Complex Numbers

V.Ramachandra prasad

1
 Textbook:
James Ward Brown, Ruel V. Churchill, Complex Variables and
Applications (the 8th ed.), China Machine Press, 2008

2
 Numbers System

Natural Numbers Zero & Negative Numbers

Integers Fraction

Rational numbers Irrational numbers

Real numbers Imaginary numbers

Complex numbers

… More advanced number systems

Refer to: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Number_system

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Complex Numbers
 Sums and Products; Basic Algebraic Properties
 Further Properties; Vectors and Moduli
 Complex Conjugates; Exponential Form
 Products and Powers in Exponential Form
 Arguments of Products and Quotients
 Roots of Complex Numbers
 Regions in the Complex Plane

4
 1. Sums and Products
 Definition
Complex numbers can be defined as ordered pairs (x, y)
of real numbers that are to be interpreted as points in the
complex plane

y
Note: The set of complex numbers
(x, y)
(0, y) Includes the real numbers as a subset

imaginary axis
Real axis

O (x, 0) x
Complex plane

5
1. Sums and Products

 Notation
It is customary to denote a complex number (x,y) by z,

x = Rez (Real part);

y y = Imz (Imaginary part)
z=(x, y)
(0, y) z1=z2 iff
1. Rez1= Rez2
2. Imz1 = Imz2

O (x, 0) x
Q: z1<z2?

6
1. Sums and Products

 Two Basic Operations

 Sum
(x1, y1) + (x2, y2) = (x1+x2, y1+y2)
 Product
(x1, y1) (x2, y2) = (x1x2 - y1y2, y1x2+x1y2)
1. when y1=0, y2=0, the above operations reduce to the usual operations of
addition and multiplication for real numbers.
2. Any complex number z= (x,y) can be written z = (x,0) + (0,y)
3. Let i be the pure imaginary number (0,1), then
z = x (1, 0) + y (0,1) = x + i y, x & y are real numbers

i2 =(0,1) (0,1) =(-1, 0)  i2=-1

7
1. Sums and Products

 Two Basic Operations (i2  -1)

 Sum
(x1, y1) + (x2, y2) = (x1+x2, y1+y2)
 (x1 + iy1) + (x2+ iy2) = (x1+x2)+i(y1+y2)

 Product
(x1, y1) (x2, y2) = (x1x2 - y1y2, y1x2+x1y2)
 (x1 + iy1) (x2+ iy2) = (x1x2+ x1 iy2) + (iy1x2 + i2 y1y2)
= (x1x2+ x1 iy2) + (iy1x2 - y1y2)
= (x1x2 - y1y2) +i(y1x2+x1y2)
8
2. Basic Algebraic Properties

 Various properties of addition and multiplication of

complex numbers are the same as for real numbers
 Commutative Laws
z1+ z2= z2 +z1, z1z2=z2z1

 Associative Laws
(z1+ z2 )+ z3 = z1+ (z2+z3)
(z1z2) z3 =z1 (z2z3)
e.g. Prove that z1z2=z2z1
(x1, y1) (x2, y2) = (x1x2 - y1y2, y1x2+x1y2) = (x2x1 - y2y1, y2x1 +x2y1) = (x2, y2) (x1, y1)

9
2. Basic Algebraic Properties

 For any complex number z(x,y)

 z + 0 = z; z ∙ 0 = 0; z∙1=z
 Additive Inverse
-z = 0 – z = (-x, -y)  (-x, -y) + (x, y) =(0,0)=0
 Multiplicative Inverse
when z ≠ 0 , there is a number z-1 (u,v) such that
z z-1 =1 , then
(x,y) (u,v) =(1,0)  xu-yv=1, yu+xv=0
x y 1 x y
u 2 ,v  2 z ( 2 , 2 ), z  0
x y 2
x  y2 x y x y
2 2

