Ankon Gopal Banik

According to the syllabus of Department of CSE, Gono Bishwabidiyalay

 Without the help of our respective teacher
Afroza Sultana Juthi, this work was impossible

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Q:01| What is data communication? Describe the components of data communication.
Ans: Data communications are the exchange of data between two devices via some form of
transmission medium such as a wire cable. For data communications to occur, the communicating
devices must be part of a communication system made up of a combination of hardware (physical
equipment) and software (programs).
A data communications system has five components-
1. Message: The message is the information (data) to be communicated. Popular forms of
information include text, numbers, pictures, audio, and video.
2. Sender: The sender is the device that sends the data message. It can be a computer,
workstation, telephone handset, video camera, and so on.
3. Receiver: The receiver is the device that receives the message. It can be a computer,
workstation, telephone handset, television, and so on.
4. Transmission medium: The transmission medium is the physical path by which a message
travels from sender to receiver. Some examples of transmission media include twisted-pair
wire, coaxial cable, fiber-optic cable, and radio waves.
5. Protocol: A protocol is a set of rules that govern data communications. It represents an
agreement between the communicating devices. Without a protocol, two devices may be
connected but not communicating, just as a person speaking French cannot be understood by a
person who speaks only Japanese.

Q:02| Write the difference among Simplex, Half Duplex and Full-Duplex mode.
Ans: Differences among Simplex, Half Duplex and Full-Duplex mode are as follows-
Basis for Simplex Half Duplex Full Duplex
Comparison
Direction of Unidirectional Two-directional, one Two-directional,
Communication at a time simultaneously
Send / Receive Sender can only send Sender can send and Sender can send and
data receive data, but one a receive data
time simultaneously
Performance Worst performing Better than Simplex Best performing mode of
mode of transmission transmission
Example Keyboard and Walkie-talkie Telephone
monitor
Bellow figure shows the data flow of Simplex, Half Duplex and Full-Duplex mode-

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Q:03| Describe the criteria of effective and efficient network.
Ans: A network must be able to meet a certain number of criteria. The most important of these are
performance, reliability, and security.
• Performance: Performance can be measured in many ways, including transit time and
response time. Transit time is the amount of time required for a message to travel from one
device to another. Response time is the elapsed time between an inquiry and a response. The
performance of a network depends on a number of factors, including the number of users, the
type of transmission medium, the capabilities of the connected hardware, and the efficiency of
the software.
• Reliability: In addition to accuracy of delivery, network reliability is measured by the
frequency of failure, the time it takes a link to recover from a failure, and the network's
robustness in a catastrophe.
• Security: Network security issues include protecting data from unauthorized access, protecting
data from damage and development, and implementing policies and procedures for recovery
from breaches and data losses.

Q:04| Explain the TCP/IP reference model with diagram.

Ans: The original TCP/IP protocol suite was defined as having four layers: host-to network, internet,
transport, and application. However, when TCP/IP is compared to OSI, we can say that the TCP/IP
protocol suite is made of five layers: physical, data link, network, transport, and application.
Bellow figure shows the relation between TCP/IP and OSI model-

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Q:05| Explain the OSI reference model with diagram.
Ans: There are 7 layers in OSI model, they are-

The interaction between layers in the OSI model is as follows-

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 ➢ The physical layer is responsible for movements of individual bits from one hop (node) to
the next.
➢ The data link layer is responsible for moving frames from one hop (node) to the next.
➢ The network layer is responsible for the delivery of individual packets from the source host
to the destination host.
➢ The transport layer is responsible for the delivery of a message from one process to another.
➢ The session layer is responsible for dialog control and synchronization.
➢ The presentation layer is responsible for translation, compression, and encryption.
➢ The application layer is responsible for providing services to the user.

Q:06| What is protocol? List key elements of protocol.

Ans: A protocol is a set of rules that govern data communications. A protocol defines what is
communicated, how it is communicated, and when it is communicated. The key elements of a protocol
are syntax, semantics, and timing.
• Syntax: The term syntax refers to the structure or format of the data, meaning the order in
which they are presented. For example, a simple protocol might expect the first 8 bits of data
to be the address of the sender, the second 8 bits to be the address of the receiver, and the rest
of the stream to be the message itself.
• Semantics: The word semantics refers to the meaning of each section of bits. How is a
particular pattern to be interpreted, and what action is to be taken based on that interpretation?

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 For example, does an address identify the route to be taken or the final destination of the
message?
• Timing: The term timing refers to two characteristics: when data should be sent and how fast
they can be sent. For example, if a sender produces data at 100 Mbps but the receiver can
process data at only 1 Mbps, the transmission will overload the receiver and some data will be
lost.

Q:07| What is phase? A sine wave is offset 1/6 cycle with respect to time 0. What is its phase in
degrees and radians?
Answer: The term phase describes the position of the wave form relative to time O.
1
We know that 1 complete cycle is 360°. Therefore, 6 cycle is:
1
× 360° = 60°
6
𝜋 𝜋
Again, (60° × 180)c = 3 c = 1.046 rad

Q:08| Solve the following problems.

Ex:3.3| The power we use at home has a frequency of 60 Hz (50 Hz in Europe). The period of
this sine wave can be determined as follows:
1 1
T= 𝑓 = 60 = 0.0166 s = 0.0166 × 103 ms = 16.6 illS
This means that the period of the power for our lights at home is 0.0116 s, or 16.6 ms.

Ex:3.4| Express a period of 100 ms in microseconds.

