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Education

Left to right, from top: Lecture at the Faculty of Biomedical Engineering, Czech Technical University, in Prague,
Czech Republic; School children sitting in the shade of an orchard in Bamozai, near Gardez, Paktia Province,
Afghanistan; Student participants in the FIRST Robotics Competition, Washington, D.C.; Early childhood
education through USAID in Ziway, Ethiopia

Education is the process of facilitating learning, or the acquisition of knowledge, skills, values,
morals, beliefs, and habits. Educational methods include teaching, training, storytelling,
discussion and directed research. Education frequently takes place under the guidance of
educators; however, learners can also educate themselves. Education can take place in formal or
informal settings, and any experience that has a formative effect on the way one thinks, feels, or
acts may be considered educational. The methodology of teaching is called pedagogy.

Formal education is commonly divided formally into stages such as preschool or kindergarten,
primary school, secondary school and then college, university, or apprenticeship. In most regions,
education is compulsory up to a certain age.

There are movements for education reforms, such as for improving quality and efficiency of
education towards relevance in students' lives and efficient problem solving in modern or future
society at large, or for evidence-based education methodologies. A right to education has been
recognized by some governments and the United Nations.[a] Global initiatives aim at achieving the
Sustainable Development Goal 4, which promotes quality education for all.

Contents
Etymology
History
Formal
Early childhood
Primary
Secondary
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Lower
Upper
Tertiary
Vocational
Special
Unconventional forms
Alternative
Indigenous
Informal learning
Self-directed learning
Evidence-based
Open learning and electronic technology
Public schooling
Development goals
Internationalisation
Technology in developing countries
Funding in developing countries
Theory
Psychology
Intelligence
Learning modalities
Mind, brain, and education
Philosophy
Purpose
Curriculum
Instruction
Economics
Development
COVID-19 pandemic
See also
Notes
References
Other references
External links

Etymology
Etymologically, the word "education" is derived from the Latin word ēducātiō ("A breeding, a
bringing up, a rearing") from ēducō ("I educate, I train") which is related to the homonym ēdūcō
("I lead forth, I take out; I raise up, I erect") from ē- ("from, out of") and dūcō ("I lead, I
conduct").[1]

History

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Education began in prehistory, as adults trained the young in

the knowledge and skills deemed necessary in their society. In
pre-literate societies, this was achieved orally and through
imitation. Story-telling passed knowledge, values, and skills
from one generation to the next. As cultures began to extend
their knowledge beyond skills that could be readily learned
through imitation, formal education developed. Schools
existed in Egypt at the time of the Middle Kingdom.[2]

Plato founded the Academy in Athens, the first institution of Historical Madrasah in Baku,
higher learning in Europe.[3] The city of Alexandria in Egypt, Azerbaijan
established in 330 BCE, became the successor to Athens as the
intellectual cradle of
Ancient Greece. There, the
great Library of
Alexandria was built in
the 3rd century BCE.
European civilizations
suffered a collapse of
literacy and organization
following the fall of Rome
in CE 476.[4]
Nalanda, ancient centre for higher
learning
In China, Confucius (551–
479 BCE), of the State of
Plato's academy, mosaic from Lu, was the country's most
Pompeii influential ancient philosopher,
whose educational outlook
continues to influence the
societies of China and neighbours like Korea, Japan, and Vietnam.
Confucius gathered disciples and searched in vain for a ruler who
would adopt his ideals for good governance, but his Analects were
written down by followers and have continued to influence education
in East Asia into the modern era.[5]

The Aztecs also had a well-developed theory about education, which

has an equivalent word in Nahuatl called tlacahuapahualiztli. It
means "the art of raising or educating a person",[6] or "the art of
strengthening or bringing up men".[7] This was a broad
conceptualization of education, which prescribed that it begins at Matteo Ricci (left) and Xu
home, supported by formal schooling, and reinforced by community Guangqi (right) in the
living. Historians cite that formal education was mandatory for Chinese edition of Euclid's
everyone regardless of social class and gender.[8] There was also the Elements published in 1607
word neixtlamachiliztli, which is "the act of giving wisdom to the
face."[7] These concepts underscore a complex set of educational
practices, which was oriented towards communicating to the next generation the experience and
intellectual heritage of the past for the purpose of individual development and his integration into
the community.[7]

