INTELLIGENCE AND ABILITY

“Intelligence is the aggregate or global capacity of the individual to act purposefully, to think
rationally and to deal effectively with his environment” (Wechsler, 1940).

Concept of IQ

 An intelligence quotient (IQ) is a total score derived from one of several standardized
tests designed to assess human intelligence.
 The abbreviation "IQ" was coined by the psychologist William stern his term for a
scoring method for intelligence tests he advocated in a 1912 book.
 Historically, iq is a score obtained by dividing a person’s mental age score, obtained by
administering an intelligence test, by the person’s chronological age, both expressed in
terms of years and months. The resulting fraction is multiplied by 100 to obtain the IQ
score.

THEORIES OF INTELLIGENCE

1. TWO FACTOR THEORY BY CHARLES SPEARMAN


Charles Spearman had developed a statistical procedure called factor analysis. In
factor analysis, related variables are tested for correlation to each other, then the
correlation of the related items are evaluated to find clusters or groups of the
variables.

Spearman tested how well people performed on various tasks relating to intelligence.
Such tasks include: distinguishing pitch, perceiving weight and colors, directions, and
mathematics.

When analyzing the data he collected, Spearman noted that those that did well in one
area also scored higher in other areas. With this data, Spearman concluded that there
must be one central factor that influences our cognitive abilities. Spearman termed
this general intelligence g.

Spearman proposed that his two-factor theory has two components. The general
intelligence, g, influences the performance on all mental tasks, while another
component influences abilities on a particular task.
 To explain the differences in performance on different tasks, Spearman hypothesized
that this other component was specific to a certain aspect of intelligence. This second
factor he named s, for specific ability eg. verbal or arithmetic ability.

2. PRIMARY MENTAL ABILITIES BY L.L. THURSTONE

Thurstone's work in factor analysis led him to formulate a model of intelligence centered on
"Primary Mental Abilities" (PMAs), which were independent group factors of intelligence
that different individuals possessed in varying degrees.
These 7 factors, or primary mental abilities, are word fluency, verbal comprehension, spatial
visualization, number facility, associative memory, reasoning, and perceptual speed.

• Verbal comprehension--the ability to define and understand words

• Word fluency--the ability to produce words rapidly

• Number--the ability to solve arithmetic problems

• Spatial visualisation--the ability to visualize relationships

• Associative Memory--the ability to memorize and recall

• Perceptual speed--the ability to see differences and similarities among objects

• Reasoning--the ability to find rules

3. FLUID AND CRYSTILLISED INTELLIGENCE BY RAYMOND CATTELL


Fluid and crystallized intelligence (respectively abbreviated Gf and Gc) are factors
of general intelligence, originally identified by Raymond Cattell.
 Fluid intelligence or fluid reasoning is the capacity to reason and solve novel
problems, independent of any knowledge from the past. It is the ability to analyze
novel problems, identify patterns and relationships that underpin these problems and
the extrapolation of these using logic. It is necessary for all logical problem solving.
Fluid reasoning includes inductive reasoning and deductive reasoning.
 Crystallized intelligence is the ability to use skills, knowledge, and experience. It does
not equate to memory, but it does rely on accessing information from long-term
memory. Crystallized intelligence is one's lifetime of intellectual achievement, as
demonstrated largely through one's vocabulary and general knowledge.
 This improves somewhat with age, as experiences tend to expand one's knowledge.
Crystallized intelligence is indicated by a person's depth and breadth of general
knowledge, vocabulary, and the ability to reason using words and numbers.
 It is the product of educational and cultural experience in interaction with fluid
intelligence.
 Crystallized and fluid intelligence are believed to be separate neural and mental
systems. Fluid and crystallized intelligence are thus correlated with each other, and
most IQ tests attempt to measure both varieties.

4. GUILFORD’S STRUCTURE OF INTELLECT MODEL

J. P. Guilford was an American psychologist best remembered for his psychometric study of
human intelligence, including the distinction between convergent and divergent production.