Solve: We know,
1 ms = 10-3 s
And, 1 sec = 106 𝜇s
We make the following substitutions:
100 ms = 100 × 10-3 s = 100 × 10-3 × 106 𝜇S = 102 × 10-3 × 106 𝜇S = 105 𝜇S

Ex:3.5| The period of a signal is 100 ms. What is its frequency in kilohertz?
Solve: First we change 100 ms to seconds, and then we calculate the frequency from the period (1 Hz
= 10-3 KHz)
100 ms = 100 × 10-3 s =10-1 S
1 1
∴ f = 𝑇 = 10−1 Hz = 10 Hz = 10 × 10-3 kHz = 10-2 kHz

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Ex:3.10| If a periodic signal is decomposed into five sine waves with frequencies of 100, 300, 500,
700, and 900 Hz, what is its bandwidth? Draw the spectrum, assuming all components have a
maximum amplitude of 10 V.
Let fh be the highest frequency, fl the lowest frequency, and B the bandwidth. Then
B = fh - fl = 900 - 100 = 800 Hz
The spectrum has only five spikes, at 100, 300, 500, 700, and 900 Hz

Ex:3.11| A periodic signal has a bandwidth of 20 Hz. The highest frequency is 60 Hz. What is the
lowest frequency? Draw the spectrum if the signal contains all frequencies of the same
amplitude.
Sove: Let fh be the highest frequency, fl the lowest frequency, and B the bandwidth. Then-
B = fh - fl =) 20 = 60 - fl =) fl = 60 - 20 = 40 Hz
The spectrum contains all integer frequencies. We show this by a series of spikes

Ex:3.11| A nonperiodic composite signal has a bandwidth of 200 kHz, with a middle frequency of
140 kHz and peak amplitude of 20 V. The two extreme frequencies have an amplitude of 0. Draw
the frequency domain of the signal.
Solve: The lowest frequency must be at 40 kHz and the highest at 240 kHz. Bellow Figure shows the frequency
domain and the bandwidth.

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Ex:3.16| A digital signal has eight levels. How many bits are needed per level?
Solve: We calculate the number of bits from the formula-
Number of bits per level = log 2 8 = 3
Each signal level is represented by 3 bits.

Ex:3.18| Assume we need to download text documents at the rate of 100 pages per minute. What
is the required bit rate of the channel?
Solve: A page is an average of 24 lines with 80 characters in each line. If we assume that one character
requires 8 bits, the bit rate is-
100 × 24 × 80 × 8 = 1,536,000 bps = 1.536 Mbps

Ex:3.19| A digitized voice channel, as we will see in Chapter 4, is made by digitizing a 4-kHz
bandwidth analog voice signal. We need to sample the signal at twice the highest frequency (two
samples per hertz). We assume that each sample requires 8 bits. What is the required bit rate?
Solve: The bit rate can be calculated as-
2 × 4000 × 8 = 64,000 bps = 64 kbps

Ex:3.20| What is the bit rate for high-definition TV (HDTV)?

Solve: HDTV uses digital signals to broadcast high quality video signals. The HDTV Screen is
normally a ratio of 16 : 9 (in contrast to 4 : 3 for regular TV), which means the screen is wider. There
are 1920 by 1080 pixels per screen, and the screen is renewed 30 times per second. Twenty-four bits
represents one color pixel. We can calculate the bit rate as-
1920 × 1080 × 30 × 24 = 1,492,992,000 or 1.5 Gbps
The TV stations reduce this rate to 20 to 40 Mbps through compression.

Ex:3.22| What is the required bandwidth of a low-pass channel if we need to send 1 Mbps by
using baseband transmission?
Solve: The answer depends on the accuracy desired.

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 a. The minimum bandwidth, a rough approximation, is B = bit rate /2, or 500 kHz. We need a
low-pass channel with frequencies between 0 and 500 kHz.
b. A better result can be achieved by using the first and the third harmonics with the required
bandwidth B = 3 × 500 kHz = 1.5 MHz.
c. Still a better result can be achieved by using the first, third, and fifth harmonics with B = 5 ×
500 kHz = 2.5 MHz.

Ex:3.23| We have a low-pass channel with bandwidth 100 kHz. What is the maximum bit rate of
this channel?
Solve: The maximum bit rate can be achieved if we use the first harmonic. The bit rate is 2 times the
available bandwidth, or 200 kbps.

Ex:3.24| An example of broadband transmission using modulation is the sending of computer

data through a telephone subscriber line, the line connecting a resident to the central telephone
office. These lines, installed many years ago, are designed to carry voice (analog signal) with a
limited bandwidth (frequencies between 0 and 4 kHz). Although this channel can be used as a
low-pass channel, it is normally considered a bandpass channel. One reason is that the
bandwidth is so narrow (4 kHz) that if we treat the channel as low-pass and use it for baseband
transmission, the maximum bit rate can be only 8 kbps.
Solve: The solution is to consider the channel a bandpass channel, convert the digital signal from the
computer to an analog signal, and send the analog signal. We can install two converters to change the
digital signal to analog and vice versa at the receiving end. The converter, in this case, is called a
modem (modulator/demodulator)

Ex:3.26| Suppose a signal travels through a transmission medium and its power is reduced to
𝟏
one-half. This means that P2 = 𝟐 P1, In this case, find the attenuation (loss of power).

Solve: In this case, the attenuation (loss of power) can be calculated as-
P 0.5 P1
10 log10 P2 = 10 log10 = 10 log10 0.5 = 10 × (-0.3) = -3 dB
1 P1

A loss of 3 dB (-3 dB) is equivalent to losing one-half the power.