After the Fall of Rome, the Catholic Church became the sole preserver of literate scholarship in
Western Europe.[9] The church established cathedral schools in the Early Middle Ages as centres
of advanced education. Some of these establishments ultimately evolved into medieval universities
and forebears of many of Europe's modern universities.[4] During the High Middle Ages, Chartres
Cathedral operated the famous and influential Chartres Cathedral School. The medieval
universities of Western Christendom were well-integrated across all of Western Europe,
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encouraged freedom of inquiry, and produced a great variety of fine scholars and natural
philosophers, including Thomas Aquinas of the University of Naples, Robert Grosseteste of the
University of Oxford, an early expositor of a systematic method of scientific experimentation,[10]
and Saint Albert the Great, a pioneer of biological field research.[11] Founded in 1088, the
University of Bologne is considered the first, and the oldest continually operating university.[12]

Elsewhere during the Middle Ages, Islamic science and mathematics flourished under the Islamic
caliphate which was established across the Middle East, extending from the Iberian Peninsula in
the west to the Indus in the east and to the Almoravid Dynasty and Mali Empire in the south.

The Renaissance in Europe ushered in a new age of scientific and intellectual inquiry and
appreciation of ancient Greek and Roman civilizations. Around 1450, Johannes Gutenberg
developed a printing press, which allowed works of literature to spread more quickly. The
European Age of Empires saw European ideas of education in philosophy, religion, arts and
sciences spread out across the globe. Missionaries and scholars also brought back new ideas from
other civilizations  – as with the Jesuit China missions who played a significant role in the
transmission of knowledge, science, and culture between China and Europe, translating works
from Europe like Euclid's Elements for Chinese scholars and the thoughts of Confucius for
European audiences. The Enlightenment saw the emergence of a more secular educational outlook
in Europe. Much of modern traditional Western and Eastern education is based on the Prussian
education system.[13]

In most countries today, full-time education, whether at school or otherwise, is compulsory for all
children up to a certain age. Due to this the proliferation of compulsory education, combined with
population growth, UNESCO has calculated that in the next 30  years more people will receive
formal education than in all of human history thus far.[14]

Formal
Formal education occurs in a structured environment whose explicit purpose is teaching students.
Usually, formal education takes place in a school environment with classrooms of multiple
students learning together with a trained, certified teacher of the subject. Most school systems are
designed around a set of values or ideals that govern all educational choices in that system. Such
choices include curriculum, organizational models, design of the physical learning spaces (e.g.
classrooms), student-teacher interactions, methods of assessment, class size, educational
activities, and more.[15][16]

The International Standard Classification of Education (ISCED) was created by UNESCO as a

statistical base to compare education systems.[17] In 1997, it defined 7 levels of education and 25
fields, though the fields were later separated out to form a different project. The current version
ISCED 2011 has 9 rather than 7 levels, created by dividing the tertiary pre-doctorate level into
three levels. It also extended the lowest level (ISCED 0) to cover a new sub-category of early
childhood educational development programmes, which target children below the age of 3
years.[18]

Early childhood

Education designed to support early development in preparation for participation in school and
society. The programmes are designed for children below the age of 3. This is ISCED level 01.[17]
Preschools provide education from ages approximately three to seven, depending on the country
when children enter primary education. The children now readily interact with their peers and the
educator.[17] These are also known as nursery schools and as kindergarten, except in the US, where
the term kindergarten refers to the earliest levels of primary education.[19] Kindergarten "provides
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a child-centred, preschool curriculum for three- to seven-year-

old children that aim[s] at unfolding the child's physical,
intellectual, and moral nature with balanced emphasis on each
of them."[20] This is ISCED level 02.[17]

Primary

This is ISCED level 1.[17] Primary (or elementary) education

consists of the first four to seven years of formal, structured
Young children in a kindergarten in
education. In general, primary education consists of six to
Japan
eight years of schooling starting at the age of five to seven,
although this varies between, and sometimes within,
countries. Globally, in 2008, around 89% of children aged six
to twelve were enrolled in primary education, and this proportion was
rising.[21] Under the Education For All programs driven by UNESCO,
most countries have committed to achieving universal enrollment in
primary education by 2015, and in many countries, it is compulsory.
The division between primary and secondary education is somewhat
arbitrary, but it generally occurs at about eleven or twelve years of
age. Some education systems have separate middle schools, with the
transition to the final stage of secondary education taking place at
around the age of fifteen. Schools that provide primary education, are
mostly referred to as primary schools or elementary schools. Primary
schools are often subdivided into infant schools and junior schools.