According to Guilford's Structure of Intellect (SI) theory, an individual's performance on

intelligence tests can be traced back to the underlying mental abilities or factors of
intelligence. SI theory comprises up to 180 different intellectual abilities organized along
three dimensions: operations, content, and products.
Operations dimension

SI includes six operations or general intellectual processes:

1. Cognition - The ability to understand, comprehend, discover, and become aware of

information
2. Memory recording - The ability to encode information
3. Memory retention - The ability to recall information
4. Divergent production - The ability to generate multiple solutions to a problem;
creativity
5. Convergent production - The ability to deduce a single solution to a problem; rule-
following or problem-solving
6. Evaluation - The ability to judge whether or not information is accurate, consistent, or
valid

Content dimension

SI includes four broad areas of information to which the human intellect applies the six
operations:

1. Figural - Concrete, real world information, tangible objects, things in the environment
- It includes A. visual: information perceived through sight, B. auditory: information
perceived through hearing, and C. kinesthetic: information perceived through one's
own physical actions
2. Symbolic - Information perceived as symbols or signs that stand for something else,
e.g., Arabic numerals, the letters of an alphabet, or musical and scientific notations
3. Semantic - Concerned with verbal meaning and ideas - Generally considered to be
abstract in nature.
4. Behavioral - Information perceived as acts of people (This dimension was not fully
researched in Guilford's project. It remains theoretical and is generally not included in
the final model that he proposed for describing human intelligence.)

Product dimension

As the name suggests, this dimension contains results of applying particular operations to
specific contents. The SI model includes six products in increasing complexity:

1. Units - Single items of knowledge

2. Classes - Sets of units sharing common attributes
3. Relations - Units linked as opposites or in associations, sequences, or analogies
4. Systems - Multiple relations interrelated to comprise structures or networks
5. Transformations - Changes, perspectives, conversions, or mutations to knowledge
6. Implications - Predictions, inferences, consequences, or anticipations of knowledge

Therefore, according to Guilford there are 5 x 6 x 6 = 180 intellectual abilities or factors

MODERN THEORIES OF INTELLIGENCE

1. STERNBERG’ S TRIARCHIC THEORY ( check baron)

2. HOWARD GARDENER’S THEORY OF MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCES

Intelligence is the aggregate or global capacity of an individual to act purposefully, think
rationally and deal effectively with the environment. Howard Gardener gave the theory of
multiple intelligence. It is based on Charles Spearman two factor theory.

The kinds of intelligence: -

1. Linguistic Intelligence –
• It is responsible for all kinds of linguistic competence abilities, talents and skills available in
human beings.
• It is best broken down into components of syntax, semantics, pragmatics as well as school-
oriented skills such as written or oral expression and understanding.
• Profession- Authors, Writers, Lyricists.

2. Logical- Mathematical Intelligence –

• It is responsible for all types of abilities, talents, skills in the area of logic and mathematics.
• It is best broken down into components like deductive reasoning, inductive reasoning, scientific
thinking – solving logical puzzles, carrying out calculations.
• Profession – Mathematicians, Accountants.

3. Visual- Spatial Intelligence –

• Concerned with the abilities, talents and skills involving the representation and manipulation of
spatial configuration and relationships.
• Profession – Fashion designers, interior designers, painters.

4. Musical Intelligence –
• Covers abilities, talents, & skills pertaining to the field of music.
• Demonstrated through one’s capacity for pitch discrimination, sensitivity to rhythm, texture&
timbre, ability to hear and produce music.
• Profession- Music directors, singers, composers.

5. Bodily-Kinesthetic Intelligence –
• It is concerned with the abilities, talents and skills involved in using one’s body parts or its
various parts to perform skilful and purposeful movements.
• Profession- Dancers, athletes.

6. Intra-personal Intelligence –
• Consists of an individual’s abilities to enable him to know himself.
• It includes knowledge and understanding of one’s own cognitive strengths, styles, and mental
functioning, as well as, range of emotions and skills to utilize one’s fund of knowledge in
practical situation.
• It provides an insight into one’s total behaviour.
• It is therefore said to be the most private nature whose access is through self-expression.
• E.g. – Yogis, saints
7. Inter-personal intelligence –
• Consists of abilities to understand individuals other than oneself and one’s relation to others.
• Profession – Psychotherapies, teachers, politicians.

8. Naturalistic Intelligence –
• This was added in 1995.
• It consists of the ability to recognize flora and fauna, to make consequential distinctions in the
natural world, to nurture one’s natural environment.
• Professions – Botany, zoologist.