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3. Further Properties

 If z1z2=0, then so is at least one of the factors z1 and z2

Proof: Suppose that z1 ≠ 0, then z1-1 exists

z1-1 (z1z2)=z1-1 0 =0
z1-1 (z1z2)=( z1-1 z1) z2 =1 z2 = z2
Associative Laws

Therefore we have z2=0

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3. Further Properties

 Other two operations: Subtraction and Division

 Subtraction: z1-z2=z1+(-z2)
(x1, y1) - (x2, y2) = (x1, y1)+(-x2, -y2) = (x1 -x2, y1-y2)

z1
 Division:  z1 z2 1 ( z2  0)
z2
z1 x y xx  y y y x x y
 ( x1 , y1 )( 2 2 2 , 2 2 2 )  ( 1 22 12 2 , 1 22 12 2 )
z2 x2 +y2 x2 +y2 x2 +y2 x2 +y2

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3. Further Properties

 An easy way to remember to computer z1/z2

z1 ( x1  iy1 ) ( x1  iy1 )( x2  iy2 )
 
z2 ( x2  iy2 ) ( x2  iy2 )( x2  iy2 ) commonly used

Note that ( x2  iy2 )( x2  iy2 )  x2 2  y2 2  R

For instance

4i (4  i)(2  3i) 5  14i 5 14

    i
2  3i (2  3i)(2  3i) 13 13 13

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3. Further Properties

Binomial Formula
n
( z1  z2 ) n   Cnk z1k z2 n  k , n  1, 2,...
k 0

Where
n!
C k
, k  0,1, 2,..., n
k !(n  k )!
n

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4. Vectors and Moduli

 Any complex number is associated a vector from the

origin to the point (x, y)
y y
z1=(x1, y1)
| z1 | x12  y12
z1+z2
| z2 || z1 | z1
z2=(x2, y2)
z2
O x O x

The moduli or absolute value of z Sum of two vectors

is a nonnegative real number
z1  z2  ( x1  x2 )  i( y1  y2 )
| z | x  y
2 2

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4. Vectors and Moduli

 Example 1
The distance between two point z1(x1, y1) and z2(x2, y2)
is |z1-z2|.
Note: |z1 - z2 | is the length of the vector
y representing the number z1-z2 = z1 + (-z2)
|z1 - z2 |
Therefore
-z2
z1
z2 z1  z 2  ( x1  x2 )  i( y1  y2 )
z1 - z2
| z1  z2 | ( x1  x2 )2  ( y1  y2 )2
O x

16
4. Vectors and Moduli

 Example 2
The equation |z-1+3i|=2 represents the circle whose
center is z0 = (1, -3) and whose radius is R=2

y
Note: | z-1+3i |
x = | z-(1-3i) |
O z0(1, -3) =2

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4. Vectors and Moduli

 Some important inequations

y
 Since | Re Z |  | Im Z | | Z | we have
2 2 2
z1=(x, y)
Re Z | Re Z || Z |; Im Z | Im Z || Z | | z1 | x2  y2

 Triangle inequality O x

| z1  z2 || z1 |  | z2 | y

z1+z2
z1
z2
O x

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4. Vectors and Moduli

 | z1  z2 ||| z1 |  | z2 ||

Proof: when |z1| ≥ |z2|, we write

Triangle inequality
| z1 || ( z1  z2 )  ( z2 ) | | z1  z2 |  | ( z2 ) | | z1  z2 |  | z2 |

| z1  z2 || z1 |  | z2 ||| z1 |  | z2 ||

Similarly when |z2| ≥ |z1|, we write

| z2 || ( z1  z2 )  ( z1 ) | | z1  z2 |  | ( z1 ) | | z1  z2 |  | z1 |

| z1  z2 || z2 |  | z1 ||| z1 |  | z2 ||

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4. Vectors and Moduli

 | z1  z2 || z1 |  | z2 | | z1  z2  ...zn || z1 |  | z2 | ... | zn |

 | z1  z2 ||| z1 |  | z2 ||

 || z1 |  | z2 ||| z1  z2 || z1 |  | z2 |

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4. Vectors and Moduli

 Example 3
If a point z lies on the unit circle |z|=1 about the origin,
then we have

y
| z  2 | || z | 2 | 1
z

| z  2 | | z | 2  3 O 1 2 x

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5. Complex Conjugates

 Complex Conjugate (conjugate)

The complex conjugate or simply the conjugate, of a
complex number z=x+iy is defined as the complex
number x-iy and is denoted by z

y Properties:
z(x,y)
| z || z |

zz
O
x
z (x,-y)