In India, for example, compulsory education spans over twelve years, Nepali village school
with eight years of elementary education, five years of primary students
schooling and three years of upper primary schooling. Various states
in the republic of India provide 12 years of compulsory school
education based on a national curriculum framework designed by the National Council of
Educational Research and Training.

Secondary

This covers the two ISCED levels, ISCED 2: Lower Secondary Education and ISCED 3: Upper
Secondary Education.[17]

In most contemporary educational systems of the world, secondary education comprises the
formal education that occurs during adolescence. In the United States, Canada, and Australia,
primary and secondary education together are sometimes referred to as K-12 education, and in
New Zealand Year 1–13 is used. The purpose of secondary education can be to give common
knowledge, to prepare for higher education, or to train directly in a profession.[22]

Secondary education in the United States did not emerge until 1910, with the rise of large
corporations and advancing technology in factories, which required skilled workers. In order to
meet this new job demand, high schools were created, with a curriculum focused on practical job
skills that would better prepare students for white collar or skilled blue collar work. This proved
beneficial for both employers and employees, since the improved human capital lowered costs for
the employer, while skilled employees received higher wages.

Secondary education has a longer history in Europe, where grammar schools or academies date
from as early as the 6th century, [b] in the form of public schools, fee-paying schools, or charitable
educational foundations, which themselves date even further back.[23]

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It spans the period between the typically universal compulsory, primary education to the optional,
selective tertiary, "postsecondary", or "higher" education of ISCED 5 and 6 (e.g. university), and
the ISCED 4 Further education or vocational school.[17]

Depending on the system, schools for this period, or a part of

it, may be called secondary or high schools, gymnasiums,
lyceums, middle schools, colleges, or vocational schools. The
exact meaning of any of these terms varies from one system to
another. The exact boundary between primary and secondary
education also varies from country to country and even within
them but is generally around the seventh to the tenth year of
schooling.

Lower A high-school senior (twelfth grade)

classrooms in Calhan, Colorado,
Programs at ISCED level 2, lower secondary education are United States
usually organized around a more subject-oriented curriculum;
differing from primary education. Teachers typically have
pedagogical training in the specific subjects and, more often than at ISCED level 1, a class of
students will have several teachers, each with specialized knowledge of the subjects they teach.
Programmes at ISCED level 2, aim to lay the foundation for lifelong learning and human
development upon introducing theoretical concepts across a broad range of subjects which can be
developed in future stages. Some education systems may offer vocational education programs
during ISCED level 2 providing skills relevant to employment.[17]

Upper

Programs at ISCED level 3, or upper secondary education, are typically designed to complete the
secondary education process. They lead to skills relevant to employment and the skill necessary to
engage in tertiary courses. They offer students more varied, specialized and in-depth instruction.
They are more differentiated, with range of options and learning streams.[17]

Community colleges offer another option at this transitional stage of education. They provide
nonresidential junior college courses to people living in a particular area.

Tertiary

Higher education, also called tertiary, third stage, or

postsecondary education, is the non-compulsory educational
level that follows the completion of a school such as a high
school or secondary school. Tertiary education is normally
taken to include undergraduate and postgraduate education,
as well as vocational education and training. Colleges and
universities mainly provide tertiary education. Collectively,
these are sometimes known as tertiary institutions.
Students in a laboratory, Saint
Individuals who complete tertiary education generally receive
Petersburg State Polytechnical
certificates, diplomas, or academic degrees.
University
The ISCED distinguishes 4 levels of tertiary education. ISCED
6 is equivalent to a first degree, ISCED 7 is equivalent to a
masters or an advanced professional qualification and ISCED 8 is an advanced research

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qualification, usually concluding with the submission and

defence of a substantive dissertation of publishable quality
based on original research.[24] The category ISCED 5 is
reserved for short-cycle courses of requiring degree level
study.[24]

Higher education typically involves work towards a degree-

level or foundation degree qualification. In most developed
countries, a high proportion of the population (up to 50%)
Universities often host prominent
now enter higher education at some time in their lives. Higher
guest speakers for student
education is therefore very important to national economies,
audiences, e.g. First Lady of the
both as a significant industry in its own right and as a source United States Michelle Obama
of trained and educated personnel for the rest of the economy. delivering remarks at Peking
University, Beijing, China
University education includes teaching, research, and social
services activities, and it includes both the undergraduate level
(sometimes referred to as tertiary education) and the graduate (or postgraduate) level (sometimes
referred to as graduate school). Some universities are composed of several colleges.

