Module 9:

Proportional Mode

1
 Proportional Action

The proportional mode is used to set the basic gain value of the controller. The setting
for the proportional mode may expressed as either:
1) Proportional Gain
2) Proportional Band

PROPORTIONAL GAIN
In electronic controllers, proportional action is typically expressed as proportional gain.
Proportional Gain (Kc) answers the question:

"What is the percentage change of the controller output relative to the percentage
change in controller input?"

Proportional Gain is expressed as:

Gain, (Kc) = Δoutput % / ΔInput %
 Proportional Action

PROPORTIONAL BAND
Proportional Band (PB) is another way of representing the same information and
answers this question:

"What percentage of change of the controller input span will cause a 100% change in
controller output?“

PB = ΔInput (% Span) For 100%Doutput

Converting Between PB and Gain

A simple equation converts gain to proportional Band:
added.
PB = 100/Gain
Also recall that:
Gain = 100%/PB
Proportional Gain, (Kc) = ΔOutput% / ΔInput %
PB = ΔInput(%Span) For 100% ΔOutput
 LIMITS OF PROPORTIONAL ACTION

RESPONDS ONLY TO A CHANGE IN ERROR

Proportional action responds only to a change in the magnitude of the error.

DOES NOT RETURN THE PV TO SETPOINT

Proportional action will not return the PV to set point. It will, however, return the PV to
a value that is within a defined span (PB) around the PV.

DETERMINING THE CONTROLLER OUTPUT

Controller Output – In a proportional only controller, the output is a function of the

change in error and controller gain.
Output Change, % = (Error Change, %) (Gain)

Example:
If the set point is suddenly changed 10% with a proportional band setting of 50%, the
output will change as follows:
 LIMITS OF PROPORTIONAL ACTION

Example:
If the set point is suddenly changed 10% with a proportional band setting of 50%, the
output will change as follows:

Calculating Controller Output

Δ Controller Output = Δ Input, % X Gain
Gain = 100%/PB
EXAMPLE
Δ Input = 10%
PB = 50%, so Gain = 100%/50% = 2

Δ Controller Output = Δ Input X Gain

Δ Controller Output = 10% X 2 = 20%

Expressed in Units:
Controller Output Change = (0.2)(12 psi span) = 2.4 psi OR
(0.2)(16 mA span) = 3.2 mA
 PROPORTIONAL ACTION – CLOSED LOOP

Loop Gain – Every loop has a critical or natural frequency. This is the frequency at which
cycling may exist. This critical frequency is determined by all of the loop components.
If the loop gain is too high at this frequency, the PV will cycle around the SP; i.e., the
process will become unstable.

Low Gain Example – In the example below, the proportional band is high (gain is low).
The loop is very stable, but an error remains between SP and PV.
 PROPORTIONAL ACTION – CLOSED LOOP

High Gain Example– In the example, the proportional band is small resulting in high
gain, which is causing instability. Notice that the process variable is still not on set point.
 PROPORTIONAL ACTION – CLOSED LOOP

Proportional Summary – For the proportional mode, controller output is a function of a

change in error. Proportional band is expressed in terms of the percentage change in
error that will cause 100% change in controller output. Proportional gain is expressed as
the percentage change in output divided by the percentage change in input.

PB = (Δ Input, % / Δ Output, % ) x 100 = 100/Gain

Gain = Δ Input % / Δ Output %
Δ Controller Output = (Change in Error)(Gain)

1. Proportional Mode Responds only to a change in error

2. Proportional mode alone will not return the PV to SP.
 PROPORTIONAL ACTION – CLOSED LOOP

Advantages – Simple
Disadvantages – Error

Settings - PB settings have the following effects:

Small PB (%) Minimize Offset
High Gain (%) Possible cycling
Large PB (%) Large Offset
Low Gain Stable Loop

Tuning - reduce PB (increase gain) until the process cycles following a disturbance, then
double the PB (reduce gain by 50%).
 INTEGRAL MODE

INTEGRAL ACTION
Duration of Error and Integral Mode – Another component of error is the duration of the
error (How long has the error existed?)