9. Existential Intelligence – The ability to understand spiritual world. However this is being
explored still.

INTELLIGENCE TESTS (INDIVIDUAL TESTS)

1. STANFORD–BINET INTELLIGENCE SCALES

The Stanford–Binet Intelligence Scales (or more commonly the Stanford–Binet) is an

individually administered intelligence test that was revised from the original Binet–Simon
Scale by Lewis M. Terman, a psychologist at Stanford University.
The Stanford–Binet Intelligence Scale is now in its fifth edition (SB5) and was released in
2003. It is a cognitive ability and intelligence test that is used to diagnose developmental or
intellectual deficiencies in young children.
The test measures five weighted factors and consists of both verbal and nonverbal subtests.
The five factors being tested are knowledge, quantitative reasoning, visual-spatial processing,
working memory, and fluid reasoning.
The SB5 can be administered to individuals as early as two years of age.
There are ten subsets included in this revision including both verbal and nonverbal domains.
Five factors are also incorporated in this scale, which are directly related to Cattell-Horn-
Carroll (CHC) hierarchical model of cognitive abilities.
These factors include fluid reasoning, knowledge, quantitative reasoning, visual-spatial
processing, and working memory (Bain & Allin, 2005). Many of the familiar picture
absurdities, vocabulary, memory for sentences, and verbal absurdities still remain from the
previous editions
For every verbal subtest that is used, there is a nonverbal counterpart across all factors
Subtests and factors
Visual-spatial Working
Fluid reasoning Knowledge Quantitative reasoning
processing memory

Form board and Delayed

Non-verbal quantitative
Early reasoning Vocabulary form patterns response (non-
reasoning (non-verbal)
verbal)
(non-verbal)
Procedural
Verbal quantitative Position and Block span (non-
Verbal absurdities knowledge
reasoning direction verbal)
(non-verbal)

Picture
Memory for
Verbal analogies absurdities (non-
sentences
verbal)

Object series
matrices (non- Last word
verbal)

.
2. THE WECHSLER ADULT INTELLIGENCE SCALE:

David Wechsler developed a scale for measuring intelligence of 1939. The WAIS is an individual
test. It consists of two parts, the verbal part has six tests and non-verbal or performance part has
five tests which require a minimum of language. The full scale is a combination of the two WISC
is used to identify children suffering from various learning disabilities subjects of WAIS. It is
used for 16 to 64 years and takes one hour.

S.No. Test Description

Verbal
Tests
1 Information 29 questions are given, which intend to test a recall of knowledge concerning
wider varieties of information. (general knowledge)
2. Comprehension 14 items which intend to measure understanding of knowledge concerning a
certain object, event or the meaning of proverbs. (common sense and practice
intelligence)
3. Arithmetic 14 arithmetical problems which intend to measure numerical ability, given
orally and are to be solved through mental manipulation. No paper and pencil
allowed.
(simple calculation and reasoning)
4. Similarities 13 items which intend to measure abstract verbal reasoning, require the
examinees to compare two objects and determine the relationship between the
two. (identifies relationship between objects and concepts)
5. Digit span Intends to measure meaning for digits. In the first part, the examinee is
required to repeat in the same order 3 to 9 digits presented in a forward
direction and in the second part, he is required to repeat the digit in a
backward direction. (attention and memory)
6. Vocabulary Intends to measure verbal ability, 40 words of increasing difficulty are
presented and the examinee is required to tell their meaning. (meaning of
words)

Performance Scale
7 Digit symbol 9 digits each with different symbols are given. The numbers in jumbled order are
given and the examinee is to write the matching symbols with each digit.
8. Picture Measures the ability to analyse parts from the whole. 21 cards each containing a
completion picture from which something is missing – the testee is required to fill in the
missing part. (identifying missing parts)
9. Block Design Intends to measure the ability to analyze the complex whole. (arranging coloured
blocks)
10. Object Assembly Examinees attempt to solve picture puzzles.
11. Digit symbol Examinees fill in small boxes with coded symbols corresponding to a number
above each box. (arrange six sets of pictures to make a sensible story.

GROUP TESTS OF INTELLIGENCE

1. RAVEN’S PROGRESSIVE MATRICES

Raven's Progressive Matrices (often referred to simply as Raven's Matrices) or RPM is a

nonverbal group test typically used in educational settings.
It is usually a 60-item test used in measuring abstract reasoning and regarded as a non-verbal
estimate of fluid intelligence.
It is the most common and popular test administered to groups ranging from 5-year-olds to
the elderly. It is made of 60 multiple choice questions, listed in increasing order of difficulty.
This format is designed to measure the test taker's reasoning ability, the eductive ("meaning-
making") component of Spearman's g (g is often referred to as general intelligence).
The tests were originally developed by John C. Raven in 1936. In each test item, the subject
is asked to identify the missing element that completes a pattern.
Many patterns are presented in the form of a 6×6, 4×4, 3×3, or 2×2 matrix, giving the test its
name.
All of the questions on the Raven's progressives consist of visual geometric design with a
missing piece. The test taker is given six to eight choices to pick from and fill in the missing
piece

The Matrices are available in three different forms for participants of different ability:
  Standard Progressive Matrices: These were the original form of the matrices, first
published in 1938. The booklet comprises five sets (A to E) of 12 items each (e.g., A1
through A12), with items within a set becoming increasingly difficult, requiring ever
greater cognitive capacity to encode and analyze information. All items are presented
in black ink on a white background.