One type of university education is a liberal arts education, which can be defined as a "college or
university curriculum aimed at imparting broad general knowledge and developing general
intellectual capacities, in contrast to a professional, vocational, or technical curriculum."[25]
Although what is known today as liberal arts education began in Europe,[26] the term "liberal arts
college" is more commonly associated with institutions in the United States such as Williams
College or Barnard College.[27]

Vocational

Vocational education is a form of education focused on direct

and practical training for a specific trade or craft. Vocational
education may come in the form of an apprenticeship or
internship as well as institutions teaching courses such as
carpentry, agriculture, engineering, medicine, architecture
and the arts. Post 16 education, adult education and further
education involve continued study, but a level no different
from that found at upper secondary, and are grouped together
as ISCED 4, post-secondary non-tertiary education.[24]

Special
Carpentry is normally learned
through apprenticeship with an
In the past, those who were disabled were often not eligible for
experienced carpenter
public education. Children with disabilities were repeatedly
denied an education by physicians or special tutors. These
early physicians (people like Itard, Seguin, Howe, Gallaudet)
set the foundation for special education today. They focused on individualized instruction and
functional skills. In its early years, special education was only provided to people with severe
disabilities, but more recently it has been opened to anyone who has experienced difficulty
learning.[28]

Unconventional forms

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Alternative

While considered "alternative" today, most alternative systems have existed since ancient times.
After the public school system was widely developed beginning in the 19th century, some parents
found reasons to be discontented with the new system. Alternative education developed in part as
a reaction to perceived limitations and failings of traditional education. A broad range of
educational approaches emerged, including alternative schools, self learning, homeschooling, and
unschooling. Example alternative schools include Montessori schools, Waldorf schools (or Steiner
schools), Friends schools, Sands School, Summerhill School, Walden's Path, The Peepal Grove
School, Sudbury Valley School, Krishnamurti schools, and open classroom schools.

Charter schools are another example of alternative education, which have in the recent years
grown in numbers in the US and gained greater importance in its public education system.[29][30]

In time, some ideas from these experiments and paradigm challenges may be adopted as the norm
in education, just as Friedrich Fröbel's approach to early childhood education in 19th-century
Germany has been incorporated into contemporary kindergarten classrooms. Other influential
writers and thinkers have included the Swiss humanitarian Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi; the
American transcendentalists Amos Bronson Alcott, Ralph Waldo Emerson, and Henry David
Thoreau; the founders of progressive education, John Dewey and Francis Parker; and educational
pioneers such as Maria Montessori and Rudolf Steiner, and more recently John Caldwell Holt,
Paul Goodman, Frederick Mayer, George Dennison, and Ivan Illich.

Indigenous

Indigenous education refers to the inclusion of indigenous

knowledge, models, methods, and content within formal and
non-formal educational systems. Often in a post-colonial
context, the growing recognition and use of indigenous
education methods can be a response to the erosion and loss
of indigenous knowledge and language through the processes
of colonialism. Furthermore, it can enable indigenous
communities to "reclaim and revalue their languages and
Teaching indigenous knowledge,
cultures, and in so doing, improve the educational success of
models, and methods in Yanyuan
indigenous students."[31]
County, Sichuan, China

Informal learning

Informal learning is one of three forms of learning defined by the Organisation for Economic
Co-operation and Development (OECD). Informal learning occurs in a variety of places, such as at
home, work, and through daily interactions and shared relationships among members of society.
For many learners, this includes language acquisition, cultural norms, and manners.