Ex:3.27| A signal travels through an amplifier, and its power is increased 10 times. This means
that P2= 10 P1 find the amplification (gain of power).
Solve: In this case, the amplification (gain of power) can be calculated as-
P 10 P1
10 log10 P2 = 10 log10 = 10 log10 10 = 10 × 1 = 10 dB
1 P1

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Ex:3.29| Sometimes the decibel is used to measure signal power in milliwatts. In this case, it is
referred to as dBm and is calculated as dBm = 10 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝟏𝟎 𝐏𝐦 where Pm is the power in milliwatts.
Calculate the power of a signal if its dBm = -30.
Solve: We can calculate the power in the signal as-
dBm = 10 log10 Pm = - 30
=) log10 Pm = -3
∴ Pm = 10-3 mW

Ex:3.30| The loss in a cable is usually defined in decibels per kilometer (dB/km). If the signal at
the beginning of a cable with -0.3 dB/km has a power of 2 mW, what is the power of the signal
at 5 km?
Solve: The loss in the cable in decibels is 5 × (-0.3) = -1.5 dB. We can calculate the power as-
P
dBm = 10 log10 P2 = -1.5
1

P
=) P2 = 10-1.5 = 0.71
1

=) P2 = 0.71 P1 = 0.71 × 2 = 1.4 mW

Ex:3.31| The power of a signal is 10 mW and the power of the noise is 1 𝝁W; what are the values
of SNR and SNRdB?
Solve: The values of SNR and SN~B can be calculated as follows:
10000 𝜇𝑊
SNR = = 10000
1 𝜇𝑊

SNRdB = 10 log10 𝑆𝑁𝑅 = 10 log10 10000 = 10 log10 104 = 10 × 4 = 40 dB

Ex:3.32| Find the values of SNR and SNRdB for a noiseless channel.
The values of SNR and SNRdB for a noiseless channel are-
𝑆𝑖𝑔𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
SNR = =∞
0

SNRdB = 10 log10 ∞ = ∞

We can never achieve this ratio in real life; it is an ideal.

Ex:3.34| Consider a noiseless channel with a bandwidth of 3000 Hz transmitting a signal with
two signal levels. Find the maximum bit rate.

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Solve: The maximum bit rate can be calculated as-
BitRate = 2 × 3000 ×log 2 2 =6000 bps

Ex:3.35| Consider the same noiseless channel transmitting a signal with four signal levels (for
each level, we send 2 bits). Find the maximum bit rate.
Solve: The maximum bit rate can be calculated as-
BitRate = 2 × 3000 ×log 2 4 =12000 bps

Ex:3.36| We need to send 265 kbps over a noiseless channel with a bandwidth of 20 kHz. How
many signal levels do we need?
Solve: We can use the Nyquist formula as shown-
265,000 = 2 × 20,000 × log 2 L
=) log 2 L = 6.625
=) L = 26.625 = 98.7 levels

Ex:3.37| Consider an extremely noisy channel in which the value of the signal-to-noise ratio is
almost zero. In other words, the noise is so strong that the signal is faint. Find the capacity of
this channel.
Solve: For this channel the capacity C is calculated as-
C = B log 2 (1 + SNR) = B log 2 (1 + 0) = B log 2 1 = B × 0 = 0 bps
This means that the capacity of this channel is zero regardless of the bandwidth. In other
words, we cannot receive any data through this channel.

Ex:3.38| A telephone line normally has a bandwidth of 3000 Hz (300 to 3300 Hz) assigned for
data communications. The signal-to-noise ratio is usually 3162. Find the capacity of this channel.
Solve: For this channel the capacity is calculated as-
C = B log 2 (1 + SNR) = 3000 log 2 (1 + 3162) = 3000 log 2 3163 = 3000 × 11.62 = 34860 bps
This means that the highest bit rate for a telephone line is 34.860 kbps. If we want to send data faster
than this, we can either increase the bandwidth of the line or improve the signal-to-noise ratio.

Ex:3.39| The signal-to-noise ratio is often given in decibels. Assume that SNRdB = 36 and the
channel bandwidth is 2 MHz. Find the theoretical channel capacity.
Solve: The theoretical channel capacity can be calculated as

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 SNRdB = 10 log10 𝑆𝑁𝑅
=) SNR = 10𝑆𝑁𝑅𝑑𝐵 /10
=) SNR = 103.6 =3981
C = B log 2 (1 + SNR) = 2 × 106 × log 2 3982 = 24 Mbps

Ex:3.40| For practical purposes, when the SNR is very high, we can assume that SNR + 1 is
almost the same as SNR. In these cases, the theoretical channel capacity can be simplified to-
𝑆𝑁𝑅𝑑𝐵
C=B× 3

For example, we can calculate the theoretical capacity of the previous example as-
36
C = 2MHz × = 24 Mbps
3

Ex:3.41| We have a channel with a 1 MHz bandwidth. The SNR for this channel is 63. What are
the appropriate bit rate and signal level?
Solve: First, we use the Shannon formula to find the upper limit.
C = B log 2 (1 + SNR) = 106 × log 2 (1 + 63) = 106 × log 2 (1 + 63) = 6 Mbps
The Shannon formula gives us 6 Mbps, the upper limit. For better performance we choose something
lower, 4 Mbps, for example. Then we use the Nyquist formula to find the number of signal levels.
4 Mbps = 2 × 1 MHz × log 2 L
=) L= 4

Ex:3.44| A network with bandwidth of 10 Mbps can pass only an average of 12,000 frames per
minute with each frame carrying an average of 10,000 bits. What is the throughput of this
network?
Solve: We can calculate the throughput as-
12000 ×10000
Throughput = = 2 Mbps
60

The throughput is almost one-fifth of the bandwidth in this case.

Ex:3.45| What is the propagation time if the distance between the two points is 12,000 km?
Assume the propagation speed to be 2.4 × 108 m/s in cable.
Solve: We can calculate the propagation time as-
12000 ×1000
Propagation time = = 50 ms
2.4 ×108

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The example shows that a bit can go over the Atlantic Ocean in only 50 ms if there is a direct cable
between the source and the destination.

Ex:3.46| What are the propagation time and the transmission time for a 2.5-kbyte message (an
e-mail) if the bandwidth of the network is 1 Gbps? Assume that the distance between the sender
and the receiver is 12,000 km and that light travels at 2.4 × 108 m/s.
Solve: We can calculate the propagation and transmission time as-
12000 ×1000
Propagation time = = 50 ms
2.4 ×108
2500 × 8
Transmission time = = 0.020 ms
109

Note that in this case, because the message is short and the bandwidth is high, the dominant factor is
the propagation time, not the transmission time. The transmission time can be ignored.

