ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING

UNIT-I: ENVIRONMENT, ECOSYSTEMS AND BIODIVERSITY

Introduction of environment:
Environment means different things to different people. To some it means home: to others it may
refer to a village, a city a country or the whole world. It is formed by combining two words, viz.,
‘environ’ and ‘ment’ meaning ‘encircle’ or ‘all round’.

Definitions of Environment
Environment is defined as, “the sum of total of all the living and non – living things around us
influencing one another”.

TYPES OF ENVIRONMENT

Environment can be divided into two categories

1. Natural environment
2. Man – environment

1. Natural environment
Natural environment is characterized by natural components. All biotic (living) and abiotic
components (non-living) are created through a natural process. Creation of these biotic and abiotic
components do not require any human support.
Example: soil, water, air, tree, radiations, noise, etc.,
2. Man – environment
Man is the most powerful environmental agent. He modifies the environment using
modern technologies, according to his needs to a great extent. Thus the man-made environment
is created by man.
Example: House, road, schools, railway lines, parks, etc.,

SCOPE AND IMPORTANCE OF ENVIRONMENT

Environmental studies discipline has multiple and multilevel scopes. This study is important and
necessary not only for children but also foe everyone: literate or illiterate: employee or non – employee
etc., the scopes are summarized as follows:
1. To get an awareness and sensitivity to the total environment and its related problems
2. To motivate the active participation in environmental protection and improvement.
3. To develop skills for identifying and solving environmental problems
4. To know the necessity of conservation of natural resources
5. To evaluate environmental programmers in terms of social, economic, ecological, and aesthetic
factors

IMPORTANCE OF ENVIRONMENTAL STUDY

Environmental study is based upon a comprehensive view of various environmental systems. It aims to make
 the citizens competent to do scientific work to find out practical solutions to current environmental problems.
1. World population is increasing at an alarming rate especially in developing countries.
2. The natural resources endownent in the earth are limited
3. The methods and techniques of exploiting natural resources are advanced
4. The resources are over-exploited and there is no foresight of leaving the resources to the future
generations.
5. The unplanned exploitation of natural resources lead to pollution of all types and at all levels
6. The pollution and degraded environment seriously affect the health of all living things on earth,
including man
7. Education and training are needed to save the biodiversity and species extinction
8. The urban areas, coupled with industries, are the major sources of pollution.

PUBLIC AWARNESS TO ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES/STUDIES

Need For Public Awareness:
The United Nations Conference on Environment and Development held at Reo de Janeiro in
1992 (popularly known as „Earth Summit‟) and world summit on sustainable development at
Johannesburg in 2002, have highlighted the key issues of global environmental concern. They have
attracted the attention of people.
Any government at its own cannot achieve the goals of clear environment until the public
participate in action. Public participation is possible only when the public is aware about the
ecological and environmental issues. Eg. Ban- the littering of polythene.
Methods to propagate environmental Awareness:
1. Among students through education introducing environmental studies in the curriculum.
2. Among public through mass media- environmental programmmes through TV, radio etc.
3. Among decision makers, planners, leaders etc.
Role of NGOs
1. Advise the government in interacting with ground level people
2. Organize public meetings to create environmental awareness
Eg. Recent report of „centre for science and environment‟ on permissible limits of pesticides in
cola drinks.
Public awareness is needed in the area
1. Study of natural resources-conservation and management
2. Ecology and biodiversity conservation
3. Environmental Pollution and prevention
4. Social issues related to development and environment
5. Human population and environment

CONCEPT OF ECOSYSTEM
Living organisms cannot be isolated from their non-living environment because the later
provides materials and energy for the survival of the farmer. An ecosystem is therefore defined as a
natural functional ecological unit comprising of living organisms and their non-living environment
that interact to form a stable self supporting system.
Eg. Pond, lake, desert, grassland, forest, etc.
ECOSYSTEMS
Ecology – earnest Haeckal- 1869 –derived from “oikos‟ – home , logy – study-deals with the
study of organisms in their natural home interacting with their surroundings.
Ecosystem – Tansley (1935) – self regulating group of biotic communities of species interacting
with one another and with their non- living environment exchanging energy and matter

ECOSYSTEM CHARACTERISTICS
Structural features – composition and organization of biological communities and abiotic
components constitute – Structure of Ecosystem
Biotic structure – Plants, animals, microorganisms – form biotic components – nutritional
behavior and status in the ecosystem – producers or consumers – how do they get their food.

STRUCTURE OF ECOSYSTEM
1. Abiotic or non-living components or physical components
2. Biotic or Living components
3. Energy components.
Abiotic Components:
Abiotic components enter the body of living directly or indirectly take part in metabolic activities
and return to environment.

Abiotic components are as follows

1. Atmosphere – The cover of air that envelopes the earth is known as atmosphere. Compostion –
Nitrogen-78%, oxygen- 2%, other gases- 1%
2. Lithosphere or Interior of Earth – Solid Earth – Radius 6371- density -5.5
3. Hydrosphere – 97% earth is water is in oceans fresh water-3% 97% earth‟s water is in oceans –
Fresh water – 3%.

STRUCTURE OF ATMOSPHERE
Five Layers
1. Troposphere – lower portion – extends from 0-18 kms, temperature-2.
2. Stratosphere -18- 50 kms- Temperature (-2ºC to -56ºC ) - Ozone layer3.
3. Mesosphere- extends from 50-85 kms- Temperature drops to (-95ºC)4.
4. Ionosphere or Thermosphere – extends up to 500 kms. Temperature – raises up to 1200ºC5.
5. Exosphere – extends up to 1600 km- temperature very high due to solar radiation
Functions of Atmosphere:
It maintains heat balance on the earth by absorbing IR radiation.
Oxygen– support life on living organism.
Co2 - essential for photosynthetic activity of plants.
N2 - essential nutrient for plant growth.

Interior of Earth or Lithosphere:

Three major Zones
1. Crust – top most layer- solid thickness 30 – 40 Km in continents and 5– 6 km in oceans.
Rocks of the earth crust– 3 types– Igneous, Sedimentary, Metamorphic.
2. Mantle – average density 3.3 – Thickness – 2860 – density increases with depth.
3. Core – outer core – solid, inner core – liquid). Depth – 2900 km from the surface of the earth –
density -12 – not exact composition.
Functions of Lithosphere:
1. It is home for human beings and wild life
2. It is store house of minerals and organic matter

Functions of Ecosystems - Ecosystem characteristics

Biotic structure – Plants, animals , microorganisms – form biotic components – nutritional behavior
and status in the ecosystem – producers or consumers – how do they get their food.

Producers – Photosynthesis – photoautotroph (auto – self, photo- light) Chemotrops or

Chemosynthetic organisms – Chemicals

Consumers – feeding upon other organisms

Types – Herbivores – Plant eating animals – primary consumers Eg ; rabbit

Carnivores – Feed on consumers – Secondary Consumers - feed on other carnivores – Tertiary/Consumers.

Omnivores – feed on both plants and animals – eg. Humans, rat, fox.

Detritivores - (Detritus feeder or Saprotrophs ) – feed on dead on organisms or decomposed matter eg;
beetles, termites, ants , crabs, earthworms.
Decomposers – nutrition breaking down in to complex organic molecules to simpler organicorganic
compounds – bacteria and fungi.

Abiotic Structure – physical and chemical components of an ecosystem.

Physical factors – sunlight, temperature, annual rainfall, soil type, water availability, water currents etc. –
strong influence on the ecosystem.
 Chemical factors: major essential nutrients – C, N, P, H, O, S.

Biotic Components – Abiotic components and vice versa – linked through – energy flow, matter cycling
Functional Attributes.
1. Food chain, Food web and trophic structure.
2. Energy flow
3. Cycling of Nutrients (Biogeochemical cycles)
4. Primary and secondary production
5. Ecosystem development programme
Food Chains
Sequence of eating and being eaten in an ecosystem.

Grass  Grasshopper  Frog  snake  Hawk

(Grassland Ecosystem)
Grazing food chains – Starts with green plants.

Grass  Rabbit  Fox

Phytoplanktons  Zooplanktons  Small fish  Carnivores( fish)

Food Web
An interlocked food chain is called as a food web. (Network of food Chains)

ENERGY FLOW IN ECOSYSTEM

Energy is defined as the capacity to do work. For living organisms, it is the basic force
responsible for running all the metabolic activities. The flow of energy from producer level to top
consumer level is called energy flow.
The flow of energy in an ecosystem is unidirectional. It flows from producer level to consumer level
and never in the reverse direction.
The process of energy flow involves transfer of energy from autotrophs to various components of
heterotrophs and help in maintaining bio diversity. The main source of energy in the ecosystem is
sunlight. About 80% of energy is lost during flow of energy from one trophic level to the next one.
Sun  Producer  Herbivores  Carnivores  Top carnivores  Decomposers

FOOD CHAIN

Plants by photosynthesis convert solar energy into protoplasm. Small herbivores consume the
vegetable matter and convert into animal matter which in turn eaten by large carnivores. This
sequence of eaten and being eaten, produces transfer of food energy known as food chain.

Producer  Primary consumer  Secondary consumer  Tertiary consumer  Decomposer

 FOOD WEB:
The food relationship between various organisms is being depicted by linking all the possible prey
and predators of different food level. In an ecosystem linking of feeding habit relations will provide a
food web.

Difference between food chain and food web

 In a linear food chains, if one species gets affected or becomes extinct, then the species in the
subsequent trophic levels are also affected.
 But, in a food web, if one species get affected, it does not affect other tropic levels so seriously.
 There are number of options available at each trophic level.

ECOLOGICAL PYRAMIDS:
The energy biomass and number of organisms gradually decreases from the producer level to the
consumer level. The total mass of herbivores in an ecosystem will generally be less than the total mass
of plants. Similarly the total mass of carnivores will be less than the total mass of
herbivores. The graphical representation of the number, biomass and energy of various energy levels is
called ecological pyramid. In any ecological pyramid the producer forms the base and the successive
levels form the tires which can make the apex. The ecological pyramids represent the tropic structure
and also tropic function of the ecosystem.
Types of ecological pyramids:
a) Pyramid of numbers
b) Pyramid of biomass
c) Pyramid of energy
Pyramid of number
 It depicts the number of individual organisms at different tropic levels of food chain.
 The animals at the lower end (base of pyramid) of the chain are the most abundant.
 Successive links of carnivores decrease rapidly in number until there are very few carnivores at the
top.
 The pyramid of number ignores the biomass of organisms and it also does not indicate the energy
transferred or the use of energy by the groups involved.
 The grassland ecosystem provides a typical example for pyramid of number.
Pyramid of biomass
 The biomass of the members of the food chain present at any one time forms the pyramid of the
biomass. Pyramid of biomass indicates decrease of biomass in each tropical level from base to
apex.
 For example, the total biomass of the producers ingested by herbivores is more than the total
biomass of the herbivores in an ecosystem.
 Likewise, the total biomass of the primary carnivores (or secondary consumer) will be less than the
herbivores and so on.

Pyramid of energy
When production is considered in terms of energy, the pyramid indicates not only the amount of
energy flow at each level the actual role the various organisms play in the transfer of energy. The pyramid of
energy is constructed is the quantity of organisms produced per unit time.

ECOLOGICAL SUCCESSION
In an area one community may be replaced by another community or by a series of communities.
Thus the progressive replacement of one community by another till the development of stable
community in a particular area is called ecological succession.
Stages of ecological succession
1. Pioneer community
First group of organism, which establish their community in the area is called „Pioneer‟ Community.
2. Seres (or) Seral stage
Various developmental stages of a community is called „seres‟.
Types of ecological succession
Primary succession: It involves the gradual establishment
of biotic communities on a lifeless ground.
(a) Hydrarch (or) Hydrosere: Establishment starts in a watery area like pond and lake.
(b) Xerarch or Xerosere: Establishment starts in a dry area
like, desert and rock.
2. Secondary succession: It involves the establishment of
biotic communities in an area, where some type of biotic
 community is already present.

Process of Ecological Succession

1. Nudation: It is the development of a bare area without any life form.
2. Invasion: It is the establishment of one or more species on a bare area through migration
followed by establishment.
(a) Migration: Migration of seeds is brought about by wind,
water or birds.
(b) Establishment: The seeds then germinate and grow on the land and establishes their pioneer
communities.
c) Competition. As the number of individual species grows , there is a competition with the same
species and between different species for space, water and nutrients.
d) Reaction. The living organisms take water, nutrients and grow & modify the environment is known
as reaction. This modification becomes unsuitable for existing species and favours some new species,
which replace the existing species. This leads to seral communities.
e) Stabilization. It leads to stable community, which is in equilibrium with the environment.

MAJOR TYPES OF ECOSYSTEMS

a. FOREST ECOSYSTEM
Definition: It is a natural ecosystem consisting of dense growth of trees and wild animals
Tropical rain forests → found near the equator, high temperature, have broad leaf trees like sandal,
lion, tiger
Tropical deciduous forest → Found away from equator, warm climate, deciduous trees like maple,
oak, deer, fox, rabbit etc.
Temperate rain forests → adequate rainfall areas, coniferous trees like pines, firs, squirrels, fox,
cats, bear etc.
Temperate deciduous forest → found in moderate temp., trees like oak, hickory, animals – deer,
fox, bear etc.
Tropical scrub forests → dry climate for longer time, small deciduous trees & shrubs, animals –
deer, forx etc.
 Characteristics of forest ecosystem:

 Characterized by warm temperature, adequate rainfall

 Maintain climate & rainfall
 Support many wild animals & protect biodiversity
 Soil is rich in minerals, so support growth of trees
 Penetration of light is poor so conversion of organic matter is very fast
Characteristics:
Abiotic: soil, sun light, temperature etc Biotic: forest trees,
shrubs and animals
I. Abiotic Components → abiotic components are physical components present in soil & atmosphere
(Ex) tempereature, light, rainfall, minerals

II. Biotic Components

1. Producers → plants absorbs sunlight & produce food by photosynthesis. Ex-trees, shrubs, plants
2. Consumers
Primary consumers → Called herbivores/plant eaters- depend on plants for food. Ex. Insects, rat,
goat, deer, cow, horse etc
Secondary consumers → Called primary carnivores/meat eaters. Depend on herbivores for food
Ex. Frog, birds, cat, snakes, foxes etc.
Tertiary consumers → Called Secondary carnivores, feed on secondary consumers. Ex. Tigers,
lions etc.
Decomposers: fungi, bacteria

GRASSLAND ECOSYSTEM:
Dominated by grass –few shrubs and trees are also found – rainfall average but erratic – overgrazing
leads to desertification.

Three types – depending on the climate

1. Tropical grass lands – found near the boarders of tropical rain forests.
Eg. Savannas in Africa. Animals– Zebra, giraffes etc. – fires are common in dry seasons
– termite mounds produce methane – leads to fire – high in photosynthesis – deliberate
burning leads to release of high CO2 – global warming.
2. Temperate grasslands – flat and gentle slopes of hills. Very cold winter and very hot summer
 - dry summer fires do not allow shrubs and trees to grow – soil is quite fertile – cleaned for
agriculture.
3. Polar grasslands – found in arctic polar region – organism – arctic wolf, fox, etc. – Athick layer
of ice remains frozen under the soil surface throughout the year – known as permafrost – summer
insects and birds appear

Components:
Structural Components:
I. Abiotic Components → abiotic components are physical components present in soil & atmosphere
(Ex) tempereature, light, rainfall, minerals
II. Biotic Components
Producers → plants absorbs sunlight & produce food by photosynthesis. Ex-trees, shrubs, plants
Consumers
Primary consumers → Called herbivores/plant eaters- depend on plants for food. Ex. Insects, rat,
goat, deer, cow, horse etc
Secondary consumers → Called primary carnivores/meat eaters. Depend on herbivores for food Ex.
Frog, birds, cat, snakes, foxes etc.
Tertiary consumers → Called Secondary carnivores, feed on secondary consumers. Ex. Tigers, lions
etc.
Decomposers → Organisms which feed on dead organisms, plants & animals & decompose into simpler
compounds Ex.

C. DESERT ECOSYSTEM
Desert occupies about 35% of our world‟s land area. It is characterised by less than 25 cm rainfall. The
atmosphere is dry and hence it is a poor insulator.
Types:
1. Tropical desert-found in Africa-Sahara and Rajasthan – Thar
2. Temperate desert-south California-Majave
3. Cold desert-China-Gobi desert
Characteristics:
1 Air isdry
2 Climate ishot
3 Annual rainfall is less than 25 cm
4 Vegetation is poor
Structure and functions of the desert Ecosystems
I. Abiotic Components - Eg. Temperature, rainfall, sunlight, water, etc.
II. Biotic Components
1. Producers Eg. Shrubs, bushes, some grasses and few trees.
In deserts mostly Succulent (e.g., cacti) plants are found available. They have waxy layer on
the outside to protect them from the sun.
2. Consumers Eg. Squirrels, mice, foxes, rabbits, deer and reptiles
These animals dig holes in the ground to live in. Most of the animals can extract water from the
seeds they eat.

AQUATIC ECOSYSTEM

Definition
Deals with water bodies and biotic communities present in them- Classified as fresh water and
marine ecosystems. Fresh water systems are classified as lentic and lotic ecosystems.
Types:
1. Pond ecosystem: Small fresh water ecosystem – seasonal in nature

– organisms: algae, aquatic plants, insects, fishes etc. Ponds are very often exposed to anthropo genic
pressure like cloth washing, bathing, cattle bathing, swimming etc.

