopods should be monitored regularly for
phila, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Prototheca wickerhamii.473 signs of sensitisation.
These represent a potential hazard for both animals
and humans who have contact with the seawater but 9.3.3 Recording incidents. All incidents (including
the risk should be minimal if the water quality is moni- ‘near misses’) should be recorded partly to facilitate
tored and maintained within strict limits. Additional development of improved protocols. For example,
safety precautions may need to be put in place if skin-penetrating bites must be recorded and reported
there is a breakdown in water quality management immediately to the relevant person so that appropriate
especially for those who may need to decontaminate action can be taken and any delayed reactions (e.g.
and clean the tanks. infections) documented.
The ‘incident book’ should be reviewed regularly
Allergens. Repeated exposure to animals, chemicals and protocols and policies modified as required.
(e.g. some disinfectants) and some disposables can Lessons for the wider cephalopod community should
result in the appearance of several clinical forms of be posted on the CephRes web site (www.cephalopo
allergic reaction (e.g. contact dermatitis or urticaria). dresearch.org) and if possible published.
To minimise the allergy risk operators should have a
medical assessment before starting work and at regular 9.3.4 Dealing with incidents. Staff should be familiar
intervals. Cephalopod mucus can be an irritant and has from training and laboratory SOPs/GLP with action to
been occasionally described as an allergen (A. Affuso, be taken in particular circumstances. The most likely
pers. comm.). Since there are cases of an acquired incident requiring immediate action is a bite in which
allergy to cephalopod eggs, it is recommended that the skin is broken and the wound infiltrated with

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Fiorito et al. 61

secretions from the posterior salivary glands and/or university or other competent awarding body, and
seawater. A protocol for this and other eventualities linked to Continuing Professional Development
should be drawn up in consultation with the trained (CPD) programmes of professional bodies.
on-site first responder and a medical practitioner. Training modules should be designed taking into
account of the EU Commission working document of
10. Education and training: carers, a development of a common education and training
framework to fulfil the requirements under the Directive.
researchers and veterinarians Ideally courses should be offered at EU level but as
The Directive requires that all staff involved in many aspects of training are ‘hands-on’ courses will need
regulated research are adequately educated and trained to be based in facilities with aquaria and access to several
for tasks they are required to perform (Article 23) species. It is proposed that a training course should be
including: i. carrying out procedures on animals; ii. structured into three modules; basic training, a species-
designing procedures and projects; iii. taking care of specific module, procedures, PSDLH assessment and
animals; or iv. humane killing of animals. management module. These modules cover the key wel-
Education and training therefore includes all staff fare assessment competencies and welfare training topics
involved in daily care (including veterinarians; since outlined in Tables 12 and 13 of Hawkins et al.484
courses on marine invertebrate medicine are rare), Delivery and assessment of modules are not dis-
researchers performing procedure and principal cussed here.
investigators designing studies. Anyone having direct
contact with the animals will need to be able to dem-
10.1 Indicative content of modules
onstrate that they are practically competent in perform-
ing tasks or regulated procedures and have this 10.1.1 Basic module: an introduction to cephalopods
competence assessed periodically. There may also be in research. This should cover: i. national and EU
an argument for providing limited theoretical training legislation on protection of animals used for scientific
for members of an institutional project/ethical review purposes; ii. a brief introduction to cephalopod biol-
committee about novel species. ogy; iii. why cephalopods were included in the
Trained individuals should understand and be able Directive; iv. the philosophy of the institution regarding
to demonstrate the importance of the animal welfare animal care and use; v. the requirement to comply with
regulations and guidelines for housing, care and use, all national regulations and institutional guidelines; vi.
assessment of animal welfare including signs of illness, the key differences between undertaking research in a
PSDLH and their palliation or treatment. legally regulated and an unregulated environment; vii.
Developing training programmes to meet these require- record keeping; viii. the requirement to respond imme-
ments is a particular challenge for cephalopods as although diately to any PSDLH issues; ix. reporting animal care
knowledge of general care and welfare is relatively well and use concerns at institutional and national levels; x.
developed (as reviewed in Fiorito et al.2), knowledge of health, safety, risk assessment and security; xi. roles of
PSDLH and their application to assessment of animal wel- the institution and project (‘ethical’) review committee,
fare aspects of a project are less well established.3,8 In add- veterinarian (or other competent expert), animal
ition, there are multiple species of cephalopod with a care, and research staff in the animal care and use pro-
variety of care (see also Appendix 2) and welfare require- gramme; xii. public engagement.
ments. Many aspects of training will need to be delivered by
animal technologists, researchers and veterinarians who 10.1.2 Species-specific module. This focuses on the
have gained experience prior to the regulation of research species utilised for research in a particular institution
involving cephalopods, but it would be desirable to involve and should include the following species-specific topics:
some trainers with expertise in working with aquatic ver- i. biology and behaviour; ii. supply, capture and
tebrates (including expertise in ethical review). transportation (including any additional permits and
Courses will need to align with specific national regulations); iii. environment (tanks, water, enrich-
requirements, and will need to be recognised by the ment) and control; iv. signs of health, welfare and dis-
National Competent Authority (http://ec.europa.eu/ ease; v. assessing when an animal should be killed
environment/chemicals/lab_animals/ms_en.htm) of humanely; vi. specialised techniques for identification
Member States as fulfilling the requirements of the of individuals; vii. anaesthesia and humane killing;
Directive 2010/63/EU for all persons involved in the viii. tagging and marking; ix. genotyping; x. anal-
use, care and breeding of cephalopods for scientific pro- gesia/anaesthesia/euthanasia/confirmation of death.
cedures. Recognition at EU level will facilitate move-
ment of personnel between member states. The content 10.1.3 Procedures, PSDLH assessment and manage-
and delivery of the modules should be validated by a ment module. This module has three main elements:

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62 Laboratory Animals 49(S2)

a) Project/licence and ethical committee applications. anticipate they will also be utilised by the wider ceph-
This will cover: i. experimental design from a 3Rs alopod research community outside the EU. It is recog-
perspective (see section 2.2.2; see also Smith et al.3); nised that in contrast to equivalent guidelines for
ii. principles of harm-benefit analysis (e.g. Bateson vertebrates the evidence base for some aspects of
cube); iii. principles of severity assessment (prospect- these guidelines is not strong.
ive, actual and retrospective); iv. setting humane end- It is hoped that this paper will prompt research dir-
points; v. writing a lay summary of the project/ethical ected specifically at the Care and Welfare of cephalo-
application; vi. public engagement. pods in the laboratory to provide a solid evidence base
b) Recognising PSDLH and their management. This for future revisions of these guidelines.
component deals with these aspects in depth as
this module is intended for those designing projects
Disclaimer
or performing procedures some of which may never
have been performed in a cephalopod previously. These Guidelines represent a consensus view, but inclu-
The following topics will be covered: i. evidence sion in the authorship or contributor list does not
for the capacity of cephalopods to experience necessarily imply agreement with all statements.
PSDLH (see review and discussion in Andrews
et al.8); ii. recognising PSDLH and techniques to
Funding
minimise and treat them in the context of a regu-
CephRes, AISAL and FELASA support this work. This pub-
lated procedure; iii. special considerations regarding
lication is also supported by COST (European Cooperation in
senescent cephalopods. Science and Technology).
c) Procedures. This covers: i. what is a procedure
within the meaning of the Directive?; ii. an introduc-
tion to basic surgical techniques and post-operative Acknowledgements
monitoring and care; iii. non-surgical procedures, tech- This work originates from a joint effort to develop the first
niques and assessing their impact on the animal. Guidelines for the Care and Welfare of Cephalopods in
d) Reporting studies under the Directive. Annual Research according to Directive 2010/63/EU made by the
statistical return (Article 54) and an introduction Association for Cephalopod Research - CephRes, The Boyd
to the ARRIVE Guidelines (www.nc3rs.uk/ Group (UK), and the Federation for Laboratory Animal
Science Associations – FELASA. This has been initiated
ARRIVE;272) and the Gold Standard Publication
and subsequently developed following April 2012 CephRes
Checklist.485,486 Meeting in Vico Equense (Italy). We would like to thank
Drs John Messenger, Andrew Packard and Sigurd von
Education and training of all personnel involved in Boletsky for their contributions to the initial meeting where
the research programme at whatever level is essential to ideas for Guidelines for the Care and Welfare of Cephalopods
ensure the optimal care and welfare of animals and for were discussed. We are also grateful for comments and con-
the standards to improve with time by identification tributions by Piero Amodio (CephRes, Italy), and by Ariane
and dissemination of examples of good practice. Dröscher (University of Bologna, Italy) for historical data.
These Guidelines and recent publications1,2,487 establish PA and GF conceived and edited this work as well as a
the core material required for the delivery of the mod- making a major contribution to the authorship. GF and GP
ules outlined here as a basis for education and training organised the meeting; GP and AC provided assistance to the
leading authors on behalf of CephRes.
of personnel involved in research now regulated by the
This manuscript provides the basis for the activities of the
Directive. The next step will be to develop the above FA1301 COST Action ‘A network for improvement of cepha-
outlines into a document that can be used for accredit- lopod welfare and husbandry in research, aquaculture and
ation of a course compliant with FELASA recommen- fisheries (CephsInAction; http://www.cost.eu/COST_Actions
dations for laboratory animal science education and /fa/Actions/FA1301; www.cephsinaction.org)’ aimed to facil-
training, as outlined by Nevalainen et al. and recently itate and support the cephalopod community in meeting the
updated.488,489 challenges resulting from the inclusion of cephalopod mol-
luscs in Directive 2010/63/EU.
We are grateful to Professor Torsten Wiesel for his enthu-
11. Concluding comment siasm and genuine interest for cephalopod biology research.
This paper represents the first attempt by members of
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tion feeding on Boops boops discarded from fish farms. nance of blood volume in octopus. 1993; 175:
Aquac Eng 2012; 49: 46–52. 211–218.
524. Estefanell J, Roo J, Guirao R, Afonso JM, Fernandez- 538. Robertson JD, Bonaventura J and Kohm AP. Nitric
Palacios H, Izquierdo M and Socorro J. Efficient utili- oxide is required for tactile learning in Octopus vulgaris.
zation of dietary lipids in Octopus vulgaris (Cuvier 1797) Proc R Soc Lond B 1994; 256: 269–273.