Ex:3.47| What are the propagation time and the transmission time for a 5-Mbyte message (an
image) if the bandwidth of the network is 1 Mbps? Assume that the distance between the sender
and the receiver is 12,000 km and that light travels at 2.4 × 108 m/s.
Solve: We can calculate the propagation and transmission times as-
12000 ×1000
Propagation time = = 50 ms
2.4 ×108
5000000 × 8
Transmission time = =4s
106

Note that in this case, because the message is very long and the bandwidth is not very high, the
dominant factor is the transmission time, not the propagation time. The propagation time can be
ignored.

Q:09| Explain what the terms SNR and SNRdB means.

Ans: SNR refers to the signal-to-noise ratio is defined as-
average signal power
SNR = average noise power

SNR is actually the ratio of what is wanted (signal) to what is not wanted (noise). A high SNR means
the signal is less corrupted by noise; a low SNR means the signal is more corrupted by noise.
Because SNR is the ratio of two powers, it is often described in decibel units, SNRdB, defined as
SNRdB = l0 log10 𝑆𝑁𝑅

Q:10| Describe transmission impairments.

Ans: Signals travel through transmission media, which are not petfect. The impetfection causes
signal impairment. This means that the signal at the beginning of the medium is not the

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 same as the signal at the end of the medium. What is sent is not what is received. Three
causes of impairment are attenuation, distortion, and noise.

Attenuation means a loss of energy.

Distortion means that the signal changes its form or shape.
Several types of noise, such as thermal noise, induced noise, crosstalk, and impulse noise, may
corrupt the signal.

Q:11| Write the formula of Nyquist Bit rate for noiseless channel.
Ans: For a noiseless channel, the Nyquist bit rate formula defines the theoretical maximum bit rate
BitRate = 2 × bandwidth × log 2 𝐿
In this formula, bandwidth is the bandwidth of the channel, L is the number of signal levels used to
represent data, and BitRate is the bit rate in bits per second.

Q:12| Describe about radio wave media.

Ans: Electromagnetic waves ranging in frequencies between 3 kHz and 1 GHz are normally called
radio waves. Radio waves, for the most part, are omnidirectional. When an antenna transmits
radio waves, they are propagated in all directions. This means that the sending and
receiving antennas do not have to be aligned. A sending antenna sends waves that can
be received by any receiving antenna. Radio waves, particularly those waves that propagate in the sky
mode, can travel long distances.

Q:13| What are the data rate limits?

Ans: A very important consideration in data communications is how fast we can send data, in bits per
second. over a channel. Data rate depends on three factors:
1. The bandwidth available
2. The level of the signals we use
3. The quality of the channel (the level of noise)
Two theoretical formulas were developed to calculate the data rate: one by Nyquist for
a noiseless channel. another by Shannon for a noisy channel.

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Q:14| What is Line Coding? Explain different line coding scheme with example.
Ans: Line coding is the process of converting digital data to digital signals. We assume that data, in
the form of text, numbers, graphical images, audio, or video, are stored in computer memory as
sequences of bits. Line coding converts a sequence of bits to a digital signal. At the sender, digital data
are encoded into a digital signal; at the receiver, the digital data are recreated by decoding the digital
signal.
We can roughly divide line coding schemes into five broad categories, as shown in bellow figure-

Unipolar Scheme: In a unipolar scheme, all the signal levels are on one side of the time axis, either
above or below. Example: NRZ.
Polar Schemes: In polar schemes, the voltages are on the both sides of the time axis. For example, the
voltage level for 0 can be positive and the voltage level for 1 can be negative. Example: NRZ, RZ,
biphase (Manchester and differential Manchester).
Bipolar Schemes: In bipolar encoding (sometimes called multilevel binary), there are three voltage
levels: positive, negative, and zero. The voltage level for one data element is at zero, while
the voltage level for the other element alternates between positive and negative. Example: AMI,
pesudoternary.
Multilevel Schemes: In Multilevel schemes, a pattern of m data elements is encoded as a pattern of n
signal elements in which 2m ≤ Ln. Example: 2B/1Q, 8B/6T, 4D-PAM5.
Multiline Transmission: If we have a signal with more than two levels, we can design a differential
encoding scheme with more than two transition rules. Example: MLT-3

Q:15| Distinguish between Signal rate and Data rate. What is baseline wandering?
Ans: Distinguish between Signal rate and Data rate is as follows-

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 • Data rate
The number of data elements (bits) sent in 1s
The unit is bits per second (bps)
Called bit rate
• Signal rate
The number of signal elements sent in 1s
The unit is the baud
Signal rate is sometimes called the pulse rate, the modulation rate, or the baud rate
Baseline wandering: Baseline Wander is a low-frequency noise having non-linear and non-stationary
nature. The classical methods such as high-pass filtering cannot provide full separation of the signal
from low-frequency noise. In this work, we propose an approach to estimate the Baseline Wander
based on piecewise linear estimation and nonlinear smoothing.

Q:16| What is redundancy? Define Hamming Distance.

Ans: Redundancy: Data redundancy is a condition created within a database or data storage
technology in which the same piece of data is held in two separate places. This can mean two different
fields within a single database, or two different spots in multiple software environments or platforms.

Hamming Distance: The Hamming distance between two words (of the same size) is the number of
differences between the corresponding bits. We show the Hamming distance between two words x and
y as d(x, y).

The Hamming distance can easily be found if we apply the XOR operation (⊕) on the two words and
count the number of 1s in the result. Note that the Hamming distance is a value greater than zero.

Q:17| Define block coding. How can errors be detected using block coding?
Ans: Block coding is normally referred to by mb/nb coding. It changes a block of m bits into a block
of n bits, where n is larger than m.
In block coding, we divide our message into blocks, each of k bits, called datawords. We add r
redundant bits to each block to make the length n = k + r. The resulting n-bit blocks are called
codewords.
Block coding normally involves three steps-
1. Division
2. Substitution [Sender to receiver]
3. Combination

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If the following two conditions are met, the receiver can detect a change in the original codeword-
1. The receiver has (or can find) a list of valid codewords.
2. The original codeword has changed to an invalid one.