The controller output from the integral or reset mode is a function of the duration of the
error.
 INTEGRAL MODE

OPEN LOOP ANALYSIS

Purpose – The purpose of integral action is to return the PV to SP.

This is accomplished by repeating the action of the proportional mode as long as an

error exists.
With the exception of some electronics controllers, the integral or reset mode is always
used with the proportional mode.

Setting – Integral, or reset action, may be expressed in terms of:

Repeats per Minute – How many times the proportional action is repeated
each minute.

Minutes per Repeat – How many minutes are required for 1 repeat to occur.
 INTEGRAL MODE

CLOSED LOOP ANALYSIS

Closed Loop with Reset – Adding reset to the controller adds one or more gain
component to the loop. The faster the reset action, the greater the gain.

Slow Reset Example – In this example the loop is stable because the total loop gain is
not too high at the loop critical frequency.

Notice that the process variable does reach set point due to the reset action.
 INTEGRAL MODE

Fast Reset Example – In the example the rest is too fast and the PV is cycling around the
SP.
 DERIVATIVE MODE

Derivative Mode Basics – Some large and/or slow process do not respond well to small
changes in controller output.
For example, a large liquid level process or a large thermal process (a heat exchanger)
may react very slowly to a small change in controller output.

To improve response, a large initial change in controller output may be applied. This
action is the role of the derivative mode.

The derivative action is initiated whenever there is a change in the rate of change of the
error (the slope of the PV). The magnitude of the derivative action is determined by the
setting of the derivative .
 DERIVATIVE MODE

The mode of a PID controller and the

rate of change of the PV.

The Derivative setting is expressed in

terms of minutes. In operation, the
controller first compares the current PV
with the last value of the PV.

If there is a change in the slope of the

PV, the controller determines what its
output would be at a future point in
time (the future point in time is
determined by the value of the
derivative setting, in minutes).

The derivative mode immediately

increases the output by that amount.
 CONTROLLER ALGORITHMS

Proportional, PI, and PID Control

By using all three control algorithms together, process operators can:

 Achieve rapid response to major disturbances with derivative control.
 Hold the process near set point without major fluctuations with proportional
control.
 Eliminate offset with integral control.

Not every process requires a full PID control strategy. If a small offset has no impact on
the process, then proportional control alone may be sufficient.

PI control is used where no offset can be tolerated, where noise (temporary error
readings that do not reflect the true process variable condition) may be present, and
where excessive dead time (time after a disturbance before control action takes place) is
not a problem.
 CONTROLLER ALGORITHMS

Proportional, PI, and PID Control

In processes where no offset can be tolerated, no noise is present, and where dead time
is an issue, customers can use full PID control.

The table shows common types of control loops and which types of control algorithms
are typically used.
 PROCESS CONTROL LOOPS

Control Loops can be divided into two (2) categories:

Single Variable Loops and Multi-Variable Loops

FEEDBACK CONTROL
A feedback loop measures a process variable and sends the measurements to a
controller for comparison to setpoint. If the process variable is not at setpoint, control
action is taken to return the process variable to setpoint.
 PROCESS CONTROL LOOPS

The figure illustrates a feedback loop in which a transmitter measures the temperature
of a fluid and, if necessary, opens or closes a hot steam valve to adjust the fluid’s
temperature.
 PROCESS CONTROL LOOPS

An everyday example of a feedback loop is the cruise control system in an automobile.

A setpoint is established for speed. When the car begins to climb a hill, the speed drops
below setpoint and the controller adjusts the throttle to return the car’s speed to
setpoint.

Feedback loops are commonly used in the process control industry. The advantage of a
feedback loop is that it directly controls the desired process variable. The disadvantage
to feedback loops is that the process variable must leave setpoint for action to be taken.
 EXAMPLES OF SINGLE CONTROL LOOPS

While each application has its own characteristics, some general statements can be
made about pressure, flow, level, and temperature loops.