 Colored Progressive Matrices: Designed for children aged 5 through 11 years-of-

age, the elderly, and mentally and physically impaired individuals. This test contains
sets A and B from the standard matrices, with a further set of 12 items inserted
between the two, as set Ab. Most items are presented on a coloured background to
make the test visually stimulating for participants. However the very last few items in
set B are presented as black-on-white; in this way, if a subject exceeds the tester's
expectations, transition to sets C, D, and E of the standard matrices is eased.

 Advanced Progressive Matrices: The advanced form of the matrices contains 48

items, presented as one set of 12 (set I), and another of 36 (set II). Items are again
presented in black ink on a white background, and become increasingly difficult as
progress is made through each set. These items are appropriate for adults and
adolescents of above-average intelligence.

CULTURE FAIR INTELLIGENCE TEST

The Culture Fair Intelligence Test (CFIT) was constructed by Raymond B. Cattell in an attempt to
produce a measure of cognitive abilities that accurately estimated intelligence devoid of
sociocultural and environmental influences. Cattell proposed that general intelligence (g) comprises
both Fluid Intelligence (Gf) and Crystallized Intelligence (Gc)

The Culture Fair tests consist of three scales with non-verbal visual puzzles. Scale I includes eight
subtests of mazes, copying symbols, identifying similar drawings and other non-verbal tasks. Both
Scales II and III consists of four subtests that include completing a sequence of drawings, a
classification subtest where respondents pick a drawing that is different from other drawings, a
matrix subtests that involves completing a matrix of patterns and conditions subtests which involve
which out of several geometric designs fulfill a specific given condition.

The Culture-Fair test is comprised of three stages of questions; their breakdown is as follows:

 Mazes
 Copying Symbols
 Identifying Symbols
 Nonverbal Tasks

 Sequence of Drawings
 Classification Subtest
 Matrix Subtest
  Conditional Subtest

APTITUDE, ACHIEVEMENT AND INTEREST TESTS

I. APTITUDE

The term aptitude generally means a potential for achievement. It indicates that a person’s
performance on a task will improve with training.

Aptitude tests are any tests designed to measure potential for achievement. Special aptitude tests are
those designed to measure potential for a restricted or single capacity such as mechanical, clerical or
musical. General aptitude tests are broader based.

USES OF APTITUDE TESTS

1. Instructional: Teachers can use results to adapt their curricula to match level of students.

2. Administrative: help identify students who require attention and also predicting job performance.

3. Guidance: can help parents and teachers develop realistic expectations and match people to jobs.

4. Uncover hidden talents that can be groomed for specific jobs.

5. Predict future scholastic achievement.

6. Provide a profile of strengths and weaknesses and abilities that require training.

Measurement of aptitude

GATB (General Aptitude Test Battery)

The General Aptitude Test Battery (GATB) was developed by the U.S. Employment Service
(USES) for use in occupational counseling, primarily by national agencies and in state
employment offices.
The primary goal of the GATB was to match employee abilities to specific jobs.
The aptitudes that are measured by the General Aptitude Test Battery are as follows:

• G – General Learning Ability: The ability to catch on or understand instructions and

underlying principles, the ability to reason and make judgements. Closely related to doing
well in school.
V – Verbal aptitude: The ability to understand the meaning of words and to use them
effectively. The ability to understand relationships between words and to understand the
meaning of whole sentences and paragraphs.
• N- Numerical Aptitude: The ability to perform arithmetic operations quickly and
accurately.
• S- Spatial Aptitude: The ability to think visually of geometric forms and to comprehend
the two-dimensional representation of three-dimensional objects. The ability to recognize the
relationships, resulting from the movement of objects in space.
• P-Form Perception: The ability to perceive pertinent details in objects or in pictorial or
graphic material. Ability to make visual comparisons and discriminations and see sight
differences in shapes and shading of figures and widths and lengths of lines.
• Q-Clerical Perception: The ability to perceive detail in verbal or tabular material. Ability
to observe differences in copy, to proofread words and numbers and to avoid perceptual
errors in arithmetic computation.
• K-Motor Co-ordination: The ability to coordinate eyes and hands or fingers rapidly and
accurately in making precise movements with speed. Ability to make movement response
accurately and swiftly.
• F- Finger Dexterity: The ability to move fingers and manipulate smaller objects with
fingers, rapidly or accurately.
• M- Manual Dexterity: The ability to move hands easily and skilfully. Ability to work with
hands in placing and turning motions.