The sender creates codewords out of datawords by using a generator that applies the rules and
procedures of encoding. Each codeword sent to the receiver may change during transmission. If the
received codeword is the same as one of the valid codewords, the word is accepted; the corresponding
dataword is extracted for use. If the received codeword is not valid, it is discarded. However, if the
codeword is corrupted during transmission but the received word still matches a valid codeword, the
error remains undetected. This type of coding can detect only single errors. Two or more errors may
remain undetected.

Q:18| Distinguish between detection and correction.

Ans: Error detection is the review of input or processing and discovery that something is “wrong”,
i.e., inaccurate, unauthorized, incomplete or redundant.

Error correction is a process to attempt to resolve the error.

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Q:19| What is distributed processing? What is Syntax and Semantics?
Ans: Distributed processing: Distributed processing is a strategy in which services provided for the
network reside at multiple sites. Most networks use distributed processing, in which a task is divided
among multiple computers. Instead of one single large machine being responsible for all aspects of a
process, separate computers (usually a personal computer or workstation) handle a subset.
Syntax: The term syntax refers to the structure or format of the data, meaning the order in which they
are presented. For example, a simple protocol might expect the first 8 bits of data to be the address of
the sender, the second 8 bits to be the address of the receiver, and the rest of the stream to be the
message itself.
Semantics: The word semantics refers to the meaning of each section of bits. How is a particular
pattern to be interpreted, and what action is to be taken based on that interpretation? For example, does
an address identify the route to be taken or the final destination of the message?

Q:20| Define Segmentation and reassembly. Which layer do you think is responsible for the
following duties in OSI model?
i. Error control,
ii. Route selection,

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 iii. Line configuration,
iv. Encryption,
v. Mail services,
vi. Access control.
Ans: Segmentation and reassembly: A message is divided into transmittable segments, with each
segment containing a sequence number. These numbers enable the transport layer to reassemble the
message correctly upon arriving at the destination and to identify and replace packets that were lost in
transmission.
i. Transport layer is responsible for error control,
ii. Network layer is responsible for Route selection,
iii. Physical layer is responsible for Line configuration,
iv. Presentation layer is responsible for Encryption,
v. Application layer is responsible for Mail services,
vi. Data link layer is responsible for Access control.

Q:21| What is frequency?

Ans: Frequency refers to the number of periods in 1s. Frequency is the inverse of period, as the
following formula show-
1
f = 𝑇 ; where f is frequency and T is period

Q:22| What are the data rate limits?

Ans: Follow Q:13.

Q:23| Define Nyquist bit rate. We need to send 265 kbps over a noiseless channel with a
bandwidth of 20 kHz. How many signal levels do we need?
Ans: For a noiseless channel, the Nyquist bit rate formula defines the theoretical maximum bit rate
BitRate = 2 × bandwidth × log 2 𝐿
In this formula, bandwidth is the bandwidth of the channel, L is the number of signal
levels used to represent data, and BitRate is the bit rate in bits per second.
We can use the Nyquist formula as shown:
265,000 = 2 × 20,000 × log 2 L
=) log 2 L = 6.625
=) L =26.625 = 98.7 levels
Since this result is not a power of 2, we need to either increase the number of levels or reduce the bit
rate. If we have 128 levels, the bit rate is 280 kbps. If we have 64 levels, the bit rate is 240 kbps.

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Q:24| What is Shannon Capacity?
Ans: In reality, we cannot have a noiseless channel; the channel is always noisy. In 1944, Claude
Shannon introduced a formula, called the Shannon capacity, to determine the theoretical highest data
rate for a noisy channel:
Capacity = bandwidth × log 2 (1 + 𝑆𝑁𝑅)
In this formula, bandwidth is the bandwidth of the channel, SNR is the signal-to-noise ratio, and
capacity is the capacity of the channel in bits per second.

Q:25| Explain Single bit error and Burst error with example.
Single bit error: It means only one bit of data unit is changed from 1 to 0 or from 0 to 1 as shown in
fig.

Single bit error can happen in parallel transmission where all the data bits are transmitted using separate
wires. Single bit errors are the least likely type of error in serial transmission.

Burst Error: It means two or more bits in data unit are changed from 1 to 0 from 0 to 1 as shown in
fig.

In burst error, it is not necessary that only consecutive bits are changed. The length of burst error is
measured from first changed bit to last changed bit. As shown in fig. length of burst error is 8, although
some bits are unchanged in between. Burst error is most likely to occur in a serial transmission. The

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noise occurring for a longer duration affects multiple bits. The number of bits affected depends on the
data rate & duration of noise.

Q:26| What is redundancy? Differentiate between Detection versus Correction.

Ans: Follow Q:16 and Q:18.

Q:27| Find minimum Hamming Distance for the following Code word given in following table-
Data word Code word
00 00000
01 01011
10 10101
11 11110
Ans: We first find the all hamming distance-
d(00000-01011) = 3 d(00000-10101) = 3 d(00000-11110) = 4
d(01011-10101) = 4 d(01011-11110) = 3 d(10101-11110) = 3
the dmin in this case is 3.

Q:28| Distinguish between Signal Element and Data Element.

Ans:
• Data element
The smallest entity that can represent a piece of information: this is bit.
Data element are what we need to send.
• Signal element
The shortest unit (timewise) of a digital signal.
Signal elements are what we can send.

Q:29| List five Line encoding scheme.

Ans: Follow Q:14.

Q:30| Distinguish between Signal rate and Data rate.