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539. Robertson JD, Bonaventura J, Kohm A and Hiscat M. 544. Beuerlein K, Ruth P, Westermann B, Lohr S and Schipp
Nitric oxide is necessary for visual learning in Octopus R. Hemocyanin and the branchial heart complex of
vulgaris. Proc R Soc Lond B 1996; 263: 1739–1743. Sepia officinalis: are the hemocytes involved in hemo-
540. Tansey EM. A histochemical study of the cephalopod cyanin metabolism of coleoid cephalopods? Cell Tissue
brain. PhD Thesis, University of Sheffield, UK, 1978. Res 2002; 310: 373–381.
541. Gaston MR and Tublitz NJ. Peripheral innervation pat- 545. Wells MJ and Wells J. Ventilatory currents in the mantle
terns and central distribution of fin chromatophore of cephalopods. J Exp Biol 1982; 99: 315–330.
motoneurons in the cuttlefish Sepia officinalis. J Exp 546. Ikeda Y, Sugimoto C, Yonamine H and Oshima Y.
Biol 2004; 207: 3089–3098. Method of ethanol anaesthesia and individual marking
542. Juorio AV. Catecholamines and 5-hydroxytryptamine in for oval squid (Sepioteuthis lessoniana Ferussac, 1831 in
nervous tissue of cephalopods. J Physiol 1971; 216: Lesson 1830-1831). Aquac Res 2009; 41: 157–160.
213–226. 547. Kier WM, Smith KK and Miyan JA. Electromyography
543. Beuerlein K, Lohr S, Westermann B, Ruth P and Schipp of the fin musculature of the cuttlefish Sepia officinalis.
R. Components of the cellular defense and detoxi- J Exp Biol 1989; 143: 17–31.
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lis (Mollusca, Cephalopoda). Tissue Cell 2002; 34: Patterns of motor activity in the isolated nerve cord of
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Fiorito et al. 81