PRESSURE CONTROL LOOPS

Pressure control loops vary in speed—that is, they can respond to changes in load or to
control action slowly or quickly. The speed required in a pressure control loop may be
dictated by the volume of the process fluid.

High-volume systems
(e.g., large natural gas storage
facilities) tend to change more
slowly than low-volume systems
 EXAMPLES OF SINGLE CONTROL LOOPS

FLOW CONTROL LOOPS

Generally, flow control loops are regarded as fast loops that respond to changes quickly.
Therefore, flow control equipment must have fast sampling and response times.
Because flow transmitters tend to be rather sensitive devices, they can produce rapid
fluctuations or noise in the control signal.
 EXAMPLES OF SINGLE CONTROL LOOPS

FLOW CONTROL LOOPS

 To compensate for noise, many flow transmitters have a damping function that filters
out noise.

 Sometimes, filters are added between the transmitter and the control system.

 Because the temperature of the process fluid affects its density, temperature
measurements are often taken with flow measurements and compensation for
temperature is accounted for in the flow calculation.

 Typically, a flow sensor, a transmitter, a controller, and a valve or pump are used in
flow control loops
 EXAMPLES OF SINGLE CONTROL LOOPS

LEVEL CONTROL LOOPS

 The speed of changes in a level control loop largely depends on the size and shape of
the process vessel (e.g., larger vessels take longer to fill than smaller ones) and the
flow rate of the input and outflow pipes.
 Manufacturers may use one of many different measurement technologies to
determine level, including radar, ultrasonic, float gauge, and pressure measurement.
 EXAMPLES OF SINGLE CONTROL LOOPS

LEVEL CONTROL LOOPS

 The final control element in a level control loop is usually a valve on the input and/or
outflow connections to the tank (see figure).
 Because it is often critical to avoid tank overflow, redundant level control systems are
sometimes employed.
 EXAMPLES OF SINGLE CONTROL LOOPS

TEMPERATURE CONTROL LOOPS

 Because of the time required to change the temperature of a process fluid,

temperature loops tend to be relatively slow.
 Feedforward control strategies are often used to increase the speed of the
temperature loop response.
 RTDs or thermocouples are typical temperature sensors.
 Temperature transmitters and controllers are used, although it is not uncommon to
see temperature sensors wired directly to the input interface of a controller.
 EXAMPLES OF SINGLE CONTROL LOOPS

TEMPERATURE CONTROL LOOPS

 The final control element for a temperature loop is usually the fuel valve to a burner
or a valve to some kind of heat exchanger. Sometimes, cool process fluid is added to
the mix to maintain temperature (see figure)
 MULTI-VARIABLE/ ADVANCED CONTROL LOOPS

MULTIVARIABLE LOOPS
 Multivariable loops are control loops in which a primary controller controls one
process variable by sending signals to a controller of a different loop that impacts the
process variable of the primary loop.

 For example, the primary process variable may be the temperature of the fluid in a
tank that is heated by a steam jacket (a pressurized steam chamber surrounding the
tank).
 MULTI-VARIABLE/ ADVANCED CONTROL LOOPS

MULTIVARIABLE LOOPS
 To control the primary variable (temperature), the primary (master) controller signals
the secondary (slave) controller that is controlling steam pressure. The primary
controller will manipulate the setpoint of the secondary controller to maintain the
setpoint temperature of the primary process variable (see figure).
 MULTI-VARIABLE/ ADVANCED CONTROL LOOPS

MULTIVARIABLE LOOPS
 When tuning a control loop, it is important to take into account the presence of
multivariable loops.

 The standard procedure is to tune the secondary loop before tuning the primary loop
because adjustments to the secondary loop impact the primary loop.

 Tuning the primary loop will not impact the secondary loop tuning.