Ans:
• Data rate
The number of data elements (bits) sent in 1s
The unit is bits per second (bps)
Called bit rate

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 • Signal rate
The number of signal elements sent in 1s
The unit is the baud
Signal rate is sometimes called the pulse rate, the modulation rate, or the baud rate
Relationship between data rate and signal rate-
1
S = c × N × 𝑟 baud

Where, S = number of signal elements, c = the case factor, N = data rate (bps), r = data elements per
signal elements

Q:31| Explain the characteristics of data communication.

Ans: The effectiveness of a data communications system depends on four fundamental
characteristics:
1. Delivery: The system must deliver data to the correct destination. Data must be received by
the intended device or user and only by that device or user.
2. Accuracy: The system must deliver the data accurately. Data that have been altered in
transmission and left uncorrected are unusable.
3. Timeliness: The system must deliver data in a timely manner. Data delivered late are useless.
In the case of video and audio, timely delivery means delivering data as they are produced, in
the same order that they are produced, and without significant delay. This kind of delivery is
called real-time transmission.
4. Jitter: Jitter refers to the variation in the packet arrival time. It is the uneven delay in the
delivery of audio or video packets. For example, let us assume that video packets are sent
every 3D-ms. If some of the packets arrive with 3D-ms delay and others with 4D-ms delay, an
uneven quality in the video is the result.

Q:32| Describe about synchronous and asynchronous transmission.

Ans: Synchronous Transmission: In synchronous transmission, data moves in a completely paired
approach, in the form of chunks or frames. Synchronization between the source and target is required
so that the source knows where the new byte begins, since there are no spaces included between the
data. Synchronous transmission is effective, dependable, and often utilized for transmitting a large
amount of data. It offers real-time communication between linked devices.
Asynchronous Transmission: In asynchronous transmission, data moves in a half-paired approach,
1 byte or 1 character at a time. It sends the data in a constant current of bytes. The size of a character
transmitted is 8 bits, with a parity bit added both at the beginning and at the end, making it a total of
10 bits. It doesn’t need a clock for integration—rather, it utilizes the parity bits to tell the receiver how
to translate the data. It is straightforward, quick, cost-effective, and doesn’t need 2-way communication
to function.

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Q:33| Briefly describe satellite media.
Ans: Satellite communication is one type of self-contained wireless communication technology, it is
widely spread all over the world to allow users to stay connected almost anywhere on the earth. When
the signal (a beam of modulated microwave) is sent near the satellite then, satellite amplifies the signal
and sent it back to the antenna receiver which is located on the surface of the earth. Satellite
communication contains two main components like the space segment and the ground segment. The
ground segment consists of fixed or mobile transmission, reception and ancillary equipment and the
space segment, which mainly is the satellite itself.

Q:34| What is redundancy?

Ans: Follow Q:16.

Q:35| Describe about topologies.

Ans: The topology of a network is the geometric representation of the relationship of all the links
and linking devices (usually called nodes) to one another. There are four basic topologies possible:
mesh, star, bus, and ring.
1. Mesh: In a mesh topology, every device has a dedicated point-to-point link to every other
device. The term dedicated means that the link carries traffic only between the two devices
it connects. To find the number of physical links in a fully connected mesh network with n
nodes, we first consider that each node must be connected to every other node. Node 1 must
be connected to n - I nodes, node 2 must be connected to n - 1 nodes, and finally node n must
be connected to n - 1 nodes. We need n(n - 1) physical links. One practical example of a mesh
topology is the connection of telephone regional offices in which each regional office needs
to be connected to every other regional office.

2. Star Topology: In a star topology, each device has a dedicated point-to-point link only to a
central controller, usually called a hub. The devices are not directly linked to one another.
Unlike a mesh topology, a star topology does not allow direct traffic between devices. The
controller acts as an exchange: If one device wants to send data to another, it sends the data
to the controller, which then relays the data to the other connected device. The star topology
is used in local-area networks (LANs).

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 3. Bus Topology: In a bus topology one long cable acts as a backbone to link all the devices in a
network. Nodes are connected to the bus cable by drop lines and taps. A drop line is a
connection running between the device and the main cable. A tap is a connector that either
splices into the main cable or punctures the sheathing of a cable to create a contact with the
metallic core. Bus topology was the one of the first topologies used in the design of early
local area networks. Ethernet LANs can use a bus topology, but they are less popular now.

4. Ring Topology: In a ring topology, each device has a dedicated point-to-point connection with
only the two devices on either side of it. A signal is passed along the ring in one direction,
from device to device, until it reaches its destination. Each device in the ring incorporates a
repeater. When a device receives a signal intended for another device, its repeater
regenerates the bits and passes them along. Ring topology was prevalent when IBM
introduced its local-area network Token Ring. Today, the need for higher-speed LANs has
made this topology less popular.

Moreover, a network can be hybrid. For example, we can have a main star topology with each branch
connecting several stations in a bus topology as shown in following figure-

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Q:36| Describe about lossless and lossy compression and differentiate between them.
Ans: Lossy compression and Lossless compression are the two terms widely categorized under data
compression methods. The major difference between Lossy compression and Lossless compression is
that lossy compression produces a close match of the data after decompression whereas lossless creates
exact original data. Data Compression is a method of lessening the size of the data without significant
loss of information.
Differences between lossy and lossless compression are as follows-
Basis for Lossy Compression Lossless Compression
comparison
Basic Lossy compression is the family of Lossless compression is a group of data
data encoding method that utilizes compression algorithms that permits the
imprecise estimates to represent original data to be accurately rebuilt
the content. from the compressed data.
Algorithm Transform coding, DCT, DWT, RLW, LZW, Arithmetic encoding,
fractal compression, RSSMS. Huffman encoding, Shannon Fano
coding.
Used in Images, audio and video. Text or program, images and sound.
Application JPEG, GUI, MP3, MP4, OGG, H- RAW, BMP, PNG, WAV, FLAC,
264, MKV, etc. ALAC etc.
Data-holding More Less as compared to lossy method
capacity of the
channel

Q:37| Briefly describe Analog to digital conversion.