In informal learning, there is often a reference person, a peer or expert, to guide the learner. If
learners have a personal interest in what they are informally being taught, learners tend to expand
their existing knowledge and conceive new ideas about the topic being learned.[32] For example, a
museum is traditionally considered an informal learning environment, as there is room for free
choice, a diverse and potentially non-standardized range of topics, flexible structures, socially rich
interaction, and no externally imposed assessments.[33]

While informal learning often takes place outside educational establishments and does not follow
a specified curriculum, it can also occur within educational settings and even during formal
learning situations. Educators can structure their lessons to directly utilize their students informal
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learning skills within the education setting.[32]

In the late 19th century, education through play began to be

recognized as making an important contribution to child
development.[34] In the early 20th century, the concept was
broadened to include young adults but the emphasis was on
physical activities.[35] L.P. Jacks, also an early proponent of
lifelong learning, described education through recreation: "A
master in the art of living draws no sharp distinction between
his work and his play, his labour, and his leisure, his mind and
his body, his education and his recreation. He hardly knows A volunteer reads aloud to children
which is which. He simply pursues his vision of excellence in Laos
through whatever he is doing and leaves others to determine
whether he is working or playing. To himself, he always seems
to be doing both. Enough for him that he does it well."[36] Education through recreation is the
opportunity to learn in a seamless fashion through all of life's activities.[37] The concept has been
revived by the University of Western Ontario to teach anatomy to medical students.[37]

Self-directed learning

Autodidacticism (also autodidactism) is self-directed learning. One may become an autodidact at

nearly any point in one's life. Notable autodidacts include Abraham Lincoln (U.S. president),
Srinivasa Ramanujan (mathematician), Michael Faraday (chemist and physicist), Charles Darwin
(naturalist), Thomas Alva Edison (inventor), Tadao Ando (architect), George Bernard Shaw
(playwright), Frank Zappa (composer, recording engineer, film director), and Leonardo da Vinci
(engineer, scientist, mathematician).

Evidence-based

Evidence-based education is the use of well designed scientific studies to determine which
education methods work best. It consists of evidence-based teaching and evidence-based learning.
Evidence-based learning methods such as spaced repetition can increase rate of learning.[38] The
evidence-based education movement has its roots in the larger movement towards evidence-
based-practices.

Open learning and electronic technology

Many large university institutions are now starting to offer

free or almost free full courses, through open education, such
as Harvard, MIT and Berkeley teaming up to form edX. Other
universities offering open education are prestigious private
universities such as Stanford, Princeton, Duke, Johns
Hopkins, the University of Pennsylvania, and Caltech, as well
as notable public universities including Tsinghua, Peking,
Edinburgh, University of Michigan, and University of Virginia.

Open education has been called the biggest change in the way Children computing by David
Shankbone
people learn since the printing press.[39] Despite favourable
studies on effectiveness, many people may still desire to
choose traditional campus education for social and cultural
reasons.[40]

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Many open universities are working to have the ability to offer students standardized testing and
traditional degrees and credentials.[41]

The conventional merit-system degree is currently not as common in open education as it is in

campus universities, although some open universities do already offer conventional degrees such
as the Open University in the United Kingdom. Presently, many of the major open education
sources offer their own form of certificate.

Out of 182 colleges surveyed in 2009 nearly half said tuition for online courses was higher than for
campus-based ones.[42]

A 2010 meta-analysis found that online and blended educational approaches had better outcomes
than methods that used solely face-to-face interaction.[43]

Public schooling
The education sector or education system is a group of
institutions (ministries of education, local educational
authorities, teacher training institutions, schools, universities,
etc.) whose primary purpose is to provide education to
children and young people in educational settings. It involves
a wide range of people (curriculum developers, inspectors,
school principals, teachers, school nurses, students, etc.).
Beijing Normal University, which is
These institutions can vary according to different contexts.[44]
governed directly by the Chinese
Schools deliver education, with support from the rest of the Ministry of Education, is an example
of collaboration between different
education system through various elements such as education
entities in the education sector
policies and guidelines – to which school policies can refer –
curricula and learning materials, as well as pre- and in-service
teacher training programmes. The school environment – both
physical (infrastructures) and psychological (school climate) – is also guided by school policies
that should ensure the well-being of students when they are in school.[44] The Organisation for
Economic Co-operation and Development has found that schools tend to perform best when
principals have full authority and responsibility for ensuring that students are proficient in core
subjects upon graduation. They must also seek feedback from students for quality-assurance and
improvement. Governments should limit themselves to monitoring student proficiency.[45]

The education sector is fully integrated into society, through interactions with numerous
stakeholders and other sectors. These include parents, local communities, religious leaders, NGOs,
stakeholders involved in health, child protection, justice and law enforcement (police), media and
political leadership.[44]

The shape, methodologies, taught material – the curriculum – of formal education is decided by
political decision makers along with federal agencies such as the state education agency in the
United States.