2. Lake ecosystem: Big fresh water ecosystem –

Zonation or stratification, Especially during summer is a common one.
Top layer – shallow, warm, prone to anthropogenic activities –
Littoral Zone - Second layer – enough sunlight, high primary productivity
Limnetic zone Third layer – very poor or no sunlight –
Profundal zone Eg. Dal lake in Srinagar, Naini lake in Nainital

Organisms: planktons – phytoplankton eg. Algae – zooplankton eg. Rotifers Nektons – that swims in
water eg. Fishes Neustons – that float on the surface of water Benthos – that attached to sediments eg.
Snails
Types of lakes: Many types- oligotrophic lakes – with less nutrient content – Eutrophic lakes – with
very high nutrient content due to fertilizer contamination – desert salt lakes – that contains high saline
water due to over evaporation – volcanic lakes – formed by water emitted from magma due to volcanic
eruptions – dystrophic lakes – that contains highly acidic water (low pH) – endemic lakes – lakes that
contain many endemic species etc.
3. Streams: fresh water ecosystem where water current plays a major role. Oxygen and nutrient content
are uniform. Stream organisms have to face extreme difference in climatic conditions but they do not
suffer from oxygen deficiency as pond and lake organisms. This is because large surface area of running
water provides more oxygen supply. The animals have very narrow range of tolerance towards oxygen
deficiency. Thus stream are worst victims of industrial pollution.

River ecosystem: large streams flowing from mountain highlands are rivers.

Three phases: 1. mountain high lands – rushing down water fall of water – large quantity of dissolved
oxygen – plants attached to rocks and fishes that require more oxygen are found. 2. Second phase –
gentle slopes of hills – warmer – supports the growth of plants and fishes that require less oxygen are
seen. 3. Third phase: river shapes the land – lots of silts, nutrients are brought – deposited in plains and
delta – very rich in biodiversity.

4. Oceans: Gigantic reservoirs of water covering >70% of earth surface – 2,50,000 species – huge
variety of sea products, drugs etc. – provide Fe, Mg, oils, natural gas, and etc. – major sinks of carbon di
oxide – regulate biochemical cycles.

Two zones: coastal zone – warm, nutrient rich, shallow – high sunlight – high primary productivity.
Open sea – away from continental shelf – vertically divided in to zones. 1. euphotic zone – abundant
sunlight 2. bathyal zone – dim sunlight 3.abyssal one dark zone – world‟s largest ecological unit.

Characteristic features of Ocean Ecosystem

1. It occupies a large surface area with saline water & rich in biodiversity
2. Since ship, submarines can sail in ocean, commercial activities may be carried out.
3. It moderates the temperature of the earth.

Structure and function of Ocean Ecosystems

Abiotic Components - Eg. Temperature, light, NaCl, K, Ca, and Mg Salts, alkalinity.

Biotic Components
1. Producers - Eg. Phytoplanktons (diatoms, unicellular algae, etc.) and marine plants (sea weeds,
chlorophyceal, phaeophyceae).
2. Consumers –
Primary Consumer - Eg. Crustaceans, moiluscs, fish.
Secondary Consumer - Eg. Herring sahd, mackerel
Tertiary Consumer – Eg. Cod, Haddock, etc.,
Decomposers - Eg. Bacteria and some fungi

Estuary: coastal area where river meet ocean – strongly affected by tidal actions – very rich in
nutrients – very rich in biodiversity also – organisms are highly tolerant – many species are endemic – high
food productivity – however to be protected from pollution.
Characteristics:
Structural Components:
Abiotic: pH, nutrients, D.O, temp, climatic conditions, etc. Biotic:
Phytoplankton, fishes, snails insects, birds, etc.
Energy flow:
Phytoplankton  Insects  small fishes  huge fishes
INTRODUCTION TO BIODIVERSITY
Biodiversity is the abbreviated word for “biological diversity” (bio - life or living organisms,
diversity-variety). Thus biodiversity is the total variety of life on our planet, the total number of races,
varieties and species. The sum of total of various types of microbes, plants and animals (producers,
consumers and decomposers) in a system.

Biomes can be considered life zones, environment with similar climatic, topographic and soil conditions
and roughly comparable biological communities (Eg. Grassland, forest). The biomes shelter an
astounding variety of living organisms (from driest desert to dripping rainforest, from highest mountain
to deepest ocean trenches, life occurs in a marvelous spectrum of size, shape, colour and inter
relationship). The variety of living organisms, the biodiversity, makes the world beautiful.

There are 1.4 million species known presently. But based on new discoveries, by research
expeditions, mainly in tropics, taxonomists estimate there are between 350 million different species may
be alive today. Insects make up more than one half of all known species and may comprise more than
90% of all species on earth
The concept of biodiversity may be analyzed in 3 different levels. They are
 Ecosystem or ecological diversity → Diversity at the ecological or habitat level is ecosystem
diversity. Eg. River ecosystem.
 Species diversity - diversity between different species. (ex) plant species = apple, mango,
grapes, animal species = lion, tiger, elephant etc.
 Genetic diversity - Diversity within the species is genetic diversity.(ex) teak wood varieties,
Indian, Burma, Malaysians
Biodiversity Hotspots:
Most of the world‟s biodiversity are near the equator especially tropical rain forest and coral
reefs. Of the entire world species, only 10 -15% live in North America and Europe.
The Malaysian Peninsula, for instance, has at least 8000 species of flowing plants, while Britain,
with an area twice as large, has only 1400 species. South America has 200 000species of plants.
Areas isolated by water, desert or mountain can also have high conc. of unique species and
biodiversity. New Zealand, South Africa and California are all mid-latitude area isolated by barriers that
prevent mixing up of biological communities from other region and produce rich, unusual collection of
species

Significance of Biodiversity:
Biosphere is a life supporting system to the human race. Each species in the biosphere has its
own significance.
It is the combination of different organisms that enables the biosphere to sustain human race.
Biodiversity is vital for a healthy biosphere.
Biodiversity is must for the stability and proper functioning of the biosphere
Besides these biodiversity is so important due to having consumptive use values, productive use values,
social values, ethical values and aesthetic values
Benefits of biodiversity:
We benefit from other organism in many ways. Even in significant organisms can play
irreplaceable roles in ecological systems or the source of genes or drugs that some day become
indispensable.
Food: Many wild plant species could make important contributions to human food suppliers
either as they are or as a source of material to improve domestic crops. About 80,000 edible plants could
be used by human.
Drugs and medicine: Living organisms provides many useful drugs and medicines. The United
Nations Development Programme derived from developing world plants, animals and microbes to be
more than $30 billion per year.

Eg. For natural medicinal products Penicillin – fungus is the source – Antibiotic Quinine – chincona bark -
Malaria treatment Morphine – poppy bark – Analgesic
Twenty years before, once the drugs were not introduced, childhood leukemia was fatal. Now the
remission rate for childhood leukemia is 99%.
Productive values
Biodiversity products have obtained a commercial value. These products are marketed and sold. These
products may be derived from the animals and plants.
Social Values
Social value of the biodiversity refers to the manner in which the bio-resources are used to the society.
These values are associated with the social life, religion and spiritual aspects of the people.
Holy plants
Many plants are considered as the holy plants in our country. Examples: Tulsi, peepal, lotus,
Aesthetic value
The beautiful nature of plants and animals insist us to protect the biodiversity. The most important
aesthetic value of biodiversity is eco-tourism.
Optional values
The optional values are the potentials of biodiversity that are presently unknown and need to be
known. The optional values of biodiversity suggests that any species may be proved to be a valuable
species after someday.
Ecological benefits:
Human life is inextricably linked to ecological services provided by other organisms. Soil
formation, waste disposal, air and water purification, solar energy absorption, nutrient cycling and
food production all depend on biodiversity. In many environments, high diversity may help
biological communities to withstand environmental stress better and to recover more quickly than
those with fewer species

Threats to biodiversity:
1. HABITAT LOSS: Loss of population of interbreeding organism.
Factors influencing Habitat Loss: Deforestation:
 Forest & grasslands are cleared for agricultural lands or developmental projects.
 Many species disintegrate due to loss of natural habitat.
Destruction of wetlands:
 Wetlands are destroyed due to pollution, draining etc.
Developmental activities:
 Construction of dams in forest, industrial effluents kill birds & aquatic organisms.
Habitat fragmentation:
 Habitat is divided into small & scattered
 So, many animal & birds are vanishing.
Raw materials:
 For the production of hybrid seeds, wild plants are used as raw materials.
Production of Drugs:
 Pharmaceutical companies collect wild plants for drugs production.
 So, no of medicinal plants are on the verge of extinction.
Illegal Trade:
Trade on wild life reduces bio-diversity
Killing / Hunting of animals is poaching.
Types:
Subsistence Poaching - killing animals for surviving.
Commercial Poaching - hunting animals for selling
Factors influencing Poaching:
 Human Population: increase in population increases pressure on forest resources.
 Commercial activities: Smuggling of wild life products for high profit.
 Wildlife products=Furs, horns, tusk, live specimen, herbal products.
 Importers of wild life = Europe, North America, Japan, Taiwan, Hong Kong
Examples:
 Male gorilla for its body parts
 Blue morpho butterfly – making attractive trays
 Snowy large egret – used for white feather in
 ladies hat.US
 Elephant feet – for making Ash trays
 Elephant – for ivory
 Bengal tiger – soled for $1,00,000 in foreign market
 Dynamite fishing – high tech fishing, exhaust
 marine life. Sea horses, Sea turtles

Hunting: Over harvesting is responsible for depletion or extinction of many species.

Eg. The American passenger pigeon was the world‟s most abundant bird. In spite of this vast
population, market hunting and habitat destruction caused the entire population to crash within 20
years.
Fragmentation;
Habitat fragmentation reduces the biodiversity because many animals like bears and large cats
require large territories to subsist. Some forest birds reproduce only in deep forest or habitat far
from human settlement. A large island for example, can support more individuals of given species
and therefore less likely to suffer extinction due to genetic problems and natural catastrophes.

2. MAN-WILDLIFE CONFLICTS:
Examples:
Sambalpur – orissa:195 humans were killed by elephants, In retaliation- 98 elephants were killed, 30
injured by villagers.
Kote – Chamrajanagar –Mysore: Sugarcane & cotton crop, explosives
Royal Chitwan National Park – Kathmandu Man-eating tiger killed 16 Nepalese, 4 yrs child
Sanjay Gandhi National Park – Mumbai Leopards killed– 14 persons

Factors Influencing man-animal conflicts:

1. Shrinking of forest compels wildlife to move outside the forest
2. Electric wiring around crops
3. Animals suffer pain and attack humans
4. Female wildlife attack human more to safe its cubs.
 5. Forest dept. don‟t cultivate foods for wild
6. Cash compensation by Government – 400/- per quintal. But market price 2400/-
7. Garbage near human settlement attract wild

HOT- SPOTS OF BIODIVERSITY

The hot spots are the geographic areas which posses high endemic species. An area is designated as a
hot spot when it contains at least 0.5% of plant species as endemic.
Area of hot spot: There are 25 Hotspots of biodiversity on worldwide. Out of which 2 are present in India.
Eastern Himalayas → Nepal , Bhutan, Indo-Burma region,30% of endemic species
Western Ghats → Srilanka region, ex – Maharastra, Karnataka, tamilandu, kerela. 1500 endemic species .
Plants → Ternstroemia japonics, hypericumAnimals → Blue bird, lizard, hawk

ENDANGERED & ENDEMIC SPECIES OF INDIA:

Species are classified into various types:
Extinct species → No longer found in the world
Endangered species → A species is said to be endangered when its no has been reduced to a critical level.
Unless it is protected it is in danger of extinction.
Vulnerable species → when its population is facing continuous decline due to habitat loss.
Rare species → when it is localized within restricted area.

ENDANGERED SPECIES OF INDIA:

A species is said to be endangered when it‟s no has been reduced to a critical level. Unless it is protected it
is in danger of extinction

Important Endangered Species:

Reptiles → Tortoise, green sea turtle, gharial, python
Birds → Peacock, Siberian white crane, pelican, Indian Bustard
 Mammals → Indian wolf, red fox, tiger, Indian lion, golden cat, desert cat. Primates → lion tailed monkey,
capped monkey, golden monkey
Plants → medicinal plants, sandal wood tree

Factors affecting Endangered Species:

• Pollution: Human disposal in nature. Travel through food chain and leads to death
• Over-exploitation: over usage of natural resources & poaching leads to extinct of wild life
• Climate change: ozone depletion, flood etc, threatens organisms and ecosystem
 Remedial Measures:
• CITES – Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species is signed
• 2900 and other 900 endangered species are restricted for trade.
ENDEMIC SPECIES:
The species, which are found only in a particular region are known as endemic species.
62% of endemic species are found in Himalayas and Western Ghats

Fauna:
 Animals present in a particular region or period is Fauna.
 62% amphibians & 50% lizards are endemic to Western Ghats.
 (ex) Monitor lizards, reticulated python, Indian salamander, viviparous toad.
Flora:
 Plants present in a particular region or period is Flora
 (ex) Sapria himalayana, ovaria lurida, pteridophyta, angiosperms etc.
Factors affecting endemic species: Habitat loss, fragmentation, pollution

Conservation of biodiversity:
In general biodiversity is generally disturbed by human activities. Definition : The management of
biosphere for the sustainable benefit to meet the needs of future generation.
Advantages or Need of Biodiversity:

 Recreation, tourism, Drugs, herbs, food, important raw materials, preserves plants & animals,
hence leads to life supporting systems.
Types of Biodiversity Conservation:
• In-situ conservation (within habitat)
• Ex-situ conservation (outside habitat)In-situ or on-site conversion
 In-situ conservation:
 Conservation of species in its natural habitat, in place where the species normally occurs
 The strategy involves establishing small or large protected areas, called protected areas
Today in world, there are 9800 protected areas and 1500 national parks

Methods of In-Situ conservation:

Biosphere reserves – 7
National Parks - 80
Willife sanctuaries - 420
Gene sanctuaries - 120

Methods:
1. Nature or biosphere reserves (Eg) Nilgiri Bio reserve
2. National parks and sanctuaries (Eg) Mudumalai, vedanthangal
3. On farm and home garden conservation for plants, vegetables and fruits to maintain traditional crop
varieties.
1. Biosphere Reserves:
• Covers area of more than 5000 sq. km. • Protect species for long time

(eg) Nanda devi U.P

Nokrek Meghalaya
Nilgiri Kerala, TN, Karnataka
Manas Assam
Sunderbans West Bengal
Gulf of Mannar TN
Role of Biosphere reserves:
• Protects endangered species
• Site of recreation & tourism
• Useful for education & research purpose
• Gives long term survival

2. Wildlife Sanctuaries:
Conserve animals & Birds only(examples)
Mudumalai wildlife sanctuary –TN
Vedanthangal Bird sanctuary - TN
Sultanpur Bird sanctuary - Haryana
Role of wildlife Sanctuaries: Protects animals only Harvesting of timber, Collection of forest products

Restrictions: Killing, hunting, shooting of wildlife is prohibited

3. National Park:
• Covers area of about 100 to 500 sq.kms
• Conserves wildlife & environment
(eg) Gir National Park - Gujarat, Periyar -Kerala, Dudwa – UP, Sariska - Rajasthan

Role of National Park:

• For tourism without affecting environment
• Protect, propagate & develop wild life
4. Gene Sanctuary: - Conserve Plants

Examples: Citrus sanctuary – North India Pitcher plant -North India

5. Other Projects for conservation of animals:

Examples:- Gir Lion Project, Crocodile Breeding Project, Project Elephant, Project Tiger etc.
Merits of In-situ conservation:
 Very cheap & convenient method
 Species adjust to floods, drought, forest fires etc.
Demerits
Large area is needed, Maintenance is not proper due to pollution and lack of staff.

Ex- situ conservation:

 It involves maintenance and breeding of endangered plant and animal species under partially or
wholly controlled conditions in zoos, gardens and laboratories
The crucial issue for conservation is to identify those species which are more at risk of extinction.

Methods:
1. Long term captive breeding
2. Shortage term propagation and release
3. Animal translocation and re introductions
4. Seed bank
5. Reproductive technology
Methods of Ex-situ conservation:
1. NBPGR National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources → uses cryo technique
Cryo Technique: Preservation of seeds, vegetables, fruits, crops, etc by using liquid nitrogen at -
196º C
2. NBAGR :National Burea of Animal Genetic Resources → preserves semen of bovine animals
3. NFPRCR: National Facility for Plants Tissue Culture Repository → preserves crops or trees by
tissue culture

Merits
 Survival / life span of species increase by special care
 Species are assured for food, water, shelter etc
 Endangered species are preserved

Demerits
 Expensive method Freedom of wildlife is lost
 Animal can‟t survive in natural environment
 UNIT 2: NATURAL RESOURCES

Any component of the environment, which has intrinsic value of its own is called as resource. Any
component which can be transferred in a way such that it becomes more valuable and useful is termed as
resource.

Renewable - Eg. Clean air, clean water

Considered to be renewable with considerable lifespan -as long as they have the capacity to renew – unless
they are affected by catastrophes or anthropogenic activity
Non renewable - Eg. Groundwater, minerals
Available only infinite quantity their rate of renewal is so slow that they are considered as non-renewable
Continuous – Eg. Solar energy, wind energy
Considered to be available always
Extrinsic – Eg. - Human skills

FOREST RESOURCES:
Forests are one of the most important resources of the world. Apart from having high commercial
importance they provide high environmental services also. They act as a blanket on the surface of the earth.
Around 1/3 rd of world land area was found to be forests. 1/5 th of world forests were found in Brazil
and 6-7% was in Canada and USA. But the matter under high concern is the declination of forest cover year
by year.