Appendix 1. modification of physiological conditions in

Summary of key information required in a human beings, animals or plants.
project application under the Directive (see (iii) the welfare of animals and the improvement of
the production conditions for animals reared
for further detailed information Smith
for agricultural purposes
et al., 2013)1 (c) for any of the aims in (b), in the development,
manufacture or testing of the quality, effectiveness
Information required in applications for and safety of drugs, food- and feed-stuffs and
other substances or products;
project authorisation (d) protection of the natural environment in the inter-
.Directive 2010/63/EU Annex VI and Article 38(2)e ests of the health or welfare of human beings or
animals;
1. Relevance and justification of the following: (e) research aimed at preservation of the species;
(a) use of animals including their origin, estimated (f) higher education, or training for the
numbers, species and life stages; acquisition, maintenance or improvement of voca-
(b)procedures. tional skills;
2. Application of methods to replace, reduce and (g) forensic inquiries.
refine the use of animals in procedures.
3. The planned use of anaesthesia, analgesia and other
pain relieving methods. Questions that should be addressed in
4. Reduction, avoidance and alleviation of any form relation to the Three Rs in writing a project
of animal suffering, from birth to death where application, and in the project review and
appropriate.
5. Use of humane end-points.
approval process
6. Experimental or observational strategy and statistical .Replacement
design to minimise animal numbers, pain, suffering,
distress and environmental impact where appropriate. (i) What on-going efforts will you make to identify
7. Re-use of animals and its accumulative effect on the ‘scientifically satisfactory’ alternative methods
animals. that could replace the use of some or all animals?
8. The proposed severity classification of procedures. (Article 4§ 1)
9. Avoidance of unjustified duplication of procedures (ii) Could you avoid the use of animals by asking
where appropriate. different type of question or making better use
10. Housing, husbandry and care conditions for the of existing data or literature to address the scien-
animals. tific objectives?
11. Methods of killing. (iii) Could in vitro studies or in silico (computer)-mod-
12. Competence of persons involved in the project elling be used to replace some or all of the animals?

.Reduction
Purposes of procedures permitted
Directive 2010/63/EU Article 5 (iv) How will you ensure that the number of animals
Procedures may be carried out for the following pur- used in the project, and in individual studies
poses only: within the project, is ‘reduced to a minimum with-
out compromising the scientific objectives’?
(a) basic research; (Article 4§2)
(b) translational or applied research with any of the (v) Could any further reductions be made, e.g. by
following aims: taking expert statistical advice to help optimise
(i) the avoidance, prevention, diagnosis or experimental and statistical design?
treatment of disease, ill-health or other abnorm-
ality or their effects in human beings, animals or
plants. .Refinement
(ii) the assessment, detection, regulation or
(vi) How have you refined the ‘breeding, accommoda-
1
For full reference to the cited document see Reference List (#3) at tion and care of the animals’ and the ‘methods
the end of the paper. used in procedures’, so as to ‘reduce to the

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82 Laboratory Animals 49(S2)

minimum any possible pain, suffering, distress or examples of refinement in the context of specific
lasting harm to the animals’ throughout their procedures).
lives? (Article 4§3) (viii) How will you ensure that all relevant personnel
(vii) Have you considered and implemented all the working on the project are adequately educated
possibilities for refinement described elsewhere and trained, and are supervised until they have
in these guidelines? (see Smith et al. 2013 for demonstrated their competence in the proce-
dures? (see section 10)

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 Appendix 2. Recommended species-specific minimal requirements for care and management of cephalopods under Directive 2010/63/EU. The appendix is organized
into sub-sections providing information about housing, environmental parameters, transport, and feeding.

Appendix 2A (Housing) Recommended species-specific minimal requirements for housing for the establishment, the care and accomodation of cephalopods.a Data
for different body size/life stages are included when available.
Fiorito et al.