Development goals
Joseph Chimombo pointed out education's role as a policy instrument, capable of instilling social
change and economic advancement in developing countries by giving communities the
opportunity to take control of their destinies.[46] The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development,
adopted by the United Nations (UN) General Assembly in September 2015, calls for a new vision to
address the environmental, social and economic concerns facing the world today. The Agenda
includes 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), including SDG 4 on education.[47][48]
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Since 1909, the percentage of children in the developing world

attending school has increased. Before then, a small minority
of boys attended school. By the start of the twenty-first
century, the majority of children in most regions of the world
attended some form of school.[49] By 2016, over 91 percent of
children are enrolled in formal primary schooling.[49]
However, a learning crisis has emerged across the globe, due World map indicating Education
to the fact that a large proportion of students enrolled in Index (according to 2007/2008
school are not learning. A World Bank study found that "53 Human Development Report)
percent of children in low- and middle-income countries
cannot read and understand a simple story by the end of
primary school."[50] While schooling has increased rapidly over the last few decades, learning has
not followed suit.

Universal Primary Education was one of the eight international Millennium Development Goals,
towards which progress has been made in the past decade, though barriers still remain.[51]
Securing charitable funding from prospective donors is one particularly persistent problem.
Researchers at the Overseas Development Institute have indicated that the main obstacles to
funding for education include conflicting donor priorities, an immature aid architecture, and a lack
of evidence and advocacy for the issue.[51] Additionally, Transparency International has identified
corruption in the education sector as a major stumbling block to achieving Universal Primary
Education in Africa.[52] Furthermore, demand in the developing world for improved educational
access is not as high as foreigners have expected. Indigenous governments are reluctant to take on
the ongoing costs involved. There is also economic pressure from some parents, who prefer their
children to earn money in the short term rather than work towards the long-term benefits of
education.

A study conducted by the UNESCO International Institute for Educational Planning indicates that
stronger capacities in educational planning and management may have an important spill-over
effect on the system as a whole.[53] Sustainable capacity development requires complex
interventions at the institutional, organizational and individual levels that could be based on some
foundational principles:[53]

national leadership and ownership should be the touchstone of any intervention;

strategies must be context relevant and context specific;
plans should employ an integrated set of complementary interventions, though implementation
may need to proceed in steps;
partners should commit to a long-term investment in capacity development while working
towards some short-term achievements;
outside intervention should be conditional on an impact assessment of national capacities at
various levels;
a certain percentage of students should be removed for improvisation of academics (usually
practiced in schools, after 10th grade).

Internationalisation

Nearly every country now has universal primary education.

Similarities – in systems or even in ideas – that schools share internationally have led to an
increase in international student exchanges. The European Socrates-Erasmus Programme[54]
facilitates exchanges across European universities. The Soros Foundation[55] provides many
opportunities for students from central Asia and eastern Europe. Programs such as the

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International Baccalaureate have contributed to the internationalization of education. The global

campus online, led by American universities, allows free access to class materials and lecture files
recorded during the actual classes.

The Programme for International Student Assessment and the International Association for the
Evaluation of Educational Achievement objectively monitor and compare the proficiency of
students from a wide range of different nations.

The internationalization of education is sometimes equated by critics with the westernization of

education. These critics say that the internationalization of education leads to the erosion of local
education systems and indigenous values and norms, which are replaced with Western systems
and cultural and ideological values and orientation.[56]

Technology in developing countries

Technology plays an increasingly significant role in improving

access to education for people living in impoverished areas
and developing countries. However, lack of technological
advancement is still causing barriers with regards to quality
and access to education in developing countries.[57] Charities
like One Laptop per Child are dedicated to providing
infrastructures through which the disadvantaged may access
educational materials.

The OLPC foundation, a group out of MIT Media Lab and The OLPC laptop being introduced
to children in Haiti
supported by several major corporations, has a stated mission
to develop a $100 laptop for delivering educational software.
The laptops were widely available as of 2008. They are sold at
cost or given away based on donations.

In Africa, the New Partnership for Africa's Development (NEPAD) has launched an "e-school
program" to provide all 600,000 primary and high schools with computer equipment, learning
materials and internet access within 10 years.[58] An International Development Agency project
called nabuur.com,[59] started with the support of former American President Bill Clinton, uses the
Internet to allow co-operation by individuals on issues of social development.