USES OF FOREST
Commercial uses: Forests provide timber, fire wood, food material, resin, gum, non edible oils,
drugs, medicine, rubber, fibers, bamboo and many other important items.
Ecological uses:
1. Production of Oxygen: Photosynthesis – earth’s lungs
2. Reducing global warming – sink for carbon dioxide
3. Wild life habitat – 7 million species in tropical forests alone
4. Regulation of hydrological cycle– prevent surface run off – giant sponges – 50-80% moisture
5. Soil conservation – hold solid particles tightly and prevent soil erosion – wind breaks
6. Pollution moderators: absorb toxic gases and purify air reduce noise pollution
OVER EXPLOITATION OF FORESTS:
Human beings depend heavily on forests for food, shelter, wood, fuel and medicine with growing
civilization etc. shooted up resulting in large scale mining, road building and clearing of forests.
Excessive use of charcoal, fuel wood, expansion of urban, agricultural and industrial areas and
overgrazing have lead to over exploitation and rapid degradation of forests.

DEFORESTATION:
The total forest area of the world in 1900 was 7000 million hectares - 1975 – 2900 mha – 2000 –
2300 mha.
Deforestation rate intemperate countries are relatively moderate. But it is alarming in tropical
countries. It is estimated that in next 60 years we would lose more than 90% of our tropical forest.

INDIAN STATUS:
Stabilized since 1982, with about 0.04% declaration per year between 1982- 90. During this period
it is estimated that about 1.44 mha land was brought under afforestation. As per our NFP, we have a target
of achieving 33% forest area. But we still have only 19.27% of our land area covered by forests (satellite
data).

MAJOR CAUSES OF DEFORESTATION:

1. Shifting of cultivation – 300 million people – 5 lakh hectares of forest for slash and burn
culture
2. Fuel requirement
3. Raw materials for industrial use
4. Developmental projects
5. Growing food needs
6. Overgrazings

CONSEQUENCES OF DEFORESTATION
1. Threatens many wild life species due to destruction of natural habitat
2. Biodiversity is lost along with that genetic diversity
3. Hilly regions are made prone to landslides
4. Soil erosion and loss of soil fertility
5. Hydrological cycle is affected (loss of rainfall, flood, drought etc)

TIMBER EXTRACTION AND MINING

The major activities in forest area are 1. timber extraction 2. mining The important effects of
timber extraction are
i) thinning of forests
ii) loss of biodiversity, particularly tree breading species
 iii) soil erosion and loss of soil fertility
iv) migration of tribal people from one place to another in search of new forest
v) extinction of tribal people and their culture

MINING:
Mining is a process of removing ores from area which is very much below the ground level. Mining
is done for the extraction of several minerals of metals like Fe, Mn, Au, Ag, etc. The minerals are
especially found in thick forests.
Mining is a process of removing ores from area which is very much below the ground level. Mining
is done for the extraction of several minerals of metals like Fe, Mn, Au, Ag, etc. The minerals are
especially found in thick forests.

Mining can be carried out in two ways

1. Surface mining
2. Underground mining or sub-surface mining
The effects of underground mining on forest reserves is comparatively less than that of surface mining
Relation between forest and climate change
Forests both influence and influenced by climate change. They play an important role in the carbon
cycle and the way we manage forests could significantly affect global warming.
Forests hold more than 50 per cent of the carbon that is stored in terrestrial vegetation and soil
organic matter. Hence, deforestation contributes significantly to net emissions of carbon di oxide into the
atm.
If the predicted global warming occurs, the impact on forests is likely to be regionally varied,
dramatic, and long-lasting. Even now, we can see how any extreme weather has great impact on forests. For
example, the 1999 storms in Europe caused heavy damage to forests and also to trees outside forest areas.
The Kyoto Protocol on climate change may have a great impact on forest management. Under the
Protocol, a country with forests earns emission credits, since its forests absorb carbon di oxide. These
credits are tradable, that is, a developing country can sell its credits to an industrialized country that has
exceeded its quota of emissions. The latter would invest in afforestation and reforestation projects in the
developing country.

DAMS – BENEFITS AND PROBLEMS

River valley projects with big dams are considered to play a key role in the development of a
country. India has large number of river valley projects
1. These dams are regarded as symbol of national development.
2. Provides large scale employment of tribal people and increase the std. of living of them
3. Contribute for economic uplift and growth
4. Help in checking flood
5. Generate electricity
6. Reduce power and water shortage
7. Provide irrigation water
8. Provide drinking water to remote areas
9. Promote navigation and fishery.

Environmental problems:
The environmental problems can be at upstream as well as downstream Level
Upstream problems
1. Displacement of tribal people
2. Loss of flora and fauna
3. Siltation and sedimentation near reservoir
4. Stagnation and water logging near reservoir
5. Growth of aquatic weeds
6. Micro climatic changes
7. RIS causes earthquakes
8. Breeding of disease vectors

Downstream problems
1. Water logging and salinity due to over irrigation
2. Micro climatic changes
3. Salt water intrusion at river mouth
4. Loss of fertility due to sediment deposits
5. Out break of vector born diseases

WATER RESOURCES
Water is an indispensable resource. Around 97% of world surface is covered with water. Most of
the animals and plants have 60-65% of water in their body.
 Unique features of water
1. High specific heat
2. High latent heat of vaporization
3. Good solvent for oxygen, nutrients and pollutants
4. Anomalous expansion on freezing
5. High surface tension
Water is used for domestic, irrigation and also industrial purposes

Out of the total available water 75% is used for agriculture, 20% for industrial usage. In our country
~93% of water is used for agricultural purposes.
Ground water: 9.86% of fresh water is ground water and it is 35- 50% greater than surface water.
Aquifer:
The layer of soil which is permeable has the ability to store water is called an aquifer. It is
generally made up of gravel, sand etc.
Unconfined aquifer: it is covered by permeable layer. The recharge of this layer is by rainfall
or snowmelt.
Confined aquifer: sandwiched between impermeable layers. The recharge is through
unconfined aquifer layers.

Over utilization of ground water: Over utilization of water leads to rapid depletion of water
resources, ground subsidence, lowering of water table and water logging.

Reasons: Economic development, rapid industrial growth and population explosion

The use of ground water and surface water rates which are higher than that of recharge ultimately leads to
 Declining of water levels
 Crops failure and reduction in agricultural production
 Over pumping of ground water create drought, famine and food shortage
 Over pumping of ground water sea water intrusion in coastal aquifers
 Land subsidence may due to over pumping of ground water
 River pollution due to industrial activities and dumping of waste into rivers, which in turn force to
utilize the ground water, ultimately leads to over pumping

Effects of over utilization of ground water:

 Water scarcity, water pollution/contamination
 Water logging
 Salination
 Alkalization

Clean water is universal right. It is the responsibility of everyone to ensure the purity of water. Water is a
valuable commodity and it has to be conserved.
 Flood management:
1. Dams and reservoirs can be constructed
2. Embankments and proper channel management
3. Flood way should not be encroached
4. Forecasting or flood warning
5. Decrease of run off by infiltration through afforestation or rain water harvesting etc

Drought :
Unpredictable delay in climatic condition occurring due to monsoon rain failure
Types:
Meterological: in order of month or year, actual moisture supply at a given place consistently falls below
critical level.
Hydrological: deficiency in surface and subsurface water supplies
Agricultural: inadequate soil moisture to meet the need of a particular crop at particular time or
susceptibility of crops during different stages in its development
Socioeconomic: reduction in the availability of food and social securing of people

Causes:
 Deforestation and poor rainfall coupled with cutting of trees for timber leads to desertification.
 Over drafting of ground water, subsidence of soil, drying of wetlands
 Pollution of soil with solid waste, industrial effluents etc make land useless and dry
 Shifting cultivation
Causes of drought
1. When annual rainfall is below normal and less than evaporation drought is created
2. High population
3. Over exploitation of scarce water to get higher productivity
4. Deforestation leads to desertification
Example : In Maharashtra there has been no recovery from drought for last 30 years due to over-
exploitation of water by sugarcane crop

Effects of drought
1. It causes hunger, malnutrition and scarcity of drinking water
2. It affects crop failures
3. It also accelerates degradation of natural resources
4. It leads to large migration of people
Drought management
1. Rain water harvesting
2. Drip irrigation technology
3. Mixed cropping and dry farming
4. Construction of reservoirs to improve groundwater level
Control measures

CONFLICTS OVER WATER

1. Conflicts through use: Unequal distribution of water led to inter-state or international disputes.

a. International conflicts:
• India & Pakistan fight to water from the Indus
• Iran & Iraq fight for water from Shatt-al-Arab water
• India & Bangladesh fight for Bhramaputra river
• Mixico & USA fight over Colorado river

b. National Conflicts:
Cavery problem between Karnataka & Tamilnadu Krishna problem between Karnataka & Andhra
Pradesh Siruveni water problem between Tamilnadu & kerala
2. Construction of Dams/Power stations: For hydroelectric power generation, dams built across
the rivers, initiates conflict between the states.
3. Conflict through pollution:
Rivers & Lakes are used for electricity, shipping & for industrial purpose.
Disposal of waste water & industrial waste decrease the quality of water & causes pollution.

EXAMPLES OF WATER CONFLICTS:

Conflicts on Indian river:
Damodar river → It is the most polluted river, carrying 43 industries discharges/
Yamuna river → 19,000 cubic meters of Water containing DDT derivatives are dumped in the
river.
Ganga river → 1000 cubic meters of polluted water from 68 industries are discharged in the river.
Periyar river → The River is dying due to mining of 4,37,000 tonnes of sand everyday & become
salty due to intrusion of sea water
Cavery water dispute:
 The Cauvery water dispute Tribunal set up on 2nd June 1990, directed Karnataka to ensure 205
TMCF of water to Mettur dam every Year
Due to increase in population and decrease in water resources conflicts over water starts Conflicts
over the water around world was classified as

MINERAL RESOURCES
Minerals are naturally occurring substances having definite chemical composition and physical
properties.

Ores
Ores are minerals or combination of minerals from which useful substances, such as metals, can be
profitably extracted and used for manufacture.
Formation of mineral deposits
Concentration of minerals at a particular spot, gives rise to a mineral deposit. Formation of these
deposits is a very slow biological process; even it takes millions of years to develop as a mineral deposit.
Uses and exploitation of minerals
Minerals are used in a large number of ways in everyday in domestic, agricultural, industrial and
commercial sectors.
Economy and political power of the country is determined from the number of reserves of minerals and
technical know-how to extract the elements

The important uses of minerals are as follows.

1. Development of industrial plants and machinery. Examples - Iron, aluminium, copper, etc.,
2. Construction, housing, settlements. Example - Iron, aluminium, nickel, etc.,
3. Generation of energy. Example – Coal, Lignite, Uranium etc
4. Designing of defence equipments, weapons, ornaments
5. Jewellery – Example - Gold, silver, platinum and diamond.
6. Making of alloys for various purposes. Examples - Phosphorites.
7. Communication purposes. Examples – Telephone wires, cables, electronic devices.
8. Medicinal purposes – particularly in ayurvedic system – Example – Sulphur pyrites

Environmental effects (or) impacts of extracting and using mineral resources.

Most important environmental concern arises from the extraction and processing of minerals during
mining, melting, roasting, etc

Mining
Mining is the process of extraction of metals from a mineral deposit.
 Types of mining
(a) Surface mining: Surface mining is the process of extraction of raw materials from the near surface
deposits.
(b) Underground mining. It is the process of extraction of raw materials below the earth's surface. It
includes,
(i) Open-pit mining: Open-pit mining machines dig holes and remove the ores.
Example: Iron, copper, limestone, and marble etc.

Environmental damage
Environmental damage, caused by mining activities, are as follows.
1. Devegetation and defacing of landscape: Large scale deforestation or devegetation leads to several
ecological losses and also landscape gets badly affected.
2. Groundwater contamination: Mining disturbs and also pollutes the ground water. Some heavy metals
also get leached into groundwater.
3. Surface water pollution: Drainage of acid mines often contaminates the nearby streams and lake water
and kill many aquatic animals.
4. Air pollution: Smelting and roasting are done to purify the metals, which emits enormous amounts of air
pollutants damaging the nearby vegetation and public suffer from several health problems.
5. Subsidence of land: It is mainly associated with underground mining. Subsidence of mining area results
in cracks in houses, tilting of buildings, bending of rail tracks.

FOOD RESOURCES
Food is an essential requirement for the human survival. Each person has a minimum food requirement.
The main components of food are carbohydrates, fats, proteins, minerals and vitamins.
World Food problems

1. The problem of population explosion has made it worse. The world population increases and cultivable
land area decreases. Therefore world food problem arises.
2. Environmental degradation like soil erosion, water logging, water pollution, salinity, affects agricultural
lands.
3. Urbanisation is another problem in developing countries, which deteriorates the agricultural lands.
4. Since the food grains like rice, wheat, com and the vegetable like potato are the major food for the
people all over the world, the food problem raises.
5. A key problem is the human activity, which degrade most of the earth's net primary productivity which
supports all life.
 CHANGES CAUSED BY OVERGRAZING AND AGRICULTURE:
Overgrazing:
Process of eating away the vegetation along with its roots without giving a chance to
regenerate

Effects (or) impacts of overgrazing

1. Land degradation
Overgrazing removes the cover of vegetation over the soil and the exposed soil gets
compacted. So the roots of plant cannot go much deep into the soil and the adequate soil
moisture is not available.
Thus, overgrazing leads to organically poor, dry, compacted soil, this cannot be used for
further cultivation.
2. Soil erosion
Due to overgrazing by livestock, the cover of vegetation gets removed from the soil. The roots
of the grass are very good binders of the soil. When the grasses are removed, the soil becomes loose
by the action of wind and rainfall.
3. Loss of useful species

Modern agriculture:
The practice through which specific plant species are cared and managed so as to obtain
maximum yield of consumable parts of plants – agriculture
Makes use of hybrid seeds and selected and single crop variety, high tech equipment and lots of
energy subsides in the form of fertilizers, pesticides and irrigation water e.g. green revolution

Effects (or) impacts of modern agriculture

(a) Micronutrient imbalance
Most of the chemical fertilizers, used in modem agriculture, contain nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium
(N, P, K), which are macronutrients. When excess of fertilizers are used in the fields, it causes micronutrient
imbalance.
(b) Blue Baby syndrome (Nitrate pollution)
When Nitrogenous fertilizers are applied in the fields, they leach deep into the soil and contaminate the
ground water. The nitrate concentration in the water gets increased.
When the nitrate concentration exceeds 25 mg / lit, they cause serious health problem called "Blue Baby
syndrome". This disease affects infants and leads even to death.
(c) Eutrophication.
A large proportion of N and P fertilizers, used In crop field is washed off by the runoff water and reaches
the water bodies causing over nourishment of the lake. This process is known as Eutrophication. Due to
eutrophication lake gets attacked by algal bloom. Since the time of algal species is less it dies quickly and pollute
the water, which in turn affect the aquatic life.
Problems associated with pesticide use:
 Imbalance in the ecosystem
 Evolution in genetic resistance
 Creation of new pest/super pest
 Death of non target species
 Bio accumulation/ bio magnification

Water logging / salinisation:

Saturation of soil with irrigation water or excessive precipitation. So that water table rises close to
surface.
Water logging results when soils are over irrigated without drainage. Occurs in clayey soil, soil
root zone becomes saturated with so much water blocking oxygen supply for growth and soil becomes
unsuitable. Carbon di oxide and ethylene accumulate around roots and affects plants
Causes of water logging
1. Excessive water supply to the croplands.
2. Heavy rain.
3. Poor drainage.
Remedy
Preventing excessive irrigation, sub surface draining technology and bio-drainage by trees like
Eucalyptus tree are some method of preventing water logging.

Salinity
Soil salinity is the salt content in the soil; the process of increasing the salt content is known as
salinization. Salts occur naturally within soils and water. Salination can be caused by natural processes
such as mineral weathering or by the gradual withdrawal of an ocean.
Problems in Salinity
Most of the water, used for irrigation comes only from canal or ground, which unlike rainwater contains
dissolved salts. Under dry climates, the water gets evaporated leaving behind the salt in the upper portion of the
soil. Due to salinity, the soil becomes alkaline and crop yield decreases
Remedy
The salt deposit is removed by flushing them out by applying more good quality water to such soils. Using sub-
surface drainage system the salt water is flushed out slowly
 ENERGY RESOURCES
Growing energy needs:
Population explosion, Luxurious life, Industries, Agriculture, mining, transportation, lighting,
cooling, heating, building all need energy. Fossil fuels like coal, oil, natural gas produce 95% of energy

Sources of energy
Primary- Renewable energy-resources which can be generated continuously in nature and are in
exhaustible and can be used again endlessly. wood, Tidal, Solar, wind, hydropower, biomass, biofuel,
geothermal, hydrogen
Non – renewable energy- Resources which have accumulated in nature over along span of time and
cannot be quickly replenished when exhausted. coal, petroleum, natural gas
Secondary-petrol, electrical energy, coal burning
Merits of renewable energy resources
1. Unlimited supply.
2. Provides energy security.
3. Fits into sustainable development concept.
4. Reliable and the devices are modular in size.