Nautilus sp. Cuttlefishes Squids Octopuses

b c
Life stages Juveniles, adults Juveniles Adults Juveniles Adults Juveniles, adults

Structural materials Fibreglass, PVC, Polycarbonate, glass or Polycarbonate, glass or Fibreglass, PVC, Fibreglass, PVC, PVC or glass (for glass
acrylic, glass or any any non-toxic materials any non-toxic materials acrylic, glass or any Acrylic, glass or any tanks see recommen-
non-toxic material non-toxic material non-toxic material dations in main text)

Pipe materials Copper and heavy Copper and heavy Copper and heavy Copper and heavy Copper and heavy Copper and heavy
metal free, PVCd metal free metal free metal free metal free metal free, PVCc

Recommended tank Cylindrical (height/ Maximal horizontal Maximal horizontal Circular/elliptical Circular/elliptical Any shape
design width > 1) surface area, rounded surface area, rounded
ends ends

Recommended inter- Dark Opaque Opaque Opaque; Contrasted or Opaque; Contrasted or Opaque-grey; Mirrored
nal tank colour dark sides so that the dark sides so that the surfaces should be
squid are able to detect squid are able to detect avoidede

Tank internal surface Smooth Smooth Smooth Smooth Smooth Smooth

Minimum suggested 0.005 square metre per 0.48 square metre per 0.30 square metre
size animal animal per animal is
recommended

Lid cover No (to control light No (but one shelter per No (but one shelter per No No Yes. Transparent
levels a dark plastic animal in the tank) animal in the tank) covers, firmly secured
drape or a solid lid to the tank

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with a few holes drilled
in the drape/lid to allow
dappled light into the
tank and communicate
the daily light cycle)

Drain cover Yes No No Suspended drains Yes

with netting

Mesh size No mesh 120–160 mm 120–160 mm Small Small No mesh

Light source Standard fluorescent Halogen lamps are Halogen lamps are Can be overhead light- Can be overhead light- Halogen lamps are
lighting is acceptable recommended. recommended. ing via normal strip ing via normal strip recommended.
Standard fluorescent Standard fluorescent lights or by 400w lights or by 400w Standard fluorescent
lighting should be lighting should be halide (10–100 lx) halide (10–100 lx) lighting should be
avoided. avoided. avoided.

Recommended mini- 30 L/animal 2 L/animal 80 L/animal 220 L 1500 L 100 L/animal

mum water volume (depending from the
83

body size of the animal)

(continued)
 84
Appendix 2A (Housing) Continued
Nautilus sp. Cuttlefishes Squids Octopuses

Life stages Juveniles, adults Juveniles Adultsb Juvenilesc Adults Juveniles, adults

Recommended mini- 1.5 m 0.05 m 0.4 m 0.6 m for a 1.8 m tank 0.6 m for a 1.8 m tank 0.40 m
mum water high

Group rearing Yes Possible but it is Possible but it is Yes Yes Depending on species
preferable individual preferable individual (not recommended for
housing housing Octopus vulgaris)

Recommended maxi- Few individuals 200/square metre 2/square metre Dependent on size and volume of tank; e.g in a 2- Individual rearing,
mum stocking density m circular tank, 10–15 individuals of Loligo species preferred
(150 to 250 mm ML). No less than 1 squid per
58 L

Enrichment Yes (Few smooth verti- A shadow area should be provided in each tank. A Substrate can be placed on bottom but be aware Each tank should be
cal PVC pipes attached fine layer of gravel/pebbles where cuttlefish can that it needs to be maintained to reduce bacterial provided with a den for
to the side of the tank settle is recommended in each tank. Sand can be problems. Fake seaweed and overhead shelter to the animal and a layer
to allow the animal for provided in the tanks provide shadow may also be used to give areas of of sand
its natural movement). shelter
Adding texture (artifi-
cial coral reef) to at
least one wall of the
tank may make it
more attractive to the
animal.
a
These requirements do not take into account those adopted and suggested for rearing cephalopods for purposes of aquaculture (for review see Iglesias et al.1).
b
Sexually mature females and males should be in distinct tanks to avoid fighting.
c
Schooling behaviour in Sepioteuthis lessoniana occurs around 20 days after hatching and that synchronisation of individuals into shoaling increased over time.2
d

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Indicated as suggested material.
e
Although recommendation to avoid mirroring surfaces in the tank is available only for O. vulgaris, we suggest the same precaution will be utilized for all cephalopod species.
Laboratory Animals 49(S2)
 Appendix 2. Recommended species-specific minimal requirements in relation to environmental parametersa to be applied for the establishment, the care and
accomodation of cephalopods.
Fiorito et al.