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5. Complex Conjugates

 If z1=x1+iy1 and z2=x2+iy2 , then

z1  z2  ( x1  x2 )  i( y1  y2 )  ( x1  iy1 )  ( x2  iy2 )  z1  z2

 Similarly, we have
z1  z2  z1  z2

z1 z2  z1  z2

z1 z1
 , z2  0
z2 z2

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5. Complex Conjugates

 If z  x  iy, z  x  iy , then
z  z  ( x  iy )  ( x  iy )  2 x  2 Re z

z  z  ( x  iy )  ( x  iy )  2 yi  2i Im z

zz zz
Re z  , Im z 
2 2i

 z z  ( x  iy )  ( x  iy )  x 2  y 2 | Z |2

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5. Complex Conjugates

 Example 1
1  3i
?
2i

1  3i (1  3i)(2  i)

2i (2  i)(2  i)
5  5i

| 2  i |2

5  5i
  1  i
5

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 5. Complex Conjugates

z1 | z1 |
a. | |
z2 | z2 |

z1 2 z1 z1 z1 z1 z1 z1 | z1 |2
proof :| |   ( )    
z2 z2 z2 z2 z2 z2 z2 | z2 |2

| z1 z2 || z1 || z2 | | z n || z |n

 Example 2 | z | 2

| z 3  3z 2  2 z  1| | z 3 |  | 3z 2 |  | 2 z |  |1| | z |3 3 | z |2 2 | z | 1  25
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 6. Exponential Form

 Polar Form
Let r and θ be polar coordinates of the point (x,y) that
corresponds to a nonzero complex number z=x+iy, since
x=rcosθ and y=rsinθ, the number z can be written in polar
form as z=r(cosθ + isinθ), where r>0
θ Θ
y y
arg z  ArgZ  2n , n  0, 1, 2,...
z(x,y) z(x,y)
argz: the argument of z
r r Argz: the principal value of argz
θ θ
  ArgZ  
O O 1
x x

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6. Exponential Form

 Example 1
The complex number -1-i, which lies in the third quadrant
has principal argument -3π/4. That is
3
Arg (1  i )  
4
It must be emphasized that the principal argument must be in
the region of (-π, +π ]. Therefore,
5
Arg (1  i ) 
4
3 argz = α + 2nπ
arg(1  i )    2n , n  0, 1, 2,...
However, 4 Here: α can be any one
5
arg(1  i )   2n , n  0, 1, 2,... of arguments of z
4
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 6. Exponential Form

 The symbol eiθ , or exp(iθ)

ei  cos   i sin  Why? Refer to Sec. 29


1 1 1 2 1 3 1 n 1
e  1  x  x  x  ...  x  ...   x n
x

1! 2! 3! n! n 0 n !

1 2 n  1
 x  x 2 n 1
n  0 (2n)! n  0 (2 n  1)! Let x=iθ, then we have

   
1 1 1 1
e 
i
(i )  
2n
(i ) 2 n 1
  (i ) 2n
 i[ (i) 2 n 2
2n
 2 n 1 ]
n  0 (2n)! n 1 (2 n  1)! n 0 (2n)! n 1 (2n  1)!
 
1 1
  (1) ( ) i[ (1)
n
2n n 1
( ) 2 n 1 ]
n 0 (2n)! n 1 (2n  1)!
cosθ sinθ

29
6. Exponential Form

 Example 2
The number -1-i in Example 1 has exponential form

3
3 3 i(  )
1  i  2(cos(  )  i sin(  ))  2e 4
4 4

3
3 3 i (    2 n )
1  i  2(cos(  )  i sin(  ))  2e 4 , n  0, 1, 2,...
4 4

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6. Exponential Form

 z=Reiθ where 0≤ θ ≤2 π

y y

Reiθ θ
Reiθ
z z0
θ
R
O O
x x

z=z0 +Reiθ

|z-z0 |=R

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7. Products and Powers in Exponential Form

 Product in exponential form

ei1 ei2  (cos 1  i sin 1 )(cos  2  i sin  2 )
 (cos 1 cos  2  sin 1 sin  2 )  i(sin 1 cos  2  cos 1 sin  2 )
 cos(1   2 )  i sin(1   2 )  ei (1 2 )
z1  r1ei1 & z2  r2ei2

z1 z2  (r1ei1 )(r2ei2 )  r1r2ei (1 2 )

