Arkansas Tech University

MATH 4033: Elementary Modern Algebra

Dr. Marcel B. Finan

23 Isomorphism Theorems
Theorem 22.2 shows that each quotient group of a group G is the homomorphic
image of G. The theorem below shows that the converse is also true. That is,
each homomorphic image is isomorphic to a quotient group.
Theorem 23.1 (The Fundamental Homomorphism Theorem)
Let θ : G −→ H be a homomorphism. Then
G/K ≈ θ(G)
where K = Ker θ. Moreover, φ ◦ η = θ where η is the natural homomorphism
introduced in Theorem 22.2
Proof.
By Theorem 21.1, K = Ker θ / G so that by Theorem 22.1, G/K is a group.
Define φ : G/K −→ θ(G) by φ(Ka) = θ(a). This is a well-defined mapping.
To see this, suppose that Ka = Kb. Since a = ea ∈ Ka then a ∈ Kb so that
a = kb for some k ∈ K. Hence, θ(a) = θ(kb) = θ(k)θ(b) = eH θ(b) = θ(b). Thus,
φ(Ka) = φ(Kb).
Next, we show that φ is a homomorphism. Let Ka, Kb ∈ G/K. Then
φ(KaKb) = φ(Kab) = θ(ab) = θ(a)θ(b) = φ(Ka)φ(Kb).
To show that φ is one-to-one we use Theorem 21.2. That is we show that
Ker φ = {K}. If Ka ∈ Ker φ then φ(Ka) = eH . Thus, θ(a) = eH so that
a ∈ K. This implies that Ka = K.
Now, if y ∈ θ(G) then y = θ(a) = φ(Ka) for some a ∈ G. This shows that φ is
onto. Hence, φ is an ismomorphism and thus G/K ≈ θ(G).
Finally, note that φ◦η and θ have the same domain, codomain and for all g ∈ G,
(φ ◦ η)(g) = φ(η(g)) = φ(N g) = θ(g). Thus, φ ◦ η = θ. This completes a proof
of the theorem.
Example 23.1
Looking at Example 22.3, we see that the mapping θ : ZZ −→ Z Zn defined by
θ(a) = [a] satisfies the assumptions of Theorem 23.1. Hence, ZZ/ < n >≈ ZZn
As a consequence of Theorem 23.1, we have the following two theorems.
Theorem 23.2 (First Isomorphism Theorem)
Let H and K be subgroups of a group G such that K / G. Then the set
HK = {hk : h ∈ H and k ∈ K}
is a subgroup of G such that K / HK and
H/H ∩ K ≈ HK/K.

1
Proof.
First we show that HK is a subgroup of G. Since eG = eG eG and eG ∈ H ∩ K
then eG ∈ HK so that HK 6= ∅. Now, if a, b ∈ HK then a = h1 k1 and b = h2 k2 .
Thus, ab−1 = h1 k1 k2−1 h−1 −1 −1
2 = h1 kh2 , where k = k1 k2 ∈ K. Since K / G then
h2 kh2 ∈ K so that h2 kh2 = k for some k ∈ K. Thus, kh−1
−1 −1 0 0 −1 0
2 = h2 k . This
−1 −1 0
shows that ab = h1 h2 k ∈ HK. Hence, by Theorem 7.5, HK is a subgroup
of G.
Next, we show that K / HK. Since k = eH k ∈ HK then K ⊆ HK. Consider
the product (hk)k 0 (hk)−1 = hkk 0 k −1 h−1 = hk 00 h−1 ∈ K since K / G. Hence,
K / HK.
Now, consider the mapping θ : H −→ HK/K defined by θ(h) = Kh. This is a
well-defined mapping: if h1 = h2 then Kh1 = Kh2 . This mapping is onto from
its definition. To see that θ is a homomorphism, we take h1 , h2 ∈ H and find

θ(h1 h2 ) = Kh1 h2 = (Kh1 )(Kh2 ) = θ(h1 )θ(h2 ).

Finally, we show that Ker θ = H ∩ K. Indeed, if x ∈ H ∩ K then x ∈ K and

x ∈ H. Thus, Kx = K. That is, θ(x) = K and so x ∈ Ker θ. Conversely, if
x ∈ Ker θ then Kx = K and this implies that x ∈ K. Since the kernel is a
subset of H then x ∈ H. Thus, x ∈ H ∩ K and so Ker θ = H ∩ K. Applying
Theorem 23.1, we obtain H/(H ∩ K) ≈ HK/K.

Theorem 23.3 (Second Isomorphism Theorem)

Assume that H, K /G with K /H. Then H/K /G/K and (G/K)/(H/K) ≈ G/H.