Use of alternate energy sources:

Refers to energy sources which are not based on the burning of fossil fuels or the splitting of atoms.
Solar energy:
Total energy from sun per year-35,000 times the energy used by man Used to run car, power plants and
spaceships
Energy harvesting devises:
Solar heat collectors Solar cells
Solar cooker
Solar water heater Solar furnace
Solar power plants

A) SOLAR ENERGY:
The Energy that we get directly from the sun is called solar energy
Methods of Harvesting Solar Energy
1. Solar cells (or) photovoltaic cells (or) PV cells
• Solar cells consist of a p-type semiconductor and n-type semi-conductor
• They are in close contact with each other.
• When the solar rays fall on the top layer of p-type semi-conductor, the electrons from the
valence band get promoted to the conduction band and cross the p-n junction into n-type
semi-conductor.
• Thus potential difference produced between two layers causes flow of electrons (ie., an
electric current)
Uses
Used in calculators, electronic watches. Street lights, water pumps to run radios and TVs.

Solar Battery
• Large number of solar cells is connected in series to form a solar battery.
• Solar battery produce more electricity which is enough to run water pump, to run street-light
2. Solar heat collectors
• Solar heat collectors consist of natural materials like stones, bricks, (or) materials like glass.
• They can absorb heat during the day time and release it slowly at night.
Uses
Used in cold places, where houses are kept in hot condition using solar heat collectors.

3. Solar water heater

It consists of
• An insulated box inside of which is painted with black paint.
• Provided with a glass lid to receive and store solar heat.
• Inside the box it has black painted copper coil, which heats the cold water.
• Then flows out into a storage tank.
• From the storage tank water is then supplied through pipes.
Significance of Solar energy:
• They are noise & pollution free
• Solar water heaters, cookers require no fuels
• Solar cells can be used in remote & isolated forest & hilly regions.

b) WIND ENERGY

Definition - Moving air is called wind.

 Energy recovered from the force of the wind is called wind energy.
 The energy possessed by wind is because of its high speed.
 The wind energy is harnessed by making use of wind mills.
Methods of Harvesting wind energy
1. Wind Mills
• The strike of wind on the blades of the wind mill rotates it continuously.
• The rotational motion of the blade drives machines like water pump, flour mills, electric generators etc.
2. Wind farms
 Wind farm consists of large number of wind mills.
 The wind farms produce a large amount of electricity.
Conditions - The minimum speed required for satisfactory working of a wind generator is 15 km/hr.
Advantages - It does not cause any air pollution It is very cheap.

c) OCEAN ENERGY
Ocean tides, produced by gravitational forces of sun and moon, contain enormous amount of energy.
 The “high tide” and “low tide” refer to the rise and fall of water in the oceans.
 The tidal energy can be harnessed by constructing a tidal barrage.
 During high tide, the sea-water which flow into the reservoir of the barrage, rotates the turbine, which
in turn produces electricity by rotating the generators

Significance of tidal energy:

• Do not require large area
• Pollution free energy source
• No fuel is used & does not produce any wastes.
2. Ocean thermal energy (OTE)
The temperature difference between the surface level & deeper level of the oceans are used to generate
electricity. A difference of 200 C or more is required for operating OTE power plants.

3. Geo-thermal Energy
The energy harnessed from high temperature & pressure present inside the earth is called
geothermal energy.
1. Natural geysers
In some places, the hot water (or) steam comes from the ground through cracks naturally
2. Artificial geysers
In some places, we can drill a hole up to the hot region & make the hot water to rush out through
the pipe with very high pressure.
Thus, the hot water (or) steam coming out from the natural (or) artificial geysers is allowed to rotate
the turbine of a generator to produce electricity.
Significance:
Power generation is higher than solar & wind energies, Can be brought online quickly,
Used for direct uses such as hot water bath, resorts, aquaculture, greenhouses.
d) BIOMASS ENERGY
Biomass is the organic matter, produced by plants or animals,
Eg: Wood, crop residues, seeds, cattle dung, sewage, agricultural wastes.
• Mixture of methane, carbondioxide, hydrogen sulphide, ete.
• It contains about 65% of methane gas as a major constituent
• Biogas is obtained by the anaerobic fermentation of animal dung or plant wastes in the
presence of water.

2. Bio fuels - Biofuels are the fuels, obtained by the fermentation of biomass.

Examples:
(a)Ethanol = Easily produced from the sugarcane. Its calorific value is less than petrol,
(b)Methanol = obtained from ethanol or sugar-containing plants. calorific value is also too low than
gasoline and diesel.
(c)Gasohol = Gasohol is a mixture of ethanol+gasoline
3. Hydrogen Fuel
Hydrogen can be produced by thermal dissociation or photolysis or electrolysis of water.
Biomass energyIt possesses high calorific value.
It is non polluting, because the combustion product is water.

NON-RENEABLE ENERGY

1. Coal
Coal is a solid fossil fuel formed in several stages & were subjected to intense heat and pressure over
millions of years.
Disadvantages
1. When coal is burnt it produces CO2 causes global warming
2. Coal contains impurities like S and N, it produces toxic gases during burning.

2. Petroleum
Petroleum or crude oil = hydrocarbons +small amount S, O, N.
Occurrence
Petroleum was formed by the decomposition of dead animals and buried under high temperature and pressure
for million years
3. LPG (Liquefied Petroleum Gas)
1. The petroleum gas, converted into liquid under high pressure is LPG
2. LPG is colorless and odorless gas.
3. During bottling some mercaptans is added, to detect leakage of LPG from the cylinder.
4. Natural Gas
1. Mixture of 50-90% methane and small amount of other hydrocarbons.
2. Its calorific value ranges from 12,000-14,000 k-cal/m3.
(i) Dry gas = the natural gas + lower hydrocarbons like methane and ethane, is called dry gas.
(ii) Wet gas = natural gas + higher hydrocarbons like propane, butane along with methane is called wet gas.

5. Nuclear Energy
Nuclear Fission
Heavier nucleus is split into lighter nuclei, on bombardment by fast moving neutrons, and a large amount
of energy is released.
Eg: Fission of U235

When U235 nucleus is hit by a thermal neutron, it undergoes the following reaction with the release of 3
neutrons.
U 235 + n1 Ba139 + Kr 94 + 3n1 + Energy
• Each of the above 3 neutrons strikes another U235 nucleus causing (3x3) 9 subsequent reactions.
• These 9 reactions further give rise to (3x9) 27 reactions.
• This process of propagation of the reaction by multiplication in threes at each fission is called chain
reaction.
Nuclear Fusion
Lighter nucleuses are combined together at extremely high temperatures to form heavier
nucleus and a large amount of energy is released.

Eg: Fusion of Two hydrogen-2 (Deuterium) atoms may fuse to form helium at 1 billion0C with the release
of large amount of energy

1H2+1H2 → 3He2+0n1+energy

Nuclear power of India

 Tarapur(Maharashtra),
 Ranapratap Sagar (Rajasthan)
 Kalpakkam (Tamilnadu)
 Narora (U.P).

LAND RESOURCE
Land is critically important national resource which supports all living organisms including plants
and animals. The soil profile of land determines its ability to serve socio-economic needs.
It has been estimated that more than 5000 million tonnes of top soil is eroded annually along with 5
 million tones of nutrients. About 1/3 of this is lost in sea while the rest in reservoirs and rivers leading to
flood.
About 38% of the area in India suffers from moderate to high degree of water based erosion. The
per capita availability of land in the country has declined from 1.37 hectare in 1901to 0.33 hectare in 2000.
All these lands cannot be utilized for agricultural purpose. Some land would be required for other activities
(to maintain urban area).
Effective steps have to be taken for preventing diversion of land suitable for sustainable farming to
non-farm uses. Simultaneously, degraded lands and waste lands have to be improved by ecological
restoration. The Department of Land Resources was setup in April 1999 by ministry of Rural Development
to act as nodal agency for land resource management.

Land Degradation:
Land degradation is defined as the reduction in soil capacity to produce in terms of quality, quantity
goods and services. The definition is also based on

1. Sustainability or ability to produce continuously and indefinitely.

2. Quality of land resource that makes it sustainable or resistant to degradation
3. Carrying capacity or the number of people and animals the land can normally support without
significant stress.
Landscapes generally undergo degradation but are usually compensated by nature’s inherent
recovering ability. Whenever degradation occur exceeding nature’ restorative capacity, the result will
be a disaster.
Man induced landslides:
The hill slopes are prone to landslides, landslips, rockslides etc. These hazardous features have reduced
the overall progress of the region as they obstruct the roads, communication media and water flow.

There are two types of slides

1. Slides due to natural factors
2. Slides induced by man and his activities
Some of the human activities that cause land sliding are
Soil erosion:
Soil erosion is the process of removal of superficial layer of the soil from one place to another. Soil erosion
also removes the soil components and surface litter.
Types of soil erosion
1. Normal erosion: It is caused by the gradual removal of top soil by the natural processes. The rate of
erosion is slower.
 2. Accelerated erosion:
It is mainly caused by man-made activities. The rate of erosion is much faster than the rate of formation of soil.
Causes of Soil erosion
Run off, rain water flow, wind, overgrazing, mining, massive deforestation, road construction,
unscientific quarrying, erratic agricultural practice etc
Effects of soil erosion
1. Soil fertility is lost because of loss of top soil layer.
2. Loss of its ability to hold water and sediment.
3. Sediment runoff can pollute water and kill aquatic life.

Control of soil erosion or conservation practices

1. Terracing: Terracing reduces soil erosion on steep slopes by concerting the land into a series of
broad, level terraces. This retains water for crops at each level and reduces soil erosion by water run off.
2. Contour Farming: This method is adopted for gently sloped land. This involves planting crops in
rows across the contour of gently sloped land.
3. Alley Cropping or Agro forestry: In this method crops are planted together in strips or alleys
between trees and shrubs that can provide fruits and fuel wood. The trees and shrubs provide shade which
reduce water loss by evaporation and preserve soil moisture.
4. Wind Breaks or Shelter Belts: Wind breaks and shelter belts or trees are established to reduce wind
erosion and also for retaining soil moisture.

Desertification
• Desertification is a progressive destruction or degradation of arid or semiarid lands to desert.
• It is also a form of land degradation.
• Desertification leads to the conversion of range lands or irrigated croplands to desert like conditions in
which agricultural productivity falls.
• Desertification is characterised by devegetation, depletion of ground water, salination and soil erosion.
Harmful effects of desertification
1. Around 80% of the productive land in the arid and semi-arid regions are converted into desert.
 2. Around 600 million people are threatened by desertification.

Causes of Desertification (or) reasons for desertification

1. Deforestation: The process of denuding and degrading a forest land initiates a desert. This also
increases, soil erosion, loss of fertility.
2. Over grazing: The increase in cattle population heavily graze the grass land or forests and as a result
denude the land area.
3. Mining and quarrying : These activities are also responsible for loss of vegetal cover and denudation
of extensive land area leading to desertification.
4. Climate change: Formation of deserts may also take place due to climate change, ie., failure of
monsoon, frequent droughts.
5. Pollution: Excessive use of fertilizers and pesticides and disposal of toxic water into the land also leads
to desertification

ROLE OF INDIVIDUAL IN CONSERVATION OF NATURAL RESOURCES

Natural resources-forest, water, soil, food, mineral and energy Overuse of these resources
cause problems

ROLE OF INDIVIDUAL IN CONSERVATION OF NATURAL RESOURCES:

1. Conservation of energy

• Turn off lights, fans and other appliances when not in use.
• Dry the clothes in sun instead of drier
• Use solar cooker for cooking food on sunny days and will cut down LPG expenses.
• Grow trees and climbers near the houses and get a cool breeze and shade. This will cut off
electricity charges on coolers and A/C
• Ride bicycle or just walk instead of using your car or scooter.
• Always use pressure cooker.

2. Conservation of water:
• Use minimum water for all domestic purpose
• Check for water leaks in pipes & toilets & repair them properly
• Reuse the soapy water after washing clothes for washing courtyards, drive ways etc.
• Use drip irrigation to improve irrigation efficiency & reduce evaporation
• The waste water from kitchen, bath tub can be used for watering the plants
• Build rainwater harvesting system in your home

3. Conservation of soil:
• Grow plants, trees & grass which bind the soil & prevent its erosion
• Don’t irrigate the plants using strong flow of water, as it will wash off the top soil
• Soil erosion can be prevented by the use of sprinkling irrigation
• Use green manure in the garden, which will protect the soil
• Use mixed cropping, so that specific soil nutrients will not get depleted
 • While constructing the house don’t uproot the trees

4. Conservation of food resources:

• Eat minimum amount of food, avoid over eating.
• Don’t waste the food, instead give it to someone before getting spoiled.
• Cook only required amount of food
• Don’t cook food unnecessarily
• Don’t store large amounts of food grains & protect them from insects.

5. Conservation of forest:
• Use non-timber products
• Plant more trees & protect them
• Grassing, fishing must be controlled
• Minimize the use of papers & fuel wood
• Avoid developmental work like dam, road, construction in forest areas.

EQUITABLE USE OF RESOURCES FOR SUSTAINABLE LIFE STYLE

Sustainable development
Sustainable development is the development of healthy environment without damaging the natural
resources. All the natural resources must be used in such a way that it must be available for the future
generation also.
Unsustainable development
Unsustainable development is the degradation of the environment due to over utilization and over
exploitation of the natural resources.
Life style in different countries
The life style in world can be explained in two ways.
1. Most developed countries (MDCs)
2. Less developed countries (LDCs)
1. Life style in most developed countries
• The most developed countries have only 22% of world's population, but they are using 88% of its natural
resources. Their income is nearly 85% of total global income.
• As the rich countries are developing more, they are consuming more natural resources and polluting the
environment more. The sustainability of the earth's life supporting system is under threat.
Life style in less developed countries
 The less developed countries have 78% of the world's population and are using only about 12% of its
natural resources.
 Their income is only 15% of total global income. They have very low industrial growth.
 They are still struggling hard with their large population and poverty problems.
 They are consuming too low natural resources leading to unsustainability.

Causes of unsustainability
The main cause is due to the difference between the less developed and more developed countries. i.e.,
(i) Over population in poor countries, consume too low resources with low income.
 (ii) Rich countries consume more resources with more income.
Conditions for sustainable life style
In order to achieve sustainable life styles,
1. It is essential to achieve a more balanced and equitable distribution of land resources and income to
meet everyone's basic needs.
2. The rich countries should lower down their consumption levels, while the minimum needs of the poor
should be fulfilled by providing them resources.
Thus more balanced and equitable use of resources will reduce the differences between the most
developed countries and less developed countries and will lead to sustainable development.
 UNIT 3: ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION AND DISASTER MANAGEMENT

ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION-DEFINITION
Any undesirable change in the physical, chemical or biological characteristics of any component of
the environment (air, water, soil) which can cause harmful effects on various forms of life or property.
Types of environmental pollution:-
a) Air pollution
b) Water pollution
c) Soil pollution
d) Marine pollution
e) Noise pollution
f) Thermal pollution
g) Nuclear hazards

AIR POLLUTION:
It is an atmospheric condition where certain substances are present in conc. which can cause
undesirable effects on man and his environment. Ex. Gases, particulate matter, radioactive substances etc.
Gaseous pollutants – sulphur oxides, nitrogen oxides, carbon oxides, volatile organic compounds
Particulate pollutants – smoke, dust, soot, fumes, aerosol, liquid droplets, pollen grains
Radio active pollutants – Radon 222, Iodine 131, Sr 90

Natural Man made

1 Volcanic eruption, thermal power plants
Industrial units, fossil fuel burning
(fly ash, SO2 )

2 Forest fires, Biological decay vehicle emission-

3 Sea salt spray, Pollen grains of flowers Agricultural activities, Metallurgical plants (SO2,
CO2), Fertilizer plants, Textile mills Refineries
Paper and pulp mills
Classification of air pollutants:
Primary pollutants - (SO2, NOX, smoke)
Secondary pollutants (PAN, SO3 aldehydes)
Indoor air pollution:
Radon is an important air pollutant. It can be emitted from building materials like bricks, concrete,
tiles etc. which are derived from soil containing radium. Burning of fuel
produce pollutants like CO, SO2, soot and many other like formaldehyde, benzo(a)pyrene (BAP) are toxic
and harmful for health. BAP is also found in cigarette smoke and is considered to cause cancer. A
person using wood as fuel for cooking inhales BAP equivalent to 20 packets of cigarette a day.

Effects of air pollution: Effects on human:

Human respiratory system has a number of mechanisms for protection from air pollution. Bigger particles
(> 10 micro m) can be trapped by the hairs and sticky muscus lining in the nose

S.No Pollutant Sources Effects on human

1 Aldehydes Thermal Irritates nasal and respiratory

decomposition of fats and oils tracts

2 Ammonia Chemical processes, dye Upper respiratory passage

making, explosives and
fertilizers
3 Arsenic Coal and oil furnaces Damages kidney, cause jaundice,
lung and skin cancer

4 Carbon Monoxide Motor exhausts, oil Damages lungs and heart

and coal furnaces

5 Cadmium Oil and coal furnaces Damages kidney

6 Chlorine Chemical industries Attacks respiratory tracks, mucous

membranes
7 Hydrocarbons Unburnt gasoline vapours Fog formed with combination of
NOx affects respiratory system

8 Hydrogen Sulfide Sewage treatment, Irritates eyes, causes nausea, bad

refineries odour
9 Nitrogen oxides Motor vehicle exhaust Bronchitis

10 Ozone Photochemical reactions Eye irritation, aggressive asthma

11 Sulphur dioxide Coal and oil combustion Obstructs breathing, irritates eyes
12 Suspended solids Industrial manufactures Eye irritation, asthma, air
suffocation, lung cancer
Control Measures
1. Source control
 Use only unleaded petrol
 Use fuels that have low sulphur and ash content
 Plant trees along busy streets because they remove particulates and carbon monoxide and
absorb noise.
 Industries and waste disposal sites should be situated outside the city centre.
 Use catalytic converters to help control the emissions of carbon monoxide and hydrocarbons.
 Houses, schools, restaurants & park should not be located on busy street
2. Control measures in Industrial centers
 Emission rates should be restricted to permissible levels
 Air pollution control equipments must be made mandatory
 Continuous monitoring of the atmosphere to know the emission level

Equipments used to control air pollution:

 Mechanical devices such as scrubbers,
 cyclone separator,
 bag houses
 electro-static precipitators

WATER POLLUTION:
Presence of foreign impurities (organic, inorganic, biological) in such quantities so as to constitute a
health hazard by lowering the water quality and making it unfit for use.