Composites of GATB

1. Cognitive=G+V+N

2. Perceptual=S+P+Q

3. Psychomotor=K+F+M

II. ACHIEVEMENT TEST

They are designed to measure the effects of a specified program of instruction or training. They
represent a terminal evaluation of the individual status on the completion of training.

USES OF ACHIEVEMENT TEST

1. Screening: to identify students who perform below or above their peers.

2. Determining eligibility: to determine eligibility for certain educational programs.

3. Programme planning: help in instructional planning and in identifying what students know and can
do. Adapting instruction to individual needs.

4. They form an important part of remedial training programs for students with special educational or
learning disabilities.

5. Monitoring progress: regularly monitoring progress in any subject and give direction to learning.

6. Programme evaluation: can be used to evaluate and improvement in teaching strategies or content.

INTEREST TEST
Reasons for assessing Interest:

• Guidance / Vocational Guidance – Interest assessment can be used for the purpose of guidance
in selecting subjects for studying in schools and colleges. It can be used for selecting the
profession of a person’s choice. Psychologists and counsellors supplement the results of an
interest test with intelligence test, school records, interview and interest tests.
• Vocational selection / selection for jobs: it can be used for selecting a profession or proper
career planning by discovering the abilities they possess. The employers can use interest
assessment for selecting persons for different jobs.
• Counselling (Educational counselling) – Interest assessment is used for counselling individuals
who are looking for occupation or who want assistance in the choice of vocational training. It also
helps to determine vocational abilities of a person and interpret test scare in terms of a wide range
of occupations. Counsellors use interest assessment for score scientific vocational guidance, with
respect to future success showing areas where improvements required.
• Identifying special interest: Assessing interest helps to identify special talents in different fields
like art, music, sports, etc. and can help to train for future success knowing one’s strengths and
weakness as abilities.
• Prediction: Interest tests are used to predict success in various specific professions.
• It helps in the admission for professional or special courses

STRONG CAMPBELL INTEREST INVENTORY

The Strong and Campbell Interest Inventory (SCII) is an interest inventory used in career
assessment. The goal of this assessment is to give insight into a person's interests, so that they
may have less difficulty in deciding on an appropriate career choice for themselves. It is also
frequently used for educational guidance as one of the most popular career assessment tools.
The test was developed in 1927 by psychologist E.K. Strong, Jr. to help people exiting the
military find suitable jobs. It was revised later by Jo-Ida Hansen, and David Campbell. The
modern version (2004) is based on the typology of psychologist John L. Holland. The Strong
is designed for high school students, college students, and adults, and was found to be at
about the ninth-grade reading level (Blackwell and Case, 2008, p. 122). Unfortunately the
newly revised Strong is available only in English, unlike the previous version.
 Components

The newly revised inventory consists of 291 items that measure an individual's interest in six
areas:

Number of
Area Questions in
Each Area
Occupations 107
Subject Areas 46
Activities 85
Leisure Activities 28
People 16
Your Characteristics 9

 Scoring and administration

The first 282 items are answered by the examinee choosing one of the following options:
"strongly like", "like", "indifferent", "dislike", or "strongly dislike" while the remaining 9
items in the "Your Characteristics" section are answered the same way but with different
options including: "strongly like me", "like me", "don’t know", "unlike me", or "strongly
unlike me".

The newly revised version of this test can typically be taken in 30-45 minutes after which the
results must be scored by computer. After scoring, an individual can then view how their
personal interests compare with the interests of people in a specific career field.

The results include:

1. Scores on the level of interest on each of the six Holland Codes or General
Occupational Themes.
2. Scores on 30 Basic Interest Scales (e.g. art, science, and public speaking)
3. Scores on 244 Occupational Scales which indicate the similarity between the
respondent's interests and those of people working in each of the 122 occupations.
4. Scores on 5 Personal Style Scales (learning, working, leadership, risk-taking and team
orientation).
5. Scores on 3 Administrative Scales used to identify test errors or unusual profiles.

Career counselors, psychologists, and others using the Strong will find they have an
instrument that is methodologically sophisticated and that will provide clients with much
information to ponder along with the resources with which make reasoned career decisions.