Ans: The digitization of analog signals is done by rounding off the values that are close to the analog
values. The sampling method selects few points on the analog signal and are joined to round off the
values to a stabilized value. This process is known as Quantization.
The most common technique to change an analog signal to digital data (digitization)
is called pulse code modulation (PCM). A PCM encoder has three processes-
1. The analog signal is sampled.

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 2. The sampled signal is quantized.

3. The quantized values are encoded as streams of bits.

Q:38| How do guided media differs from unguided media?

Ans: Differences between guided media and un guided media are as follows-

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 Basis for Guided Media Unguided Media
Comparison
Basic The signal requires a physical path The signal is broadcasted through air or
for transmission. sometimes water.
Alternative It is called wired communication or It is called wireless communication or
name bounded transmission media. unbounded transmission media.
Direction It provides direction to signal for It does not provide any direction.
travelling.
Types Twisted pair cable, coaxial cable and Radio wave, microwave and infrared.
fibre optic cable.

Q:39| Write down the differences between Periodic and Non-periodic signal
Ans: Differences between Periodic and Non-periodic signal are as follows-

Q:40| What if a signal does not change at all?

Ans: In such a case, its frequency is zero. Conceptually, this idea is a simple one. If a signal does not
change at all, it never completes a cycle, so its frequency is 0Hz.

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Q:41| What if a signal changes instantaneously?
Ans: Then its frequency is infinite. In other words, when a signal changes instantaneously, its period
is zero; since frequency is the inverse of period, in this case, the frequency is 1/0, or infinite
(unbounded).

Q:42| What is wavelength?

Ans: Wavelength can be defined as the distance between two successive crests or troughs of a wave.
It is measured in the direction of the wave. Wavelength can be calculated if one is given the
propagation speed (the speed of light) and the period of the signal. However, since period and
frequency are related to each other, if we represent wavelength by λ, propagation speed by c (speed of
light), period by T and frequency by f, we get-
propagation speed
Wavelength = propagation speed × period = frequency
c
=) λ = c × T = f

A sin wave is comprehensively defined by its amplitude, frequency and phase. We have been showing
a sin wave by using

Q:43| What are time and frequency domain?

Ans: A sine wave is comprehensively defined by its amplitude, frequency, and phase. We have been
showing a sine wave by using what is called a time-domain plot. The time-domain plot shows changes
in signal amplitude with respect to time (it is an amplitude-versus-time plot). Phase is not explicitly
shown on a time-domain plot.
To show the relationship between amplitude and frequency, we can use what is
called a frequency-domain plot. A frequency-domain plot is concerned with only the
peak value and the frequency. Changes of amplitude during one period are not shown.
Bellow figure shows a signal in both the time and frequency domains.

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Q:44| What is composite signal?
Ans: Any composite signal is actually a combination of simple sine waves with different frequencies,
amplitudes, and phases.
A composite signal can be periodic or nonperiodic. A periodic composite signal can be decomposed
into a series of simple sine waves with discrete frequencies, frequencies that have integer values (1, 2,
3, and so on). A nonperiodic composite signal can be decomposed into a combination of an infinite
number of simple sine waves with continuous frequencies, frequencies that have real values. Bellow
figure shows a composite signal-

Q:45| Discuss about fundamental frequency or harmonic.

Ans: Of the sine wave with frequency f is the same as the frequency of the composite signal; it is called
the fundamental frequency, or first harmonic. The sine wave with frequency 3f has a frequency of 3
times the fundamental frequency; it is called the third harmonic. The third sine wave with frequency
9f has a frequency of 9 times the fundamental frequency; it is called the ninth harmonic.

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Q:46| What is Bandwidth?
Ans: The range of frequencies contained in a composite signal is its bandwidth. The bandwidth is
normally a difference between two numbers. For example, if a composite signal contains frequencies
between 1000 and 5000, its bandwidth is 5000 - 1000, or 4000.

Q:47| What is digital signal?

Ans: A digital signal is a signal that is being used to represent data as a sequence of discrete values; at
any given time it can only take on one of a finite number of values. This contrasts with an analog
signal, which represents continuous values; at any given time it represents a real number within a
continuous range of values. Bellow figure sows digital signal-

Q:48| What is bit rate?

Ans: The bit rate is the number of bits sent in 1s, expressed in bits per second (bps).

Q:49| How can you define a Digital Signal as a Composite Analog Signal?
Ans: A digital signal is a composite analog signal. The bandwidth is infinite, as you may have guessed.
We can intuitively come up with this concept when we consider a digital signal. A digital signal, in
the time domain, comprises connected vertical and horizontal line segments. A vertical line in the time
domain means a frequency of infinity (sudden change in time); a horizontal line in the time domain
means a frequency of zero (no change in time). Going from a frequency of zero to a frequency of
infinity (and vice versa) implies all frequencies in between are part of the domain.
Fourier analysis can be used to decompose a digital signal. If the digital signal is periodic, which is
rare in data communications, the decomposed signal has a frequency domain representation with an
infinite bandwidth and discrete frequencies. If the digital signal is nonperiodic, the decomposed signal
still has an infinite bandwidth, but the frequencies are continuous.
Bellow figure shows a periodic and a nonperiodic digital signal and their bandwidths-

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Q:50| What is signal rate/pulse rate/modulation rate/baud rate?
Ans: The signal rate is the number of signal elements sent in Is. The unit is the baud. There are several
common terminologies used in the literature. The signal rate is sometimes called the pulse rate, the
modulation rate, or the baud rate.

Q:51| What is DC Components?

Ans: When the voltage level in a digital signal is constant for a while, the spectrum creates very low
frequencies (results of Fourier analysis). These frequencies around zero, called DC (direct-current)
components, present problems for a system that cannot pass low frequencies or a system that uses
electrical coupling (via a transformer). For example, a telephone line cannot pass frequencies below
200 Hz. Also a long-distance link may use one or more transformers to isolate different parts of the
line electrically. For these systems, we need a scheme with no DC component.