Classification of water pollutants:

1. Suspended matter
2. Thermal discharge
 3. Pathogens (bacteria, fungi, protozoa fungi)
4. Natural organic pollutants
5. Synthetic organic pollutants
6. Inorganic chemicals
7. Radioactive waste, oil, sediments

Effects of water pollution

1. Objectionable colour and odour is unacceptable and unsuitable for drinking and other purposes.
2. Highly turbid and very hard water is unpleasant to drink, food processing
3. Acid and alkaline water cause serious health problem
4. Water borne infectious enteric disease like typhoid, cholera, dysentery, are the predominant health
hazard arising from drinking contaminated water
5. Radioactive pollution enter human body through food and get accumulated in thyroid gland, liver,
bones and muscles
6. Biodegradable waster deplete D O in the receiving stream, affect the flora cause creates anaerobic
conditions
7. Non biodegradable waste and pesticides travel the food chain and ultimately reach human where they
accumulate in fatty tissues
8. Thermal discharge in stream depletes DO
9. Phosphate, nitrate, promote the growth of algae and encourage eutrophication
10. Industrial effluents result in addition of poisonous chemicals such as arsenic, mercury, lead may
reach human body through contaminated food.
Causes & Effects of water pollutants
1. Infectious agents:
Example: Bacteria, viruses, protozoa and parasitic worms.
Sources: Human and animal wastes.
Effects: Variety of diseases.
2. Oxygen demanding wastes:
Example: Animal manure and plant debris that can be decomposed by aerobic bacteria.
Sources: Sewage, paper mills, and food processing facilities.
Effects: Wastes can degrade quality by depleting water of DO, make aquatic life to die
3. Inorganic Chemicals:
Example: Water soluble inorganic chemicals. Compounds of toxic metals such as lead, arsenic and
selenium. Salts such as Nacl in water.
Sources: Surface runoff, industrial effluents, household cleansers
Effects: Skin cancers & neck damage, Damages nervous system, liver & kidneys, Lower crop yields,
Harm fish & other aquatic life Accelerate corrosion of metals
4. Organic Chemicals:
Examples: Oil, gasoline, plastics, pesticides, cleaning solvents, detergents
 Sources: Industrial effluents, household cleansers, runoff from farms
Effects: Causes nervous system damage, cancer, harm fish & wild life.
5. Radio active materials:
Example: radioactive isotopes of iodine, radon, uranium, cesium & thorium
Sources: Nuclear power plants, mining, nuclear weapons production.
Effects: Genetic mutation, birth defects, and certain cancers.

Point and non-point sources of water pollution

Point sources: These are discharged pollutants at specific locations through pipes, ditches or sewers eg:
factories, sewage treatment plants

Non-point sources: They are usually large areas or air shed that pollute water by runoff
Eg: runoff of chemical from cropland to surface water.

Control measures of water pollution

 The administration of water pollution should be in the hand of state or central government.
 Scientific techniques are needed to control pollution in river, ponds or streams.
 Industrial plants should be based on recycling operations.
 The national goal should be “conservation of forests” and campaign should be “plant more trees”.
 Highly qualified and effective persons should be consulted for effective control or water pollution.
 Awareness to public through radio, tv etc
 Suitable laws, standards and practices should be framed to regulate pollution.
 Basic and applied research in public health engineering be encouraged.
 The possible of reuse or recycling of waste material should be encouraged.
 Companies should not discharge any type of waste either treated or untreated into rivers, lakes, ponds
etc.

Domestic treatment
 Screening, Sedimentation
 Filtration, Disinfection

Waste water treatment

 Preliminary treatment
 Primary treatment
 Secondary treatment & Tertiary treatment
I. Preliminary Treatment
In this treatment, coarse solids and suspended impurities are removed by passing the waste water through
bar and mesh screens.
II. Primary treatment (or) settling process
In this treatment, greater proportion of the suspended inorganic and organic solids are removed from the
liquid sewage by settling. In order to facilitate quick settling coagulants like alum, ferrous sulphate are
added.
These produce large gelatinous precipitates, which entrap finely divided organic matter and settle rapidly.
Secondary (or) Biological treatment
In this treatment, biodegradable organic impurities are removed by aerobic bacteria. It removes upto 90% of
the oxygen demanding wastes. This is done by trickling filter or activated sludge process.

1. Trickling filter process

Trickling filter is a circular tank and is filled with either coarse or crushed rock. Sewage is sprayed over this bed
by means of slowly rotating arms. When sewage starts percolating downwards, microorganisms present in the
sewage grow on the surface of filtering media using organic material of the sewage as food.

After completion of aerobic oxidation the treated sewage is taken to the settling tank and the sludge is removed.
This process removes about 80-85% of BOD.

2. Activated sludge process

Activated sludge is biologically active sewage and it has a large number of aerobic bacterias, which can easily
oxidize the organic impurities.

The sewage effluent from primary treatment is mixed with the required amount of activated sludge. Then the
mixture is aerated in the aeration tank Under these condition, organic impurities of the sewage get

oxidized rapidly by the micro-organisms. After aeration, the sewage is taken to the sedimentation tank. Sludges
settle down in this tank, called activated sludge, a portion of which is used for seeding fresh batch of the sewage.
This process removes about 90-95% of BOD.

SOIL POLLUTION:-
It may be defined as “the contamination of soil by human and natural activities which may cause harmful
effects on living beings”.
 Types
1. Industrial wastes
Sources: Pulp and paper mills, chemical industries, oil refineries, sugar factories,tanneries, textile,
steel, fertilizers etc.
Effects: Affect and alter the chemical and biological properties of soil.
Hazardous chemicals enter into human food chain from the soil and finally lead to serious effects.

2. Urban wastes
Sources and effects: Plastics, Glasses, metallic cans, fibers, papers, rubbers, street sweepings, and
other discarded manufactured products. These are also dangerous.
3. Agricultural practices
Sources and effects: Huge quantities of fertilizers, pesticides, herbicides, and weedicides are added to
increase the crop yield. Apart from these farm wastes, manure, slurry, are reported to cause soil pollution.
4. Radioactive pollutants
Sources and effects: These are resulting from explosions of nuclear dust and radio active wastes
penetrate the soil and accumulate there by creating land pollution.
5. Biological agents
Sources and effects: Soil gets large quantities of human, animal and birds excreta which constitute the
major source of land pollution by biological agents.

Control measures of soil pollution (give explanation for each topic on your own)
• Population growth
• Decrease of the available farm land due to urbanization
• Forestry and farm practices
• Proper dumping of unwanted materials
• Production of natural fertilizers
• Proper Hygienic condition
• Public awareness
• Recycling and Reuse of wastes
• Ban on Toxic chemicals.

MARINE POLLUTION
It may be defined as “the discharge of waste substances into the sea resulting in harm to living
resources hazards to human health, hindrance to fishery and impairment of quality for use of sea water”.
Source of marine pollution
Dumping the wastes: Huge amounts of sewage, garbage, agricultural discharge, pesticides, heavy
metals, plastics are dumped in sea.
Effects: So many marine birds are affected by gastro-intestinal disorders.
Oil pollution of Marine water: Caused by petroleum and its products.
Effects: Oil films inhibit photosynthesis & formation of oxygen.
This inhibit the growth of marine plants
 Effects of marine pollutants
• Cause more damage in birds as thinning of eggshell and tissue damage of egg.
• Oil spilling causes low body temperature in birds resulting in hypothermia.
• Oil films decreases the rate of oxygen uptake by water.
• Cause damage to marine fauna & flora including algae, fish, birds, invertebrates
• Oil films inhibit photosynthesis & inhibit the growth of the plants
• Hydrocarbon & benzpyrene accumulate in fish & consumption of fish by man cause cancer.

Control measures of marine pollution

 Plants for conserving marine biodiversity must be taken into account of human needs.
 People should be educated about marine ecosystems and the benefits offered by them.
 Local communities must be involved in protecting and managing their coastal resources.
 Social and economic incentives must be offered for conserving and sustainable use of marine
resources.
 Governments must manage their own water while extending cooperation to the neighboring states.

NOISE POLLUTION:-
It may be defined as “the unwanted, unpleasant or disagreeable sound that causes discomfort for all living
beings”. Sound intensity is measured in decibel (dB).

Types of noise
• Industrial noise (drilling sound, mechanical saws)
• Transport noise (bus, trucks, motors, scooters, rail traffic noise)
• Neighborhood noise (Musical instruments, TV, VCR, Radios, telephones, loudspeakers ets)

Area Permissible noise

level(dB)
Day Night
Industrial 75 70
Commercial 65 55
Residential 55 40
Silent Zone 50 40

Effects of Noise pollution

• This affects human health, comfort and efficiency.
• It causes muscles to contract leading to nervous breakdown, tension.
• It affects health efficiency and behavior.
 • loss of hearing due to excessive noise,
• impulsive noise also causes psychological and pathological disorders.
• Brain is also adversely affected by loud and sudden noise as that of jet and aero plane noise.
• Ultrosonic sound can affect the digestive, respiratory, cardio vascular system.
• Rate of heart beat decrease or increase depending on the type of noise
• Blood is also thickened by excessive noises
• Optical system is also affected by noise pollution & lead to colour perception & loss of night vision.

Control and preventing measures

Source control – acoustic treatment to machine surface, design changes, limiting the
operational timings.
 Transmission path intervention- the source inside a sound insulating enclosure, construction of a
noise barrier or provision of sound absorbing materials.
 Oiling – Proper oiling will reduce the noise from the machines.
 Receptor control: Protection of the receiver by altering the work schedule, by using ear plugs etc
 Planting trees also act as effective noise barriers
 Different absorptive materials can be used to control interior noise.

THERMAL POLLUTION
It may be defined as the “addition of excess of undesirable heat to water that makes it harmful to
man, animal or aquatic life or otherwise causes significant departures from the normal activities of
aquatic communities in water”

Sources of thermal pollution

1. Nuclear power plants (drainage from hospitals, research institutes, nuclear experiments & explosions,
emission from nuclear reactors)
2. Coal fired power plants (some thermal power plants use coal as fuel, condenser coil are cooled &
discharge the hot water back to the nearby lake, & kills the fish & marine organisms)
3. Industrial effluents (Textile, paper, pulp, sugar industries discharge wastes)
4. Domestic sewage (Municipal sewage has higher temperature which decrease the dissolved oxygen
content & result in foul & offensive smell in water)
5. Hydro – electric power.
Effects of thermal pollution

 Reduction in dissolved oxygen

 Increase in Toxicity
 Interference with biological activities
 Interference with reproduction
 Direct mortality
 Food storage for fish.

Control measures of thermal pollution

 Cooling towers - This is used as a coolant wet cooling tower, dry cooling tower.
 Cooling ponds and spray ponds.
 Artificial lakes – The heated effluents can be discharged into the lake at one end and the water for
cooling purposes from the other end.
NUCLEAR HAZARD:
The radiation hazard in the environment comes from ultraviolet, visible, cosmic rays & microwave
radiation which produce genetic mutations in man

Sources of Nuclear Hazards:

Natural sources: Space which emits cosmic rays, soil, rocks, air, water, food, radioactive radon-222 etc.
Man-made sources: Nuclear power plants, X-rays, nuclear accidents, nuclear bombs, diagnostic kits etc.

Effects of Nuclear Hazards:

• Causes delirium, convulsions & death within hours or days with brain exposure
• Eye cell die, forming cataracts with eye exposure
• Vomiting, bleeding of the gums, mouth ulcers etc.
• Blood vessel damage is indicated by red spots on the skin
• Nausea, vomiting & Infection of the intestinal wall can kill weeks afterwards
• Unborn children are affected by mental retardation or brain damage.

Control measures from Nuclear Hazards:

• Nuclear devices should never be exploded in air.
• In nuclear reactor coolants may be used to prevent extraneous activation products
• Tightly sealed boxes & closed cycle system can be used to decrease the radioactive emissions
• Production of radioisotopes should be minimized
• Minimum no of nuclear installations should be commissioned
• Fission reactions should be minimized
• The use of radio isotopes may be carried under jet of soil or water instead of gaseous forms
• Wet drilling may be employed along with underground drainage
• Extreme care should be exercised in disposal of industrial wastes
• Use of high chimneys & ventilations at the working place for dispersing radio-pollutants
• Disposal methods are the possible ways to distribute the radio-pollutants
Disposal of Radioactive wastes:
 High level wastes (HLW) - They are dangerous & so converted them into inert solids & then buried
deep into earth or stored in deep salt mines. Ex. Spent nuclear fuel

 Medium level wastes (MLW) - MLW are solidified & are mixed with concrete in steel drums before
buried in deep mines
 Low level wastes (LLW) - LLW are disposed off in steel drums in concrete lined trenches
SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT:-
Any material that is thrown away or discarded as unwanted is considered as solid waste.

Types:-
 Garbage or food waste
 Rubbish
 Agricultural waste
 Industrial waste
 Hazardous waste

Cause:-
Over population, Food waste, cloth, waste paper, glass bottles, polythene bags, waste metals, etc.,
Polythene bags, scrap metals, glass bottles, etc.,
Other industries produce, packing materials, rubbish, organic wastes, acids, alkalis, scrap metals, rubber,
plastic, paper, glass, wood, oils, paints, dyes, etc.,
Affluence Technology

Effects:-
Health hazard, foul smell and breeds various types of insects, which spoil the land value.
Affect the soil characteristics and productivity of soils
Environmental impact - percolate into the ground and contaminate the ground water
Furans, dioxins and polychlorinated biphenyls, which are harmful to human beings.

PROCESS OF SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT

Steps Involved

I Reduce, Reuse, Recycling (3R)

a) Reduce the usage of raw materials: Usage of raw materials is reduced.
b) Reuse: refillable container which is discarded after using can be reused.
c) Recycling: recycling of discarded materials into new products.
Eg: Preparation of new cans and bottles from old aluminum cans and glass bottles.
Preparation of fuel pellets from kitchen waste.

II Discarding wastes:

Methods: a) Land fills b) Incineration c) Composting

a) Land fills:
• Solid wastes are placed in sanitary landfill system in alternate layers of 80 cm thickness of refuse
• Covered with selected earth fill of 20 cm thickness
• After 2 or 3 days solid wastes volume shrinks by 25-30%
• Then the land is used for parks, roads, small buildings etc.
Advantages
 Simple and economical
 Segregation is not required
 Landfill areas can be used for other purposes
 Natural resources are retained to the soil.
Disadvantages:
 Large area is required Transportations cost is heavy.
 Bad odors, if landfill is not properly managed Insecticides, pesticides should be applied at regular
intervals
 Causes of fire hazards due to formation of methane
b) Incineration (or) Thermal process
 In this method combustible substances (rubbish, garbage, dead organisms) & non-combustible
substances (glass, porcelain, metals) are separated first.
 The combustible waste substances are first dried in a preheater
 Then it is taken in a large incinerating furnace which incinerate about 100 to 150 tonnes per hour
 The temperature is maintained between 700ºC to 1000ºC
 The left out ashes & clinkers from the furnace is further d disposed by landfill method
 The heat produced in the incinerator is used for generating electricity though turbines
 The non combustible substances are left out for recycling & reuse.

Advantages:
Require little space
Cost of transportation is not high Safest and hygienic
Capacity 300 tonnes per day and can generate 3MV of power.
Disadvantages:
 Capital and operating cost is high Need skilled persons
 Formation of smokes, dusts, and ashes
 a) Composting:
• In this method the bulk organic waste is converted into fertilizer by biological action
• The separated compostable waste is dumped in underground trenches(1.5m)
• Covered with earth of 20 cm and left over for decomposition
• Micro organism (actinomycetes) is introduced to start decomposition.
• After 2 or 3 days the organic waste are destroyed bt micro organism and produce heat
• Composting will happen at 75ºC
• Finally the refuse can converted to powdery brown colored odorless mass called humus (fertilizer).
• It contains lots of nitrogen, plants growth phosphates and other minerals.
Advantages:
• Increase of water retention and ion exchange character of soil Number of industrial waste can also be
treated by this method Manure can be produced
• Recycling occurs.
Disadvantages:
• Non combustible have to disposed separately
• No assured market

ROLE OF AN INDIVIDUAL IN PREVENTION OF POLLUTION

 Plant more trees
 Help more in pollution prevention than pollution control
 Use water, energy and other resources efficiently
 Purchase recyclable, recycled and environmentally safe products
 Reduce deforestation
 Remove NO from motor vehicular exhaust
 Use of eco friendly products.
 Use CFC free refrigirators
 Use natural gas than coal
 Use machines in well ventilated areas
 Use less polluting substances for cleaning agents, paints & other products
 Increase use of renewable resources
 Don’t use polystyrene cups that have chloro fluoro carbon (CFC) which destroy ozone
 Use rechargeable batteries which will reduce metal pollution
 Use organic manure instead of inorganic fertilizers
 Reduce garbage by recycling & reuse, Slow population growth
POLLUTION CASE STUDIES:-

1. Bhopal gas tragedy:- (Air Pollution)

Pesticide factory-Union Carbide- corporation leak large volume of methyl isocyanate –
atmosphere Bhopal- India-midnight on December 3,1984-city- change-as chamber-within a week
10,000 people died – 1000 people turned blind-lakhs of people still continue to suffer various
diseases
2. Gulf War: (Marine Pollution)
Gulf war was fought between Iraq and US-Period of 6 weeks in 1991- Americanfighters dropped
a lakh of bombs-force the Iraq army to withdraw from Kuwait-retreat of Iraq-burning of 700 oil
wells-near sea shore – oil from well spills out into the sea-the floating oil oversea water nearly 80 km
long-burning of oil wells nearly 10 months-released huge amounts of pollutants likeCO2 and SO2
into theatmosphere-1 million birds killed.
3. Chernobyl Disaster : ( Nuclear pollution)
Occur at Chernobyl in USSR 28th April, 1986-the reactor exploded- result of uncontrolled nuclear
reactions-radioactive fuel spread out in to the surrounding areas – killed at least 20,000 people-
damage to soil, water and vegetation around60 km.
4. Minamata Disease :( Marine Pollution)
Minamata- Small hostel village in Japan – Chicago-chemical company produces Venyl polymer
plastics-industry release its effluent into Minamata sea-Effluents containing mercury ions-converted
into methyl mercury- highly toxic consumed by fishes affect human being through food chain-damage
central nervous system-loss of vision and hearing-loss of muscular coordination and severe head
ache- nervous disorders

DISASTER MANAGEMENT

Hazard
It is a perceived natural event which threatens both life and property.
Disaster
 A disaster is the realization of this hazard.
 It is defined as the geological process and it is an event concentrated in time and space in which
danger and causes loss of its members and physical property
Types
Natural disasters – refers to those disasters that are generated by natural phenomena.
Manmade disasters – refers to the disasters resulting from manmade hazards.