Appendix 2B (Environmental parameters)

Nautilus sp. Cuttlefishes Squids Octopuses

   
Temperature range 14–26 C (preferably 14–17 C) 12–25 C In accordance with the spe- 16–26 C
In accordance with the spe- In accordance with the spe- cies of which are being held In accordance with the spe-
cies of which are being held cies of which are being held cies of which are being held
Salinity range 34–36 ppt 29–33 ppt 30–36 ppt 32–35 ppt
pH range 8.0–8.5 (preferably 8.2) (within 7.8–8.1 (within the range of 7.8–8.3 (within the range of 7.9–8.3 (within the range of
the range of the natural fish- the natural fishing site) the natural fishing site) the natural fishing site)
ing site)
Max [NH4] <0.10 mg/L <0.5 mg/L <0.01 mg/l <0.10 mg/L

Max [NO2] <0.10 mg/L <0.2 mg/L <0.1 mg/l <0.10 mg/L
Max [NO3] <20 mg/L <80 mg/L <40 mg/l <20 mg/L
b
Min [O2] 8 ppm (saturated) 7.0 ppm Saturated 8 ppm (saturated)

Recommend 450–650 nm No specific requirements Normal overhead light so Natural light at 3–5 m depth
light wave length yellow/white (for deep living species, blue
light or shadow is
recommended)

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Recommended light Dimc <350 lux 100–200 lux 200–400 lux
intensity at water
surface

Photoperiod According to the natural geo- According to the natural geo- According to the natural geo- According to the natural geo-
graphical location of the graphical location of the graphical location of the graphical location of the
animal animal. A dimming period is animal. A dimming period is animal. Add crepuscular
recommended recommended effect as enrichmentd
Noise level and Avoid vibration Avoid vibration Avoid vibration Avoid vibration
vibration
a
These requirements do not take into account those adopted and suggested for rearing cephalopods for purposes of aquaculture (for review see Iglesias et al.1A).
b
Care should be taken that the source of oxygenation be kept away from the animals (in a separate tank or sump). Nautiluses are attracted to and can retain air bubbles in their eyes, and
under their hood leading to adverse health effects. Nautilus is particularly sensitive to air and any exposure should be avoided.
c
Tanks should allow for both dark refuges and dim light.
d
It is reported that crepuscular light prevent from premature hatching of paralarvae from octopus females caring eggs in tanks.
85
 86
Appendix 2 Recommended species-specific minimal requirements for short-duration transport for the establishment, the care and accomodation of cephalopods.
Data for different body size/life stages are included when available.

Appendix 2C (Short-duration transport)

Cuttlefishes Squids Octopuses
Nautilus sp.
Eggs, Juveniles,
Life stages Juveniles Adult Eggs Adults Eggs Paralarvae Adults

Source Wild Wild and Wild and Wild and Wild Wild; Captive Captive bred Wild
captive bred captive bred captive bred bred

Transport A bucket that Large buckets Large buckets Plastic bags Plastic bagsa 250–500 ml tissue Plastic bags Large buckets
container allows the animal culture flask
to move freely and Plastic bags
attach to the side
of the bucket

Water Water covering the 1 L oxygenated Maximum 10 Eggs should be 15 L oxygenated 50% water or Seawater (1/3) 1–5 animals/
quantity/qualityb bucket surface and seawater animals in 50 L transported in their seawater/ embryo media and O2 (2/3) at 15 L oxygenated
at least 2 shell depths (Hatchlings, oxygenated natural seawater animal (but and 50% air. 1–2 per a density up to seawater.
beneath max 10) seawater (if from wild) depends on size ml of sterile water. 3000 individuals
of squid and Methylene blue
distance at (0.5 mg/L or 0.5 ppm)
which it is travelling) can also be added to
the solution to reduce
fungal growth

Water 14–17 C 12–18 C 12–18 C 17–19 C 17–19 C Around 15 C Around 15 C 15–24 C
temperature

Food No No No No No No No No
deprivation

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Acclimatisation Yes, briefc Yes, brief Yes, brief Yes, brief Yes, brief Yes, brief Yes, brief Yes, brief
after transport