Proof.
First we prove that H/K is a subgroup of G/K. Since K ∈ H/K then H/K 6= ∅.
Since (Kh1 )(Kh2 )−1 = (Kh1 )(Kh−1 −1
2 ) = Kh1 h2 ∈ H/K then by Theorem 7.5,
H/K is a subgroup of G/K. To see that H/K/G/K we pick elements Kh ∈ H/K
and Kg ∈ G/K and find that

(Kg)(Kh)(Kg)−1 = KghKg −1 = Kghg −1 ∈ H/K

since ghg −1 ∈ H (H / G.)

Next, we define θ : G/K −→ G/H by θ(Kg) = Hg. This is well-defined map for
if Kg = Kg 0 then g = kg 0 for some k ∈ K ⊆ H. Hence, g ∈ Hg 0 and Hg = Hg 0 .
From the definition of θ, we have that θ is onto.
θ is a homomorphism: If Kg1 , Kg2 ∈ G/K then θ(Kg1 Kg2 ) = θ(Kg1 g2 ) =
Hg1 g2 = (Hg1 )(Hg2 ) = θ(Kg1 )θ(Kg2 ).
Ker θ = H/K : If Kg ∈ Ker θ then θ(Kg) = H, i.e. Hg = H so that g ∈ H.
Thus, Kg ∈ H/K and this shows that Ker θ ⊆ H/K. Now, if Kh ∈ H/K then
θ(Kh) = Hh = H so that Kh ∈ Ker θ. Hence, H/K ⊆ Ker θ and this shows
that Ker θ = H/K. By Theorem 23.1, we have

(G/K)/(H/K) ≈ G/H.

2
Review Problems
Exercise 23.1
Find all the homomorphic images of S3 .

Exercise 23.2
Prove that if G is any group with identity e then G/{e} ≈ G.

Exercise 23.3
For any groups A and B, prove the following.

(a) A ≈ A × {e} / A × B.
A×B
(b) A×{e} ≈ B.

Exercise 23.4
Prove that if G is a simple Abelian group then G ≈ ZZp for some prime number
p.

Exercise 23.5
ZZ18 ≈ ZZ .
Prove that <[3]> 3

Exercise 23.6
Prove that if θ is a homomorphism of G onto H, B / H, and A = {g ∈ G :
θ(g) ∈ B}, then A / G.

Exercise 23.7
Give an example to show that if A and B are subgroups of a group G then AB
need not be a subgroup of G.

Exercise 23.8
Suppose that N / G. Let C be the collection of all subgroups of G containing H.
Prove that the map φ defined by φ(S) = S/H, where S ∈ C is one-to-one and
onto.

Exercise 23.9
Let G be a group with normal subgroups H and K such that G = HK and
H ∩ K = {e}. Prove that G ≈ H × K.

Exercise 23.10
Let G be a group.

(a) Prove that fa : G → G, given by fa (x) = axa−1 is an isomorphism.

(b) Prove that the set Inn(G) = {fa : a ∈ G} is a group under composition.
(c) Prove that Inn(G) ≈ GZZ(G), where Z(G) is the center of G.

Exercise 23.11
Z ≈ 2ZZ . Hint:Use First Isomorphism Theorem.
6Z
Prove that 12 ZZ 4ZZ

3
Exercise 23.12
Prove that if H is a normal subgroup of G of prime index p then for all subgroups
K of G either (i) K is a subgroup of H or (ii) G = HK and [K : K ∩ H] = p.

Exercise 23.13
Let G be a finite group, H and N are subgroups of G such that N / G. Prove
that if |H| and [G : N ] are relatively prime then H is a subgroup of N.

Exercise 23.14
Let G be a finite group and let H and K be subgroups of G with K / G. Prove
that
|H| |K|
|HK| = .
|H ∩ K

Exercise 23.15
Let G be a group and let H and K be normal subgroups of G with K ⊆ H.
Suppose that G/K is cyclic. Prove that G/H and H/K are cyclic.

Exercise 23.16
Suppose that K /G and H is a subgroup of G such that H ∩K = {eG }. Prove that
H is isomorphic to a subgroup of G/K. Prove that if G = HK then G/K ≈ H.

Exercise 23.17
Suppose that φ : G → H is an epimorphism and N / G. Prove that there exists
a homomorphism from G/N onto H/φ(N ).

Exercise 23.18
Let G and H be groups and let K / G and K 0 / H.

(a) Prove that K × K 0 / G × H.

G×H 0
(b) Prove that K×K 0 ≈ G/K × H/K .

Exercise 23.19
Let M and n be relatively prime. Show that φ : ZZ × ZZm × ZZn , given by φ(a) =
([a]m , [a]n ) is a homomorphism, onto, and Ker φ =< mn > .

Exercise 23.20
Prove that if m and n are relatively prime then Z
Zmn ≈ ZZm × ZZn .