FLOODS
Whenever the magnitude of water flow exceeds the carrying capacity of the channel within its banks
the excess of water overflows on the surroundings causes floods.
Causes of floods
• Heavy rain, rainfall during cyclone causes floods
• Sudden snow melt also raises the quantity of water in streams and causes flood
• Sudden and excess release of impounded water behind dams
• Clearing of forests for agriculture has also increased severity of floods.
Flood Management
• Encroachment of flood ways should be banned.
• Building walls prevent spilling out the flood water over flood plains.
• Diverting excess water through channels or canals to areas like lake, rivers where water is not
sufficient.
• Optical and microwave data from IRS is also used for flood management.
• Flood forecasts and flood warning are also given by the central water commission.

CYCLONES
It is a meteorological process, intense depressions forming over the open oceans and moving towards
the land. Cyclone is measured by Saffir-Simpson scale.
Effect
 The damage depends on the intensity of cyclone the damage to human life, crops, roads, transport,
could be heavy.
 Cyclone occurrence slows down the developmental activities of the area.

Cyclone management
• Satellite images are used by meteorological departments for forecasting the weather conditions which
reveal the strength and intensity of the storm.
• Radar system is used to detect the cyclone and is being used for cyclone warning.

LAND SLIDES
The movement of earthy materials like coherent rock, mud, soil and debris from higher to lower region
to gravitational pull is called landslides.
Causes
• Movement of heavy vehicles on the unstable sloppy regions.
 Earthquake, shocks, vibrations and cyclone.
 Effects of landslides
1. Block roads and diverts the passage.
2. Soil erosion increases.
3. Causes damages to houses, crops and live stock.

EARTH QUAKES
An earthquake is a sudden vibration caused on earth surface with the sudden release of
tremendous energy stored in rocks under the earth’s crust.

Causes
1. Disequilibrium in any part of the earth crust
2. Underground nuclear testing
3. Decrease of underground water level.

Severity of an earthquake: Generally it is measured by its magnitude on Richter scale.

Richter Scale Severity of earthquake

Less than 4 Insignificant
4- 4.9 Minor
5- 5.9 Damaging
6- 6.9 Destructive
7- 7.9 Major
More than 8 Great

Effect
 Damage the settlements and transport systems
 Collapses houses and their structures
 Deformation of ground surface
 Tsunami

Earthquake Management
 Constructing earthquake resistant building
 Wooden houses are preferred
 Seismic hazard map should give the information about the magnitude of intensity of
anticipated earthquakes.

TSUNAMI
A tsunami is a large wave that is generated in a water body when the seafloor is deformed by seismic
activity. This activity displaces the overlying water in the ocean.

Causes of tsunami
 Seismic activities like earthquakes, landslides, volcanic eruptions, explosions, can generate tsunami.
 Deformation of the sea floor due to the movement of plates.
Concept of Tsunami
A tsunami is not a single wave but a series of waves like the ordinary waves which we see on seas.

Effects on Tsunami
 Tsunami attacks mostly the coastlines, causing devastating property, damage and loss of life.
 Tsunami can kill lot of human beings, livestock’s.
 Tsunami may also spread lot of water borne diseases.
Tsunami Management
 Earthquakes under the water are monitored by sensors on the floor of the sea.
 The sensors send the information of floating buoys on the surface, whenever they detect any changes
in pressure of the sea.
 The information is then relayed to satellites, which passes it on to the earth stations.
 Finally the country make the people alert through the media to take all necessary precautions.
 UNIT 4

SOCIAL ISSUES AND THE ENVIRONMENT

From unsustainable to sustainable development:

Brundland commission describes sustainable development as the development that meet needs of
present generation without compromising ability of future generations to meet their own need

Dimensions of sustainable development

Derived from interactions between society, economy and environment.

Aspects of sustainable development

 Inter-generational equity - states to hand over safe, healthy & resourceful environment to future
generation

 Intra-generational equity - Technological development of rich countries should support the economic
growth of poor countries.

Approaches for sustainable development

 Developing appropriate technology - locally adaptable, eco-friendly, resource efficient and culturally
suitable.
 Reduce, reuse, recycle [3R] approach – reduces waste generation and pollution
 Providing environmental education and awareness – changing attitude of the people
 Consumption of renewable resources – attain sustainability
 Conservation of non renewable resources – conserved by recycling and reusing
 Population control.

Urban problems related to energy:

Urbanization:
Movement of human population from rural areas top urban areas for betterment of education,
communication, health, employment etc

Causes:
Cities are main centers of economic growth, trade, transportation, education, medical facilities and
employment

Urban sprawl:
Urban growth is fast, so difficult to accommodate with their limited area .So cities spread in to rural
areas

Urban energy requirement:

Residential and commercial lighting, Public and private transportation, Electrical and electronic appliances
like A/C, fridge, washing machine, water heater etc
Solution:
 Use public transport instead of motor cycles
  Energy consumption must be minimized
 Use solar and wind energy
 Impose strict laws, penalty, and energy audit

Water conservation:
Process of saving water for future utilization

Need for water conservation:

 Population increases water requirement also increases
 Due to deforestation annual rainfall decreases
 Over exploitation of ground water
 Population increases water requirement also increases
 Due to deforestation annual rainfall decreases
 Over exploitation of ground water
 Changes in environmental factors
 Better lifestyles need more water
 Increase in population
 Deforestation decreases annual rainfall
 Over exploitation of ground water leads to drought
 Agricultural and industrial activities require more water.

Strategies of water conservation

 Reducing evaporation losses → can place asphalt below the soil surface
 Reducing irrigation losses → sprinkling, drip irrigation, irrigation in early Morning / later evening
reduces evaporation
 Re use of water → treated waste water from washings, bathrooms can be used for gardening
 Preventing of wastage of water → closing taps when not is use, repairing leakage, using small capacity
taps etc
 Decreasing run-off losses → Can be done by using contour cultivation or terrace farming
 Avoid discharge of sewage. → discharge of sewage into water resources should be prevented

Water conservation method

 Rain water harvesting
 Watershed management

Rain water harvesting Objective:

 To meet increasing demands of water
 Raise water table by recharging ground water
 Reduce ground water contamination from salt water intrusion
  Reduce the surface run off loss & soil erosion
 Increase in hydro static pressure.
 Minimise water crisis & water conflicts

Roof top rainwater harvesting

 Method of collecting rainwater from roof of the building & storing it in the ground for future use.
 Involves collecting water that falls on roof of house
 Rainwater from roof top, road surface, play ground diverted to surface tank
 Rain water is collected by PVC / aluminium pipe to the pit
 The pit base is filled with stones & sand, which serve as sand filters

Advantages of rainwater harvesting

 Increases the well water availability & Reduces the use of current
 Prevent drought
 Increase the water level in well & Rise in ground water level
 Minimize soil erosion & flood hazards
 Upgrading the social & environmental status
 Future generation is assured of water.

Watershed management:
It is defined as land area bounded by divide line from which water drains under influence of gravity in
to stream, lakes, reservoir.
Eg. Pits, dams, Farm, ponds etc

Watershed Management;
The management of rainfall & resultant runoff.
Objectives
 To minimize of risk of floods & For improving the economy
 For developmental activities
 To generate huge employment opportunity
 To promote forestry & to protect soil from erosion.

Watershed management Techniques

• Trenches (Pits) – Pits at regular intervals improves ground water storage
• Earthen dam – to check and store runoff water – should be constructed in catchment area
• Farm pond - Ponds can capture, store, and distribute water for a variety of agricultural purposes.
• Underground barriers (Dykes)
Maintenance of Watershed
 Water harvesting
 Afforestation
 Reducing soil erosion
 Scientific mining & Quarrying
 Public participation & Minimizing livestock population

Advantages of Watershed projects-

Improved access to drinking water in project areas during drought-
 Increase in cultivation area leading to increase in employment-
 Increase in crop yield, resulting better income to rural population-
 Improved availability of fodder for animals and increase in milk yield
 Increase in employment & involvement of women-
 Increase in net returns from all crops
 Decrease in soil erosion.
 Restoration of ecological balance.

Resettlement and Rehabilitation of people:

Resettlement – simple relocation or displacement of human population.

Causes
 Due to Developmental activities - dams, mining, roads, airports, etc
 Due to Disaster (Natural disaster - earthquake, floods, droughts, landslides, avalanches, volcanic
eruptions etc.) (Manmade disasters - Industrial accidents, nuclear accidents, dam bursts etc)
 Due to conservation initiatives - national park, sanctuary, forest reserves, biosphere reserve etc.

Case Studies Eg. Hirakund dam displaced more than 20000 people residing in about 250 villages.
Tehri Dam (Uttaranchal) on the river Bhagirathi, would directly have an immediate impact on the
10,000 residents of Tehri town and the rehabilitation over here has become much more of a burning issue
Sardar Sarover Project - Plans to build 30 big, 135 medium and 3000 minor dams on Narmada River.
Tributaries estimated to submerge 573 villages consisting of about 3 lakh people.

Rehabilitation:
Involves making the system to work again by replacing the lost economic assets, employment, land for
building, repair damaged building etc.
Rehabilitation issues
 Displacement of tribal’s increases poverty by losing home, land, jobs, food security etc
 Breakup of families
 Communal ownership of property
 Vanishing social and cultural activities like folk songs & dances
 Loss of identity between the people.
 Extinction of wild life

ENVIRONMENTAL ETHICS:-
Over exploitation of forests, land, water as well as various living components of biosphere and failure
to tackle the problem of pollution and environmental degradation are exposing the humanly to the thread of a
global environment crisis.
Therefore human beings are ethically responsible for the preservation of the world’s ecological
integrity. The environment ethics literally means conscious efforts to protect environment and to maintain its
stability from the pollutants. Following are some of the ways to safeguard environment.
Function of Environment

 A life supporting medium for all organisms

 It provides food, air, water, & other natural resources
 Moderates the climatic conditions &Disintegrates the waste discharged by the society
 Healthy economy depends on healthy environment.

Ethical Guidelines
 Love & honor the earth
 Should be grateful to plants & animals
 Should not waste your resources
 Should not steal from future generation
 Should not pollute & hold other living things
 Should not consume more materials
 Should share the precious earth resources

Green House Effect and Global Warming:

The progressive warming of earth surface due to blanketing effect of man made CO2 in the atmosphere is
green house effect.
Green house gases - causing global warming are CO2, CH4, N2O, CFCs. CO2 is the most important green
house gas.
Human activities increase the green house effect & raise the atmospheric temperature & this is called global
warming.

Causes:
Over the last century, the level of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere has increase by 25%, the level of
nitrous oxide by 19% and the level of methane by 100%. These 3 major global warming gases are released into
the atmosphere. by burning of fossil fuels, industrialization, mining, deforestation, exhaust from increasing
 automobiles and other anthropogenic activities.

Effect on global warming

1. Sea level → glacial melting & thermal expansion of ocean raise the sea level
2. Agriculture and forestry → Climatic pattern shifts, rainfall is reduced, soils are dried, result in drought,
less crop production
3. Water resources → Rainfall pattern change, Drought & Floods will become common. Rise in
temperature will increases water demand
4. Terrestrial ecosystems → Animals & plants will have problems in adapting. They will be in Risk of
extinction
5. Human health → As earth become warmer, floods & droughts become frequent.
This increase waterborne disease, infectious diseases caused by mosquitoes.

Preventive Measures of Global Warming:

 Reducing CO2 emission by reducing use of fossil fuels
 Utilizing renewable resources like wind, solar, hydro power etc.
 Plant more trees
 Adopt sustainable agriculture.
 Use natural gas instead of coal
 Stabilize population growth
 Remove CO2 by photosynthetic algae.

Principles of Green Chemistry

Definition - Green chemistry is the design of chemical products and processes that reduce or eliminate the
use or generation of hazardous substances. Green chemistry applies across the life cycle of a chemical
product, including its design, manufacture, use, and ultimate disposal. Green chemistry is also known as
sustainable chemistry.

1. Prevent Waste It is better to prevent waste than to treat or clean up waste after it has been
2. Atom Economy Synthetic methods should be designed to maximize the incorporation of all materials used
in the process into the final product
3. Use and production of Less Hazardous chemical
4. Designing safer chemicals - Chemical Product should be designed to preserve the efficiency of the
function with less toxicity
5. Minimize the use of solvents and auxiliaries - Solvent Selection
6. Design for Energy Efficiency - Use of renewable Energy Sources
7. Use of renewable Feed stock. A raw material or feedstock should be renewable rather than depleting
whenever technically and economically practical.
8. Reduce Derivatives Unnecessary derivatization.
9. Catalytic reagents are superior to stoichiometric reagents. • Reduces energy • Increases efficiency •
Reduces by-product formation Design for Degradation
10. Design for degradation - Design it so that it breaks down at the end of its useful lifetime.
11. Real-time analysis for Pollution Prevention Analytical methodologies need to be further developed to
allow for real-time in-process monitoring and control prior to the formation of hazardous substances.
 12. Inherently Safer Chemistry for Accident Prevention - Substances and the form of a substance used in a
chemical process should be chosen so as to minimize the potential for chemical accidents, including
releases, explosions, and fires.

Climate change
What is climate change?
• Climate change is the rise in average surface temperatures on Earth, mostly due to the burning of fossil
fuels.
• Climate change, also called global warming, refers to the rise in average surface temperatures on Earth.
• An overwhelming scientific consensus maintains that climate change is due primarily to the human use of
fossil fuels, which releases carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases into the air.
• The gases trap heat within the atmosphere, which can have a range of effects on ecosystems, including
rising sea levels, severe weather events, and droughts that render landscapes more susceptible to
wildfires.
Kyoto Protocol
 1997, Kyoto, Japan  developed countries agreed to specific targets for cutting their emissions of
greenhouse gases
 Industrialized countries committed to an overall reduction of emissions of greenhouse gases to 5.2%
below 1990 levels for the period 2008 - 2012
 Objective is the stabilization of greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere at a level that would
prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system

ACID RAIN
• Normal rain is slightly acidic due to CO2 gas.
• The pH of the rain water is further acidic due to SO2 & NO2 gases.
• This type of precipitation of water is called acid rain.

Formation of Acid rain:

Thermal power plants, industries,& vehicles release nitrous oxide & sulphur dioxide into atmosphere
When these gases react with water vapour they form acids
SOx + H2O → H2SO4

NOx + H2O → HNO3

Effects of acid rain

1. On Human beings
Destroy life – nervous, respiratory and digestive system
Causes premature death from heart and lung disorders like asthma & bronchitis.
2. On Buildings
Taj Mahal in Agra suffer due to H2SO4 acid fumes released from Mathura refinery.
British Parliament building suffered due to H2SO4 rain
Acid rain reduce the value of building, bridges, cultural objects etc.
This increases the maintenance cost.
3. On terrestrial and Lake Ecosystem
 Reduces rate of photosynthesis, growth of crops, Fish population.
Flies, mosquitoes & worm occur on the dead fishes
Nitrogen, & phosphorous stay up in dead wastages.
Biomass production is reduced & fish population decreases.
Control measures
• By Clean combustion technologies
• Using pollution control equipments
• Replacement of coal by natural gas
• Liming of lakes and soils.
• Coal with lower sulphur content can be used
• Emission of SO2 & NO2 from industries can be reduced

Ozone layer depletion:

Ozone is an important chemical species present in the stratosphere. Its concentration is about 10ppm. It
acts as a protective shield for the life on the earth. It protects us from the Ultraviolet radiation of the sun.
Ozone is produced and also broken down by photochemical reactions, thus maintaining equilibrium. Recent
evidence shown that ozone layer is becoming thinner & holes have developed

Causes for ozone layer depletion:

1. Chlorine released from CFC and Bromine released from halogens are the most important chemicals
associated with ozone layer depletion
2. The halogens are used in fore extinguishers and CFC are extensively used in air conditioners and
refrigerators.
3. Methyl bromide used during packaging of fruits to prevent bacterial action flows out into the atmosphere
as soon as the packing is opened. This cause heavy damage to ozone.