Q:52| What is Self-synchronization?

Ans: To correctly interpret the signals received from the sender, the receiver's bit intervals must
correspond exactly to the sender's bit intervals. If the receiver clock is faster or slower, the bit intervals
are not matched and the receiver might misinterpret the signals.
A self-synchronizing digital signal includes timing information in the data being transmitted. This can
be achieved if there are transitions in the signal that alert the receiver to the beginning, middle, or end
of the pulse. If the receiver's clock is out of synchronization, these points can reset the clock.

Q:53| Explain about Manchester and differential Manchester encoding.

Ans: In Manchester encoding, the duration of the bit is divided into two halves. The voltage remains
at one level during the first half and moves to the other level in the second half. The transition at the
middle of the bit provides synchronization.

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Differential Manchester, on the other hand, combines the ideas of RZ and NRZ-I. There is always a
transition at the middle of the bit, but the bit values are determined at the beginning of the bit. If the
next bit is 0, there is a transition; if the next bit is 1, there is none.

EX:4.5| We need to send data at a 1-Mbps rate. What is the minimum required bandwidth, using
a combination of 4B/5B and NRZ-I or Manchester coding?
Solve: First 4B/5B block coding increases the bit rate to 1.25 Mbps. The minimum bandwidth using
NRZ-I is NI2 or 625 kHz. The Manchester scheme needs a minimum bandwidth of 1 MHz. The first
choice needs a lower bandwidth, but has a DC component problem; the second choice needs a higher
bandwidth, but does not have a DC component problem.

Q:54| What is Scrambling?

Ans: Scrambling is a digital encoding technique that is used in modern data communication schemes
and can principally provide aid in retrieving information from received data enhancing synchronization
between the transmitter and the receiver. Scrambling techniques can be divided into two classes;
additive scrambling and multiplicative scrambling. Two common scrambling techniques are-
• B8ZS: Bipolar with S-zero substitution (BSZS) is commonly used in North America.
• HDB3: High-density bipolar 3-zero (HDB3) is commonly used outside of North America.

Q:55| What is PCM sampling?

Ans: The first step in PCM is sampling. The analog signal is sampled every Ts s, where Ts is the sample
interval or period. The inverse of the sampling interval is called the sampling rate or sampling
frequency and denoted by fs, where fs = 1/Ts. There are three
Sampling methods: ideal, natural, and flat-top-as shown in bellow figure-

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The sampling process is sometimes referred to as pulse amplitude modulation (PAM).

Ex:4.6| let us sample a simple sine wave at three sampling rates: fs = 4f (2 times the Nyquist rate),
fs = 2f (Nyquist rate), and fs =f (one-half the Nyquist rate).
Solve: Bellow figure shows the sampling and the subsequent recovery of the signal-

EX:4.10| A complex low-pass signal has a bandwidth of 200 kHz. What is the minimum sampling
rate for this signal?

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Solve: The bandwidth of a low-pass signal is between 0 and f, where f is the maximum frequency in
the signal. Therefore, we can sample this signal at 2 times the highest frequency (200 kHz). The
sampling rate is therefore 400,000 samples per second.

Ex:4.11| A complex bandpass signal has a bandwidth of 200 kHz. What is the minimum sampling
rate for this signal?
Solve: We cannot find the minimum sampling rate in this case because we do not know where the
bandwidth starts or ends. We do not know the maximum frequency in the signal.

Q:56| Briefly describe the process of quantization.

Ans: The digitization of analog signals is done by rounding off the values that are close to the analog
values. The sampling method selects few points on the analog signal and are joined to round off the
values to a stabilized value. This process is known as Quantization. The following are the steps in
quantization:
1. We assume that the original analog signal has instantaneous amplitudes between Vmin and Vmax.
2. We divide the range into L zones, each of height ∆ (delta).
𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥
∆=
𝐿
3. We assign quantized values of 0 to L - I to the midpoint of each zone.
4. We approximate the value of the sample amplitude to the quantized values.
The quantization error changes the signal-to-noise ratio of the signal, which in turn reduces the upper
limit capacity according to Shannon.
It can be proven that the contribution of the quantization error to the SNRdB of the signal depends on
the number of quantization levels L, or the bits per sample nb as shown in the following formula:
SNRdB = 6.02nb + 1.76 dB

Ex:4.13| A telephone subscriber line must have an SN~B above 40. What is the minimum number
of bits per sample?
Solve: We can calculate the number of bits as-
SNRdB = 6.02nb + 1.76 dB
=> 40 = 6.02nb + 1.76
=> nb = 6.35
Telephone companies usually assign 7 or 8 bits per sample.

Q:57| What is Encoding?

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Ans: The last step in PCM is encoding. After each sample is quantized and the number of bits per
sample is decided, each sample can be changed to an nb -bit code word.
If the number of quantization levels is L, the number of bits is nb = log 2 𝐿. The bit rate can be found
from the formula-
Bit rate = sampling rate × number of bits per sample
= fs × nb

Ex:4.14| We want to digitize the human voice. What is the bit rate, assuming 8 bits per sample?
Solve: The human voice normally contains frequencies from 0 to 4000 Hz. So the sampling rate and
bit
rate are calculated as follows:
Sampling rate = 4000 × 2 = 8000 samples/s
Bit rate = 8000 × 8 = 64,000 bps = 64 kbps

Q:58| Write down the differences between Synchronous and Asynchronous Transmission.
Ans: The differences between Synchronous and Asynchronous Transmission are as follows-
Point of Comparison Synchronous Transmission Asynchronous Transmission
Definition Transmits data in the form of Transmits 1 byte or character at a
chunks or frames time
Speed of Transmission Quick Slow
Cost Expensive Cost-effective
Time Interval Constant Random
Gaps between the Yes No
data?
Examples Chat Rooms, Telephonic Email, Forums, Letters
Conversations, Video
Conferencing

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