Quarantine Not required Not required Not required Not required Not required Not required Not required Not required
a
During transport within lab squid may be transported in plastic containers to awaiting larger containers such as an ice chest or bucket which can be submerged in the recipient tank. In
some cases it may be necessary to anaesthetize the animal with MgCl2.
b
No special requirements for quality, except the normal clean seawater utilized in establishments.
c
To equilibrate pH and temperature values and let the animal adapt to the new environment.
Laboratory Animals 49(S2)
 Appendix 2 Recomended species-specific minimal requirements for long-duration transport for the establishment, care and accomodation of cephalopods. Data for
different body size/life stages are included when available.
Fiorito et al.

Appendix 2D (Long-duration transport)

Cuttlefishes Squids Octopuses
Nautilus sp.a
Life stages Eggs, Juveniles Adult Eggs Adults Eggs Paralarvae Juveniles, adults

Transport Double-bagged Dark bags Dark containers (50 Recommend either horizontal cylindrical tank Double-bagged common aquarium bags placed into
container common aquarium to 100 liters) with or rectangular horizontal tank styrofoam boxes. The external container should
bags placed into styro- opaque covers. with closed top be able to carry and hold the entire water volume in
foam boxes. The exter- it even if all inside containers/bags are ruptured.
nal container should
be able to carry and
hold the entire water
volume in it even if all
inside containers/bags
are raptured.

Water 1/3 pre-oxygenated 1/3 Oxygen 1/3 Oxygen 2/3 sea- Depending on size 15 L oxygenated To be To be Octopus (BW 50–600 g)
quantity/quality seawater and 2/3 2/3 seawater water of squid and seawater/animal developed developed should be double-
air (1 animals Max density: distance at which (depending on bagged in a good
per bag) 3000/L Max 10 animal/ it is traveling size of squid and quality plastic
containers distance at which fish bag at a density
it is traveling) of about 1 octopus
per 2 L
seawater þ 2/3 of
oxygen AmQuel (a
commercially
available ammonia

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sequestrator) can be
added to bind any
ammonia that is
produced during
transport.

Water Should never 12–18 C 12–18 C Should match that of Should match that 13–19 C 13–19 C 15–22 C
temperatureb exceed 23 C where the squid of where the squid
naturally occurs naturally occurs

Food Yes (2–3 days) Yes (24 h) Yes (24 h) Only if possible Not Applicable Not Applicable No
deprivation (animals not For O. dofleini it
caught from the wild) is suggested 10–12 days.
(continued)
87
 88

Appendix 2D (Long-duration transport) Continued

Cuttlefishes Squids Octopuses
Nautilus sp.a
Life stages Eggs, Juveniles Adult Eggs Adults Eggs Paralarvae Juveniles, adults

Sedation Not Not Not Not Not Not Not Not

recommended recommended recommended recommended recommended recommended recommended recommended

Acclimatisation Yes (approximately 1 week) Yes (3–4 h) Yes (3–4 h)c Yes Yes Criteria to be Criteria to be Yes
after transport developed developed

Quarantine Yes (only for ill If applicable a If applicable a Separate quarantine Separate quarantine Criteria to be Criteria to be Yes (only for ill
or injured animals) diagnosis of the diagnosis of the levels tanks should be tanks should be developed developed or injured animals)
levels of parasite of parasite available if squid available if squid
infection and of infection is damaged and is damaged and
haemocyte count and of haemocyte needs veterinary needs veterinary
may be carried out count may be carried attention attention
by the animal out by the animal care
care Staff to staff to determine if
determine if quarantine is required.
quarantine is
required.
a
It is important to check local requirements for the transport of animals in all countries along the route while transporting live cephalopods. Nautiluses are particularly sensitive to
exposure to air and this should be avoided if possible by transporting them in vessels containing seawater.
b
Should match that of where the species naturally occurs.
c
Change of environment, particularly slight changes in temperature, can induce egg laying.

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Laboratory Animals 49(S2)
 Fiorito et al.

Appendix 2 Recommended species-specific minimal requirements for feedinga to be provided to animals as applied to the establishment, care and accomodation of
cephalopods. Data for different body size/life stages are included when available.