( z1 ) n  (r1ei1 ) n  r1n ein1 , n  0, 1, 2,...

z1 r1ei1 r1 i (1 2 ) 1 1ei 0 1 i2
 i2  e , z2  0
 i2  e , z2  0
z2 r2e r2 z2 r2e r2

32
7. Products and Powers in Exponential Form

 Example 1
In order to put ( 3  i)7 in rectangular form, one need
only write

i /6 7 i 7 /6 7 7
( 3  i )  (2e
7
) 2 e 7
 2 (cos
7
 i sin )  64( 3+i)
6 6

33
7. Products and Powers in Exponential Form

 Example 2
de Moivre’s formula

(ei )n  (cos   i sin  )n  cos n  i sin n , n  0, 1, 2,...

(cos   i sin  )  cos 2  i sin 2

2

(cos  i sin  )2  cos2   sin 2   i(2sin  cos  )

pp. 23, Exercise 10, 11

34
 8. Arguments of products and quotients

Ifz1  r1ei1 & z2  r2 ei2 , then

z1 z2  (r1ei1 )(r2ei2 )  r1r2ei (1 2 )

θ1 is one of arguments of z1 and

θ2 is one of arguments of z2 then
θ1 +θ2 is one of arguments of z1z2

arg(z1z2)= θ1 +θ2 +2nπ, n=0, ±1, ±2 …

argz1z2= θ1 +θ2 +2(n1+n2)π

= (θ1 +2n1π)+ (θ2 +2n2π)
= argz1+argz2
Q: Argz1z2 = Argz1+Argz2?
Here: n1 and n2 are two integers with n1+n2=n

35
8. Arguments of products and quotients

 Example 1
When z1=-1 and z2=i, then
Arg(z1z2)=Arg(-i) = -π/2

≠
but
Arg(z1)+Arg(z2)=π+π/2=3π/2

Note: Argz1z2=Argz1+Argz2 is not always true.

36
8. Arguments of products and quotients

 Arguments of Quotients

z1
arg( )  arg( z1 z21 )  arg( z1 )  arg( z21 )
z2
 arg( z1 )  arg( z2 )

37
8. Arguments of products and quotients

 Example 2
In order to find the principal argument Arg z when
2
z
1 i 3
observe that
arg z  arg(2)  arg(1  3i)


since Arg (2)   Arg (1  3i ) 
3
 2 2
argz  (  )  2n   2n    
3 3 3
Argz
38
9. Roots of Complex Numbers

 Two equal complex numbers

z1  r1ei1 z2  r2 ei2
At the same point

z1  z2

If and only if

r1  r2 & 1  2  2k
for some integer k

39
9. Roots of Complex Numbers

 Roots of Complex Number

i 0
z  r e
Given a complex number 0 0 , we try to find all
the number z, s.t.z n  z0
Let z  rei then z n  (rei )n  r n ein  r0ei 0

thus we get
r n  r0 & n   0  2k , k  0, 1, 2,...

0
2 k
r  r0 &   
n , k  0, 1, 2,...
n n
The unique positive nth root of r0

40
 9. Roots of Complex Numbers

The nth roots of z0 are

0 2 k
z  n r0 exp[i (  )], k  0, 1, 2,...
n n

Note:
1.All roots lie on the circle |z|;
2.There are exactly n distinct roots!

0 2 k
ck  n r0 exp[i (  )], k  0,1, 2,..., n  1
n n
|z|

41
9. Roots of Complex Numbers

0 2 k
ck  n r0 exp[i (  )], k  0,1, 2,..., n  1
n n

0 2 k
ck  n r0 exp(i ) exp(i ), k  0,1, 2,..., n  1
n n

2 2 k
Let wn  exp(i ) then wnk  exp(i )
n n

Therefore ck  c0 wnk , k  0,1, 2,..., n  1

0 2 0 
where c0  n r0 exp(i ) exp(i )  n r0 exp(i 0 )
n n n

Note: the number c0 can be replaced by any particular nth root of z0

42
10. Examples

 Example 1
Let us find all values of (-8i)1/3, or the three roots of the
number -8i. One need only write