Ozone depleting chemicals

 Chloro Fluro carbon (CFC) - Used in refrigerators, propellent, spray cans, blowing agent, foam agent],
 Hydro chloro fluoro carbon (HCFC) - Used in refrigerants, blowing agents
 Bromo fluoro Carbon (BFC) - Used in fire extinguisher

Formation of Ozone:
O2 + hν → O● + O● Ozone is formed by photochemical reaction
●
O + O2 → O3 atomic oxygen reacts with molecular oxygen to form ozone

Mechanism of Ozone layer depletion:

CF2Cl2 + hν → Cl + CF2Cl
CF2Cl + O2 → CF2O + ClO
Cl + O3 → ClO + O2
ClO + O● → Cl + O2

 In 1970 it was found that ozone layer was attacked by CFCs

 Each Chlorine atom attack ozone molecule.
 Loss in ozone increases the UV radiation reaching the earth surface.
 Effects:
1. Marked rise in cause skin cancer
2. Damage immune system
3. Eye ailment such as cataract
4. Shorter life of paints and plastics
5. Restricted growth and crop damage
6. Destruction of aquatic life
Control Measures
 Replacing CFCs by less damaging materials
 Use of methyl bromide – crop fumigant should be controlled
 Manufacturing & using of ozone depleting chemicals should be stopped.

NUCLEAR ACCIDENTS & HOLOCAUST

The release of large amounts of nuclear energy and radioactive products into the atmosphere.

Types of Nuclear Accidents

 Nuclear test
 Nuclear power plant accidents
 Improper disposal of radioactive wastes
 Accident during transport of materials
 Core melt down

Effects of nuclear accident:

1. Direct contact leads to radioactive sickness which may lead to death.
2. Cancer is major problem in affected areas and this effect may stay longer.
3. Air and water will be contaminated due to radioactive steam and groundwater mixing with radioactive
substances.
4. Land degradation.
5. It affects eye sight.
6. The ecological system gets disturbed.
7. Birds and animals have affect on their reproductive systems.
8. Gene disturbances and deformity in newly born.

Examples
Chernobyl Nuclear Disaster:(Nuclear Pollution)

In April 26 1986, melt down of the Chernobyl nuclear reactor in Ukraine, Russia, has leaked out the
radioactive rays & radioactive materials. This was happened due to poor reactor design & human error.
Effects: about 2000 persons died, more suffered due to degeneration of cells, severe bleeding, anaemia,
 skin cancer, animals plants was also affected more.

2. Nuclear holocaust in Japan:

In 1945 two nuclear atom bombs were dropped on Hiroshima & Nagasaki cities in Japan.
This explosion emitted neutrons, gamma radiations, strontium (Sr*90)
This Sr90 has the property of replacing calcium in the bones & so many people were affected by bone
deformities
1, 00,000 people were killed,

Effects of nuclear holocaust:

Nuclear winter [Black soot formed will absorb all UV-radiations & prevent UV radiation to reach the
earth.
This result in cooling effect & water evaporation will also reduce. This process opposite to global
warming is called nuclear winter.

Control Measures
 Suitable precautions to avoid accident
 Constant monitoring of the radiation level
 Checks and control measures done by Atomic Energy Regulatory Board

WASTE LAND RECLAMATION:

The land which is not in use – unproductive, unfit for cultivation another economic uses. The waste
land do not fulfill their life sustain potential wasteland contributes about 20.17% of the total geographical area
of India.

Types of waste land

1. Uncultivable waste land – Barren rocky areas, hilly slopes, sandy deserts.
2. Cultivable waste land- degraded forest lands, gullied lands. Marsh lands, saline land etc.
Causes for waste land formation
 Soil Erosion, Deforestation, Water logging, Salinity.
 Excessive use of pesticides.
 Developmental activities, [Construction of dams, power projects, causes water logging].
 Over-exploitation of natural resources.
 Sewage and industrial wastes.
 Mining destroy forests & cultivable land.
 Growing demands for fuel, fodder, wood and food causes degradation and loss of soil productivity.
Objectives of waste land reclamation
 To improve the physical structure and quality of the soil
 To prevent soil erosion
  To avoid over – exploitation of natural resources
 To conserve the biological resources.
 To improve the availability of good quality of water
 To supply fuel, fodder, timber for local use
 To provide source of income to the rural poor

Methods of waste land reclamation

 Drainage
 Leaching
 Irrigation practices
 Green manures and bio fertilizers
 Application of Gypsum
 Afforestation programmes
Consumerism and Waste Products
Consumerism refers to the consumption of resources by the people. Early human societies
used to consume much less resources. But the consumerism has increased to a very large extent. Consumerism
is related to both population size and increase in demands due to change in lifestyle.
Population has increased tremendously. World Bank estimates our population to reach 11billion by
2045. Two types of conditions of population and consumerism exists.

1. People over – population: When there are more people than available food, water and other resources in an
area – causes degradation of limited resources – poverty and under nourishments. Low Developed Countries
(LDC) are more prone to these conditions. There is less per capita consumption although the overall
consumption is high.
2. Consumption over– population:
These conditions occur in more developed countries (MDC). Population size is smaller but the
resource consumption is high due to luxurious lifestyle (i.e.) per capita consumption is high. More
consumption of resources lead to high waste generation –greater is the degradation of the environment.
Objectives of Consumerisation
 Improves rights and power of the buyers
 Making the manufacturer liable
 Reuse and recycle the product
 Reclaiming useful parts
 Reusable packing materials
 Health and happiness.

Important information to be known by buyers

 About ingredients,
 Manufacturing dates, Expiry date, etc.

SOURCES OF WASTES = Glass, papers, garbage’s, food waste, automobile waste, dead animals etc.

E – Waste = Computers, printers, mobile phones, Xerox machines, calculators etc.

Effects of wastes -
 Dangerous to human life
 Degrade soil
 Non biodegradable plastics reduce toxic gases.
 Cadmium in chips, Cathode ray tube, PVC causes cancer and other respiratory problems. Overall
environmental impact = no. of people x per capita use of resources x waste generated per unit of
resources

Parameter MDC LDC

Number of people Low High

Per capita consumption High Low

of resources
Waste generated High Low

Over all environmental impact of these two types of consumerism may be same or even greater in case
of MDC.

Environment (Protection) Act, 1986

It is a general legislation law to rectify the gaps & laps in above acts.
This act empowers the Central Govt. to fix the standard of quality of air, water, soil & noise.
Objectives:
To protect & improvement of the environment
To prevent hazards to all living creatures & property
To maintain peaceful relationship between humans & their environment
Important Features of Environment Act:
 Empowers safeguard measures to Prevent accidents which cause pollution.
 Gives remedial measures if accident occurs.
 The Govt. has authority to close or prohibit or regulate any industry & its operation. One who violates the
act will be punishable with fine up to one lakh
 If the violation continues, an additional fine of Rs. 5000/- per day is imposed
 The act empowers the officers of Central Government to inspect the site / plant / machinery for
preventing pollution.
 Collects samples of air, water, soil or other material from any factory / its premises for testing.

Air (Prevention & Control of Pollution) Act, 1981 Salient features

 Enacted in the Conference held at Stockholm in 1972.
 Deals with problems related to air pollution, quality of air etc.
Objectives of air act:
To prevent, control & abatement of air pollution To maintain the quality of air

Important features of air pollution:

 The Central Board settle disputes between state boards, provide technical assistance & guidance to State
board.
 The State Board verify the emissions of air pollutants from industrial / automobile units
  The State Board Collect information about air pollution
 SB examine the standards of manufacturing process & control equipment
 SB can advise State Government to declare the heavily polluted areas & advice to avoid burning of waste
products.
 Operation of industrial unit is prohibited in a heavily polluted areas
 Violation of law is punishable with imprisonment & Fine

Water (prevention and control of pollution) Act 1974:

This act provides for maintaining & restoring the source of water Provides for preventing & controlling
water pollution.

Objectives:
• To protect water from all kinds of pollution
• To preserve the quality of water
• Establishment of Central & State Boards for preventing water pollution
• Restrain any person for discharging sewage/effluent into any water body
• Any contravention of the standards leads to prison for 3 to 6 months
 Requires permission to set up an industry which discharges effluent.

State pollution Control Board:

 Take step to establish any industry, disposal system, extension/addition in industry, discharge of
effluent into river
 Use any new / altered outlet for discharge of sewage
 Begin to make any new discharge of sewage.

Punishment:

Stoppage of supply of electricity, water / any other services Imprisonment for 1½ years to 6 years & Rs. 5000/-
fine.

Wildlife [protection] act, 1972:

Aimed protect & preserve wildlife. Wildlife refers to all animals & plants
It is declining due to human actions for wildlife’s skins, furs, feathers, ivory etc.

Objectives:
To maintain ecological process & life supporting system To preserve biodiversity
To ensure a continuous use of species.
Important Features:
Covers the right & non-rights of forest dwellers
Provides restricted grazing in sactuaries & prohibits in national parks Prohibits the collection of non-
timber forest.
1. Defines wild life related terminology.
2. Provide appointments of advisory Board, wildlife warden, their powers &
3. duties etc.
 4. Prohibition of hunting of endangered species [was first] mentioned.
5. List of endangered species is provided.
6. Provides grants for setting up of national parks, wild life sanctuaries etc
7. The Act imposes ban on trade & commence of scheduled animals.
8. Provides legal proves to officers to punish the offenders.
9. Provide captive breeding programme for endangered species.

Forest (conservation) Act, 1980

It deals with conservation of forest and includes reserve forest, protected forest and any forestland
irrespective of ownership.

Objectives:
To protect & conserve the forest
To ensure judicious use of forest products
Important Features of Forest Act:
Forests are not diverted without the prior permission of the Central Government.
Land registered for forest may not be used for non-forest purposes
Any illegal activity in a forest area can be stopped immediately
Clearance of forest land for re-afforestation is forbidden
One who violates the forest law is punishable.
1. Provision for conservation of all types of forests. Advisory committee appointed for funding conservation
2. Illegal non-forest activity within a forest area can be immediately stopped under this act. Non forest activity
means clearing land for cash-crop agriculture, mining etc.
However construction in forest for wild life or forest management is exempted from non forestry activity.

1992 Amendment:

1. This amendment allows transmission lines, seismic surveys, exploration drilling and hydro electric
project in forest area without cutting trees or with limited cutting of trees-prior approval CG to be sought.
2. Wild life sanctuaries, National parks etc. are prohibited from exploration except with CG prior approval.
3. Cultivation of coffee, rubber, tea (cash crop), fruit bearing trees, oil yielding trees, trees of medicinal
values are also prohibited in reserved forest area with out prior approval from CG. Has this may create
imbalance to ecology of the forest.
4. Tusser (a type of silk yielding insect) cultivation in forest area is allowed since it discourages
monoculture practices in forests and improves biodiversity.
5. Plantation of mulberry for rearing silk worm is prohibited.
6. Proposal sent to CG for non-forestry activity must have a cost benefit analysis and environmental impact
statement (EIS)
Environmental Legislation
1972 June 5th – Environment was first discussed as an agenda in UN conference on Human
Environment. There after every year 5th June is celebrated as Environment Day.
 Constitutional Provisions:
Added in 1976– Article 48A – “The state shall endeavor to protect and improve the environment and to
safeguard forests and wildlife of the country”
Article 51A (g): “It shall be the duty of every citizen of India to protect and improve the natural
environment including forests, lakes, rivers and wildlife and to have compassion for living creatures”.
By these two articles one constitution makes environment protection and conservation as one of our
fundamental duties.

Central pollution control Board (CPCB):

1. Advices CG in matters – prevention and control of water pollution
2. Co ordinates SPCB and provide technical assistance and guidance
3. Training programs for prevention and control of pollution by mass media and other ways
4. Publishes statistical and technical details about pollution
5. Prepares manual for treatment and disposal of sewerage and trade effluents
6. Lays standard for water quality parameters
7. Plans nation-wide programs for prevention, control or abatement of pollution
8. Laboratories for analysis of water, sewage or trade effluents

State pollution control Board (SPCB):

SPCB has similar functions as SPCB and governed by CPCB

1. SPCB advises state government with respect to location of any industry that might pollute
2. Lays standard for effluents to take samples from streams, wells or trade effluents or sewage passing
through an industry. Samples taken are analyzed at recognized labs. If the sample is not confirming to
the water quality standard, then the unit is neglected
3. Every industry to obtain consent from PCB before commencing an effluent unit by applying in
prescribed form with fee.

Enforcement of environmental legislation – major issues

1. Target of 33% of land to be covered by forest not achieved
2. Rivers turning to open sewers
3. Big towns and cities polluted
4. Wild life endangered
5. EFP (Effluent Treatment Plant) or Air Pollution Control devices are expensive – leads to closure of
units. Government should provide subsidy for small units.
6. Pollution control laws not backed up by policy pronouncements or guidelines
7. Chairman of PCB – political nominee. Hence political interference.
8. Involving public in decision making envisaged by policy statement of the ministry of environment and
forest (1992) is only in paper.

Draw backs of wild life (protection) act

 Fall out of Stockholm conference not localized Ownership certificate of animals article – illegal
trading Trade through J & K. This act not applicable to J&K
  Offender to get just 3 years imprisonment and or Rs.25000/- fine.

Draw backs of the forest (conservation) act 1980

Inheritance of exploitative and consumerist elements of the British period Tribal people (i.e.) inhabitants
of forest are left by the act
Instead of attracting public support (tribal) it has intrigued in the human rights.
Protection of trees, birds and animals have marginalized poor people.

PUBLIC AWARENESS
Our environment is presently degrading due to many activities like pollution, deforestation, overgrazing,
rapid industrialization and urbanization.
Objectives of public awareness
• Create awareness among people of rural and city about ecological imbalances, local environment,
technological development and various development plants.
• To organize meetings, group discussion on development, tree plantation programmes exhibitions.
• To learn to live simple and eco-friendlily manner.

Methods to create environmental awareness

 In schools and colleges
 Through mass – media
 Cinema
 Newspapers
 Audio - Visual media
 Voluntary organizations
 Traditional techniques
 Arranging competitions
 Leaders appeal
 Non – government organizations.
 UNIT 5: HUMAN POULATION AND THE ENVIRONMENT

Population growth:
Droughts, outbreak of diseases lead to human deaths. 14 th century A.D experienced large scale
mortality due to plague – about 50% of people in Asia and Europe died due to the disease.
Science and technological advancement has increased the expectancy of human. People started living
with good sanitation food and medical facilities increase in population exponentially. In agriculture based
families children are said to be assets who help the parents in fields. Therefore, in developing countries the
population increase is at a rate of 3.4% per year.
Causes of rapid population growth
• The rapid population growth is due to decrease in death rate and increase in birth rate.
• Availability of antibiotics, immunization, increased food production, clean water and air decreases the
famine-related deaths.
• In agricultural based countries, children are required to help parents in the field that is why population
increases in the developing countries.
Population
It is defined as a group of individuals of the same species living in the same area in a given time.
Population density
It is expressed as a no. of individuals of the population per unit area or per unit volume
Parameters affecting population size
1. Birth rate or Natality : It is the no. of birth per 1000 people in a population in a given year
2. Death rate: It is the no. Of deaths per 1000 people in a population in a given year
3. Immigration: It denotes the arrival of individual from neighboring population
4. Emigration: It denotes the dispersal of individuals from the original population to new areas.

Characteristics of population growth

• Exponential growth
• Doubling time
• Infant mortality rate
• Total fertility rate
• Replacement level
• Male/female ratio
• Demographic transition.

Variation of population based on age structure

Pre-productive population (0-14 years)
Reproductive population (15 – 44 years)
Post reproductive population (above 45 years)

1. Pyramid shaped – India, Bangladesh, and Ethiopia. [Large no of young people enter into reproductive age
group, hence Population growth increases].

2. Bell shaped – France, USA, and UK. [ pre-productive age group population & reproductive age group
population are almost equal, hence population growth is stable].
 3. Urn shaped - Germany, Italy, and Japan [ pre-productive population is less that reproductive age group,
hence population growth decreases].

Population Explosion → The enormous increase in population due to low death rate and high birth rate

Doubling Time → The number of years needed for a population to double in size.

Causes of population explosion:

 Modern medical facilities reduces death rate & increases birth rate,
 Increase of life expectancy,
 Illiteracy.