Appendix 2E (Feeding)
Nautilus sp. Cuttlefishes Squids Octopuses

Post
Life stages Hatchlings hatchlings Juveniles, Adults Juveniles Adults

Food items Dead food only. No food for Shrimp-like Different prey items. Live larvae such Live or dead Live prey. Crabs, mostly
Nautilus requires 1–7 days prey Frozen food is as artemia, mysis fish utilized Carcinus
food with a high acceptable (live or fish mediterraneus.c
level of Calcium preys preferred)b
Carbonate, such
as shrimp with
carapace, lobster
moult shells or
fish heads.

Feeding Daily-2 times/week Daily, ad Daily, ad Daily, ad Three to five Three to five At least every other day.
regimes libitum libitum libitum times a day times a day Providing food once a day
should reccomended.
a
Information on nutritional requirements of cephalopods species reared for purposes of aquaculture is reviewed in Iglesias et al.1A.
b

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They can accept frozen food from 2 months of age, after familiarisation.
c
A list of potential live prey traditionally utilized for octopuses is also given by Borrelli.3A Remove any solids after the last feeding.

References
1A. Iglesias J, Fuentes L and Villanueva R. Cephalopod Culture. Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands, 2014.
2A. Sugimoto C and Ikeda Y. Ontogeny of schooling behavior in the oval squid Sepioteuthis lessoniana. Fish Sci. 2012; 78: 287–294.
3A. Borrelli L. Testing the contribution of relative brain size and learning capabilities on the evolution of Octopus vulgaris and other cephalopods [PhD Thesis] Stazione Zoologica Anton
Dohrn, Napoli, Italy; Open University, London, UK, 2007.
89
90 Laboratory Animals 49(S2)

Appendix 3 - Reproductive strategies of some cephalopods species as deduced from Rocha et al. (2001)a. The list of
species included below (listed in taxonomic order) are those derived from Smith et al. (2013)b that counted more than 150
species utilised for the scientific purposes in EU over a 5-year period. The life span of cephalopods typically ranges from 6
months to 2 years; smaller tropical species tend to have shorter lives while larger, cold-water species live longer. The
sole exception known to this rule is Nautilus with a life span known to be longer than 20 years.

Reproductive Strategy

Intermittent Simultaneous
Polycyclic terminal terminal Multiple Continuous
spawningc spawningd spawninge spawningf spawningg
Nautilus sp. ˇ
Sepia officinalis ˇ
S. elegans ˇ
Idiosepius pygmaeus ˇ
Sepiola rondeleti ˇ
S. atlantica ˇ
S. robusta ˇ
Sepietta oweniana ˇ
Rossia macrosoma ˇ
Loligo vulgaris ˇ
L. (Alloteuthis) subulata ˇ
L. forbesi ˇ
L. opalescens ˇ
L. pealei ˇ
Lolliguncula brevis ˇ
Photololigo sp. ˇ
Sepioteuthis sepioidea ˇ
S. lessoniana ˇ
Illex illecebrosus ˇ
I. argentinus ˇ
I. coindetii ˇ
Todarodes sagittatus ˇ
T. angolensis ˇ
T. pacificus ˇ
Todaropsis eblanae ˇ
Dosidicus gigas ˇ
Octopus vulgaris ˇ
O. cyanea ˇ
O. macropus ˇ
Enteroctopus dofleini ˇ
Eledone moschata ˇ
E. cirrhosa ˇ
a
For full reference to the cited document see Reference List (#277) at the end of the paper.
b
For full reference to the cited document see Reference List (#3) at the end of the paper.
c
Iteroparity (egg capsules are released with a significant time interval between successive eggs spawned one by one or successive egg
batches), with asynchronous ovulation and growth between egg batches.
d
Iteroparity, with synchronous ovulation and no growth between egg batches.
e
Semelparity (egg capsules are released simultaneously), with synchronous ovulation and no growth between egg batches.
f
Iteroparity, with group-synchronous ovulation (at least two populations of oocytes can be distinguished at some time) and growth
between egg batches.
g
Iteroparity, with asynchronous ovulation and growth between egg batches.
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