8i  8exp[i (  2k )], k  0, 1, 2,...
2
2i
To see that the desired roots are
 2 k
ck  2 exp[i (  )], k  0,1, 2
6 3

 3 i 3 i

43
10. Examples

 Example 2
To determine the nth roots of unity, we start with
1  1exp[i (0  2k )], k  0, 1, 2,...
1
0 2k 2k
And find that 1  n 1exp[i( 
n
)]  exp(i ), k  0,1, 2,..., n  1
n n n

n=3 n=4 n=6

44
10. Examples

 Example 3
the two values ck (k=0,1) of ( 3  i)1/2, which are the
square roots of 3  i , are found by writing

3  i  2 exp[i (  2k )], k  0, 1, 2,...
6


ck  2 exp[i (  k )], k  0,1
12
  
c0  2 exp(i )  2(cos  i sin )
12 12 12
c1  c0

45
11. Regions in the Complex Plane

 ε- neighborhood
The ε- neighborhood
| z  z0 | 
of a given point z0 in the complex plane as shown below

y | z  z0 | y | z  z0 |
ε ε
z
z0
| z  z0 |  z 0 | z  z0 | 
z0

O O
x x
Neighborhood Deleted neighborhood

46
11. Regions in the Complex Plane

 Interior Point
A point z0 is said to be an interior point of a set S whenever
there is some neighborhood of z0 that contains only points of S
 Exterior Point
A point z0 is said to be an exterior point of a set S when there
exists a neighborhood of it containing no points of S;

 Boundary Point (neither interior nor exterior)

A boundary point is a point all of whose neighborhoods
contain at least one point in S and at least one point not in S.
The totality of all boundary points is called the boundary of S.

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11. Regions in the Complex Plane

 Consider the set S={z| |z|≤1}

All points z, where |z|>1
are Exterior points of S;
y

S={z| |z|≤1-{1,0}}
z0
z0
O
?
x
z0

All points z, where |z|<1

are Interior points of S; All points z, where |z|=1
are Boundary points of S;

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11. Regions in the Complex Plane

 Open Set
A set is open if it and only if each of its points is an
interior point.
 Closed Set
A set is closed if it contains all of its boundary points.
 Closure of a set
The closure of a set S is the closed set consisting of all
points in S together with the boundary of S.

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11. Regions in the Complex Plane

 Examples
 S={z| |z|<1} ?
Open Set
 S={z| |z|≤1} ?
Closed Set
 S={z| |z|≤1} – {(0,0)} ?
Neither open nor closed
 S= all points in complex plane ?
Both open and closed

Key: identify those boundary points of a given set

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 11. Regions in the Complex Plane

 Connected
An open set S is connected if each pair of points z1 and
z2 in it can be joined by a polygonal line, consisting of a
finite number of line segments joined end to end, that
lies entirely in S.
y

O
x

The set S={z| |z|<1 U |z-(2+i)|<1} is open

The open set
However, it is not connected.
1<|z|<2 is connected.
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11. Regions in the Complex Plane

 Domain
A set S is called as a domain iff
1. S is open;
2. S is connected.
e.g. any neighborhood is a domain.

 Region
A domain together with some, none, or all of it
boundary points is referred to as a region.

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11. Regions in the Complex Plane

 Bounded
A set S is bounded if every point of S lies inside some
circle |z|=R; Otherwise, it is unbounded.
y

e.g. S={z| |z|≤1} is bounded

S R S={z| Rez≥0} is unbounded

O
x

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11. Regions in the Complex Plane

 Accumulation point
A point z0 is said to be an accumulation point of a set S
if each deleted neighborhood of z0 contains at least one
point of S.
 If a set S is closed, then it contains each of its accumulation
points. Why?
 A set is closed iff it contains all of its accumulation points
e.g. the origin is the only accumulation point of the set Z n=i/n, n=1,2,…

The relationships among the Interior, Exterior, Boundary and Accumulation Points!
 An Interior point must be an accumulation point.
 An Exterior point must not be an accumulation point.
 A Boundary point must be an accumulation point?

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