Effects of population explosion (PE)

 Poverty - infant mortality is the tragic indicator of poverty

 PE leads to Environmental degradation, 
 PE causes over - exploitation of natural resources,
 Renewable resources like forests are under threat,
 Increase in population increases disease, communal war
 Leads to development of slums
 Lack of basic amenities like water, education , health etc

Population characteristics and variation among nations:

1. Exponential growth: 1,3,5…… If a quantity varies by a fixed % 10^1, 10^2 etc.

2. Doubling Time Td = 70/r 2%
3. Total Fertility Rate (TFR) is 1.9 developing countries. 4.7 developing countries and
6.1in 1950

4. Infant mortality: % of infants died out of those born in a year last 50 years.
5. Replacement level: Under low life expectancy and high infant mortality 2.7 in developing countries and 2 in
developed countries.
6. Life expectancy: The average no. of years a new born baby is expected to live. The life expectancy of
global males and females has risen from 40 to 55.5 years. In India 22.6 and 23.3 in 1900 & 60.3 and 60.5 in
2000. In Japan and Sweden 77-77.4 & 82-84 years

Family welfare programme:

  Allows couples to describe their family size and also time spacing of their off spring
 Provide importance, knowledge and benefits of their small family to people
 Education in held and family welfare system Sex education awareness

WHO estimated 50% of worlds married couples adopted family planning measures, 300 million couples not
assessed to family planning

FAMILY PLANNING PROGRAMME

Objectives
1. Reduce infant mortality rate.
2. Achieve 100% of birth, death, marriage, pregnancy registration
3. Encourage late marriages, late child-bearing.
4. Improve women’s health, education, employment.
5. Prevent & Control of communal diseases.
6. Promote small family norms
7. Making free & compulsory education upto 14 yrs & Constraint spread of AIDS

Fertility control methods:

Traditional method → taboos and folk medicine

Modern method Permanent method (Sterilization done by minor surgery)

a) Tubectomy = female sterilization done by tying the tubes carrying ovum to uterus.
b) Vasectomy = male sterilization, done by tying the tubes carrying the

Temporary method
a) Condoms = used by males to prevent sperms
b) Copper Ts = small objects placed by doctor in the uterus
c) Oral contraceptive pills, drugs
Environment and human health:
Environment is defined as man along with his surroundings, which consists of biotic, abiotic and
sociological components. Therefore, when we cause danger to these components, which surrounds us, they in
turn affect our health.
The environmental dangers created by man are many: Population explosion, unregulated urbanization,
creating water, air and landscape pollution, deforestation, desertification, use of pesticides in agriculture etc.
Every one of these has implications for the health of the individual as well as society as a whole. None can be
ignored because the scale of potential calamity is increasing day by day.
Health hazards may be arising from: water contamination or pollution, air pollution, use of pesticides
enters through food chain, radiation effect of nuclear water, diseases caused from improper disposal of solid
wastes and also due to noise pollution.

HUMAN RIGHTS
Human rights are the fundamental rights, which are possessed by all human beings irrespective of their
caste, nationality, sex and language.
IN 1948 Universal Declaration of Human Rights UNKHR was established by UN.

 Human right to freedom[express views, forming union, building houses, choose any profession]
 Human right to property [right to earn property]
 Human right to freedom of religion [freedom to choose religion to his wishes]
 Human right to culture and education [right to conserve culture, language, establishing educational institution]
 Human right to constitutional remedies [can go to court, if fundamental rights are denied]
 Human right to equality [all citizens are equal before law without discrimination of religion, sex, caste, place]
 Human right against exploitation [children should not be employed as labours]
 Human right to food and environment [right to get sufficient food, safe, water, healthy environment]
 Human right to good health [right to have very good physical and mental health].

VALUE EDUCATION

It is nothing but learning about the particular thing through knowledge. We can identify our values and
ourselves with the help of knowledge and experience.

Types
1. Formal education-
Self related learning process, all will read, write, get jobs, tackle any problem with formal education
.
2. Value education –
Analyze our behavior, provide proper direction to youth, know right & wrong.
3. Value-based environment education-
knowledge about principles of ecology, biodiversity, care for natural resources, know to safe
and clean environment.

Objectives
• To improve the integral growth of human begins.
• To create attitudes and improvement towards sustainable lifestyle.
• To increase awareness about our national history our cultural heritage, constitutional rights,
national integration, community develo9pment and environment.
• To create and develop awareness about the values and their significance and role.
• To know about various living and non- living organisms and their interaction with
environment.

Value Education:
Education is one of the most important tools in bringing about socioeconomic and cultural progress of
a country. The objective of education should not be merely coaching the students to get through the exams
with good results and get some good job. Education does not simply mean

Value based environmental education:

Environmental education is something that every person should be well versed with. The principles of
ecology and fundamentals of environment help to create a sense of earth citizenship and a sense of care for the
earth and its resources - a sense of commitment towards the management of the resources in a sustainable way
so that our children and grand children too have a safe and clean planet.
Following the Supreme Court directives 1998 environmental education has been included in the
curriculum right from the school stage to university level. The objective of it is to make everyone environment
 literate. Let us see how environmental education can be made value based one.
1. Preparation of text books materials on environmental education – to built a positive attitude towards
environmental factors.
2. Social values like love, tolerance, compassion can be woven into environment. Education. This will help to
nurture all forms of life and biodiversity.
3. Cultural and religious values: Our culture and religions teach us not to exploit nature – but to perform
such functions which project and sacred nature. Therefore these value scan be added up with environment.
Education.
4. Environment Education should stress on earth centric views rather than human centric view such that it
include the ethical values.
5. Global values: Stress on the concept human is part of nature and all natural processes are inter linked and
they are in harmony. If this harmony is disturbed it may lead to imbalance in ecology and catastrophic results.
6. Spiritual values: highlights on self contentment, discipline, reduction of wants etc. This will reduce our
consumerist approach If the mentioned values are incorporated in environment education, the goal of
sustainable development and environment conservation can be easily attained. Value based environment
Education can bring about a total transformation of our mind set, our attitudes and life style to protect nature.

Methods of Imparting value Education:

 Telling
 Modeling - presenting ideas to leaner’s as model
 Role Playing - Acting the role of another person
 Problem Solving - Asking the learners about their decision during dilemma
 Studying biographies of great man - use of great man good deeds & worthy thoughts

WOMANS WELFARE
Need of Women Welfare
 Women suffer gender discrimination
 Devaluation at home, matrimony, workplace, public & power
 Dowry death, rape, domestic violence, mental torture to women
 Human rights are violated, decision making are neglected

Objectives
• To provide education
• To impart vocational training
• To generate awareness
• To improve employment opportunities
• To restore dignity, equality and respect.
• To aware problems of population
Objectives of National Commission For Women
• To examine constitutional & legal rights for women To
review existing legislations
• To sensitize the enforcement & administrative machinery to women’s causes.

Various Organizations towards Women Welfare:

• The National Network for Women & Mining (NNWM) → fighting for gender audit of
 India’s mining companies
• United Nations Decade for Women → inclusion of women welfare related issues on international
agenda.
• International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women
(CEDAW) → Protection & Promotion of women’s upliftment
• Non-Government Organizations (NGO’s) → Empower, educate village women & making self-
dependent
• Ministry for Women and Child Development → work for upliftment of women by family
planning, health, education & awareness

CHILD WELFARE:
Reason for child Labors
Poverty → work in unhealthy conditions
Want of Money → parents need money for their family

Various Organizations towards Child Welfare:

1. UN Conventions on Rights of Child or International Law → promote & protect children in our
society
Rights of the Child:
The right to survival → emphasizes on good health, nutrition, standard of living
The right to participation → freedom of thought to the child
The right to development → ensures education, care, support, social security & recreation
The right to protection → freedom from exploitation, inhuman treatment & neglect

2. World summit on children → well being of the children is targeted

3. Ministry of Human Resource Development (MHRD) → concentrate on childs health, education,
nutrition
4. Center for Science & Environment (CSE) - keeping environment clean for healthy life of children

HIV/AIDS
AIDS is the abbreviated form for Acquired Immuno Deficiency Syndrome caused by a virus called
HIV (Human Immune deficiency Virus). Immune deficiency means that the disease is characterized by a
weakening of immune system
Origin of HIV/AIDS
1. Through African Monkey or Chimpanzees to human.
2. Through Vaccine Programme
a. Polio, small pox vaccine prepared from monkey’s kidney-Africa.
b. spread through Hepatitis-B viral vaccine-Los Angles and New York.
c. through small pox vaccine programme of Africa
Scenario in India: India ranks 2nd with 5.1 million HIV affected people. The % is lower than
Thailand, Myanmar & South Africa
Factors influencing modes of Transmission of HIV

1. Unprotected sex with infected person.

2. Using needles or syringes from HIV positive person.
3. During pregnancy, breast feeding HIV transmits from mother to infant babies.
4. Blood transfusion during accident and pregnancy.
5. Biologically the male to female transmission is 2 to 4 time more efficient than female to male transmission.
6. Women’s cervical tissue is more vulnerable to HIV than men.
7. Transmission of HIV to new born babies happen easily

Factors not influencing transmission of HIV

1. Tears, food, air, cough, handshake and normal kissing.
2. Mosquito flies and insect bites.
3. Sharing of utensils, clothes, toilets and bathroom.

Functions of HIV in human body

 White blood cells (WBC) are responsible for the formation of antibodies called T-helper cells’-
 T- helper cells are the key infection fighters in the immune system.
 Once HIV cells are enter into the boy they destroy the T-cells & cause many infection diseases.

Minor symptoms
 Persistent cough for more than one month.
 General skin disease. Viral infection.
 Fungus infection in mouth and throat.
 Frequent fever, headache and fatigue
Major symptoms
 Fever for more than one month
 Diarrhea for more than one month.
 Cough & TB for more than one month.
 Fall of hairs.
 10% of body weight loss within short period.

Control and Preventive measures

1. Education. → health education, avoid sharing razors, needles and syringe
2. Prevention of Blood borne HIV transmission. → screening of blood for HIV before transmission &
following strict sterilization in hospitals
3. Primary health care → AIDS awareness programme, participation of voluntary health agengies].
4. Counseling services → Counseling through phone or through telephone].
5. Drug treatment → Early medical care, taking nutritious diet, maintaining stress free mind].

Effects
 Death
 Loss of labor & level of production decreases
 Inability to work due to lack of energy & frequent fever & sweating
 More water is needed for maintaining hygiene in AIDS affected locality.
Screening test:
 ELISA-Enzyme Linked Immuno Sorbent Assay
 Western blot
  DNA test
 Immuno fluorescent antibody assay

DENGUE FEVER

Dengue infection is caused by Arbovirus

• Dengue virus (DENV) infects 50 million (WHO) to 100 million (NIH) people annually.
• Forty per cent of the world’s population, predominately in the tropics and sub-tropics, is at risk for
contracting dengue virus.
• DENV infection can cause dengue fever, dengue haemorrhagic fever, dengue shock syndrome, and death.

What causes Dengue?

• Dengue (DF) and dengue haemorrhagic fever (DHF) are caused by one of four closely related, but
antigenically distinct, virus serotypes (DEN-1, DEN-2, DEN-3, and DEN-4), of the genus Flavivirus.
• Infection with one of these serotypes provides immunity to only that serotype for life.

How Mosquitos spread the infection

• The disease starts during the rainy season, when vector Mosquito Aedes aegypti is abundant
• The Aedes breeds in the tropical or semitropical climates in water holding receptacles or in plants close to
human dwellings
• A female Aedes acquires the infection feeding upon a viremic human.
• After a period of 8 – 14 days mosquitoes are infective and remain infective for life. ( 1- 3 ) months.

Clinical Manifestations
• Any or few of the following events can occur.
• Fever,
• Severe head ache
• Muscle and joint pains
• Nausea, vomiting,
• Eye pain
How Dengue Infection starts and manifests
• Incubation period 4 – 7 days ( 3 – 14 days)
• Fever may start with, Malise, chills, head ache
• Soon leads to severe back ache, joint pains, muscular pain, pain in the eye ball.
• Temperature may persist for 3 -5 days.
• On some occasions once again raises in about 5 – 8 days (Saddle back fever)
• Myalgia may be severe with deep bone pain
• ( Break bone fever ) characteristic of the Disease
 • On majority of the occasions a self limited condition,
• Subside on its own
• Death is a rare event.

Treatment
• No Anti viral therapy available
• Symptomatic management in Majority of cases
• Dengue Hemorrhagic fever to be treated with suitable fluid replacement
• No Vaccine available, difficult in view of four serotypes.
Control of Dengue
• Control of Mosquito breeding places.
• Anti mosquito measures
• Use of Insecticides.
• Screened windows and doors can reduce exposure to vectors.

SWINE FLU

WHAT IS SWINE FLU?

H1N1 flu is also known as swine flu. It's called swine flu because in the past, the people who caught it had
direct contact with pigs. That changed several years ago, when a new virus emerged that spread among
people who hadn't been near pigs.

In 2009, H1N1 was spreading fast around the world, so the World Health Organization called it a pandemic.
Since then, people have continued to get sick from swine flu, but not as many.
How Do You Catch It?
The same way as the seasonal flu. When people who have it cough or sneeze, they spray tiny drops of the
virus into the air. If you come in contact with these drops, touch a surface (like a doorknob or sink) where
the drops landed, or touch something an infected person has recently touched, you can catch H1N1 swine
flu. People who have it can spread it one day before they have any symptoms and as many as 7 days after
they get sick. Kids can be contagious for as long as 10 days.
Swine Flu Symptoms
These, too, are pretty much the same as seasonal flu. They can include:
• Cough
• Fever
• Sore throat
• Stuffy or runny nose
• Body aches
• Headache
• Chills
• Fatigue
Like the regular flu, swine flu can lead to more serious problems including pneumonia, a lung infection, and other
breathing problems. And it can make an illness like diabetes or asthma worse.

How Is It Treated?
Some of the same antiviral drugs that are used to treat seasonal flu also work against H1N1 swine flu. Oseltamivir
 (Tamiflu), peramivir (Rapivab), and zanamivir (Relenza) seem to work best, although some kinds of swine flu
don’t respond to oseltamivir. These drugs can help you get well faster. They can also make you feel better.

Besides a flu shot, there are other things you can do to stay healthy:
• Wash your hands throughout the day with soap and water. Sing the "Happy Birthday" song twice to make
sure you've washed long enough. Or use an alcohol-based hand sanitizer.
• Don't touch your eyes, nose, or mouth.
• Avoid people who are sick.

Role of Information Technology in Environment And Human Health:

Information technology means collection, processing storage & dissemination of information.

1. REMOTE SENSING [RS]

 Gathering information about an object without coming in contact with it is called remote sensing.
 Any force like acoustic, gravity, magnetic, electromagnetic etc. could be used for remote sensing.

Applications
In agriculture → RS provide information about land, water management, use of seeds,
fertilizer input etc
Forestry → Information on type, density & extent of forest cover, wood volume, forest fire, pest
etc.
Land cover → Gives spatial information on land, RS data is converted to map
Water resources → surface water body mapping, ground water targeting, flood monitoring, water
quality monitoring, run-off modeling, irrigation water management

2. DATA BASE (DB) - Collection of inter related data on various subjects.

Applications

 Ministry of environment and forest → compile data on biotic communites, diseases like HIV, malaria, fluorosis
 National Management Information System (NMIS) → DB on R&D projects, research scientists etc.
 Environmental Information System (ENVIS) → DB on pollution control area, clean technology,
biodiversity, remote sensing, environmental management, desertification etc

3. GEOGRAPHICAL INFORMATION SYSTEM (GIS)

It is a technique of superimposing various thematic maps using digital data on a large number of inter-
related aspects.
Application
• Thematic maps are super imposed using software’s.
• Interpretation of polluted zones, degraded lands
• To check unplanned growth and related environmental problems.

4. SATELLITE DATA
 Helps in providing reliable information and data about forest cover
 Provide information about forecasting weather, smog, ozone depletion
 Reserves of oil, minerals can be discovered.

5. WORLD WIDE WEB → It provides more and latest data.

Important on line learning center
www.mmhe.com/environmentalscience
Multimedia digital content manager (DCM) in the form of CD-ROM

Applications
 These online learning center provides the current and relevant information on, principles,
problems, quarries, application of EVS
 It has digital files of photos , power points lecture presentations, animations, web exercises and
quiz.
 They are useful to both students and teachers of environmental studies

ROLE OF INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY IN HUMAN HEALTH

Human Health
• WHO describes Health as a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being and not merely the
absence of disease or infirmity.
• Innovations leading to converging of IT & Life Sciences creating vast qualities of data.
 • HIT (Health Information Technology) provides the umbrella framework to describe the comprehensive
management of health information across computerized systems.
• Helps in exchange between consumers, providers, government, quality entities and insurers.
Databases
 Data regarding birth, death rates, immunization programs can be maintained more accurately than before in
health centers due to computers.
 Information and statistics about diseases like malaria, fluorosis, AIDS, etc.
 DNA databases and genetic information about population, medical records, fingerprints, etc can be stored
and accessed.
Bioinformatics
 Inter-disciplinary field that develops methods and software tools for understanding biological data.
 Combines computer science, statistics, mathematics and engineering to study and process biological data.
 Major applications in sequence analysis, Databases, literature, structural bioinformatics, gene and protein
expression analysis and algorithms, statistical methods to assess relationships
Telemedicine
 Use of telecommunication and information technologies in order to provide clinical care at a distance.
 Helps eliminate distance barriers. • Saves lives in critical care and emergency situations.
 Benefit remote regions with specialists living far away.
 Also eliminates the possibility of transmission in case of infectious diseases.
Biomechanics
 Robots that emulate or simulate living biological organisms or are inspired by them chemically or
mechanically.
 Nanotechnology use is also being studied. • Nano-bots are programmed to act as delivery systems within the
organism (like blood).
 In biomimicry, robots have to be programmed to make the mechanism simpler and more effective.
 Research on humanoid robots is also becoming increasingly popular.
Controlling diseases
 Isolation is one of the major step in controlling highly infectious diseases.
 In the ongoing Ebola virus containment, spreading awareness was the first step taken.
 This reduces panic and provides information about prevention and if infected, treatment options.
 Several airports in many countries, screened passengers for high temperature and other symptoms via
thermal sensors and computers without any manual labor need. This was possible due to applying IT
services in medical fields.

Application of IT in health services

1. The data regarding birth and death rates, immunization and sanitation programme are maintained more
accurately using IT packages
2. It helps the doctor to monitor the health of the people effectively
3. The information regarding the out break of epidemic diseases can be conveyed easily
4. On-line help of expert doctors can be consulted to provide better treatment and services to the patient
5. With a control system the hospital can run effectively
6. Drugs and its replacement can be administered efficiently