India is developing technologies that will bypass land-based telephone and Internet infrastructure
to deliver distance learning directly to its students. In 2004, the Indian Space Research
Organisation launched EDUSAT, a communications satellite providing access to educational
materials that can reach more of the country's population at a greatly reduced cost.[60]

Funding in developing countries

A survey of literature of the research into low-cost private schools (LCPS) found that over 5-year
period to July 2013, debate around LCPSs to achieving Education for All (EFA) objectives was
polarized and finding growing coverage in international policy.[61] The polarization was due to
disputes around whether the schools are affordable for the poor, reach disadvantaged groups,
provide quality education, support or undermine equality, and are financially sustainable. The
report examined the main challenges encountered by development organizations which support
LCPSs.[61] Surveys suggest these types of schools are expanding across Africa and Asia. This
success is attributed to excess demand. These surveys found concern for:

Equity: This concern is widely found in the literature, suggesting the growth in low-cost private
schooling may be exacerbating or perpetuating already existing inequalities in developing
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countries, between urban and rural populations, lower- and higher-income families, and
between girls and boys. The report findings suggest that girls may be under represented and
that LCPS are reaching low-income families in smaller numbers than higher-income
families.[61]
Quality and educational outcomes: It is difficult to generalize about the quality of private
schools. While most achieve better results than government counterparts, even after their
social background is taken into account, some studies find the opposite. Quality in terms of
levels of teacher absence, teaching activity, and pupil to teacher ratios in some countries are
better in LCPSs than in government schools.[61]
Choice and affordability for the poor: Parents can choose private schools because of
perceptions of better-quality teaching and facilities, and an English language instruction
preference. Nevertheless, the concept of 'choice' does not apply in all contexts, or to all groups
in society, partly because of limited affordability (which excludes most of the poorest) and other
forms of exclusion, related to caste or social status.[61]
Cost-effectiveness and financial sustainability: There is evidence that private schools operate
at low cost by keeping teacher salaries low, and their financial situation may be precarious
where they are reliant on fees from low-income households.[61]

The report showed some cases of successful voucher where there was an oversupply of quality
private places and an efficient administrative authority and of subsidy programs. Evaluations of
the effectiveness of international support to the sector are rare.[61] Addressing regulatory
ineffectiveness is a key challenge. Emerging approaches stress the importance of understanding
the political economy of the market for LCPS, specifically how relationships of power and
accountability between users, government, and private providers can produce better education
outcomes for the poor.[61]

Theory

Psychology

Educational psychology is the study of how humans learn in

educational settings, the effectiveness of educational
interventions, the psychology of teaching, and the social
psychology of schools as organizations. The terms
"educational psychology" and "school psychology" are often
used interchangeably. Educational psychology is concerned
with the processes of educational attainment in the general
population and in sub-populations such as gifted children and
those with specific disabilities. A class size experiment in the
United States found that attending
Educational psychology can in part be understood through its
small classes for 3 or more years in
relationship with other disciplines. It is informed primarily by the early grades increased high
psychology, bearing a relationship to that discipline analogous school graduation rates of students
to the relationship between medicine and biology. Educational from low income families.[62]
psychology, in turn, informs a wide range of specialties within
educational studies, including instructional design,
educational technology, curriculum development, organizational learning, special education and
classroom management. Educational psychology both draws from and contributes to cognitive
science and the learning sciences. In universities, departments of educational psychology are
usually housed within faculties of education, possibly accounting for the lack of representation of
educational psychology content in introductory psychology textbooks (Lucas, Blazek, & Raley,
2006).

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Intelligence

Intelligence is an important factor in how the individual

responds to education. Those who have higher scores of
intelligence-metrics tend to perform better at school and go on
to higher levels of education.[63] This effect is also observable
in the opposite direction, in that education increases
measurable intelligence.[64] Studies have shown that while
educational attainment is important in predicting intelligence Knowledge Day in Donetsk,
in later life, intelligence at 53 is more closely correlated to Ukraine, 2013
intelligence at 8 years old than to educational attainment.[65]

Learning modalities

There has been much interest in learning modalities and styles over the last two decades. The most
commonly employed learning modalities are:[66]

Visual: learning based on observation and seeing what is being learned.

Auditory: learning based on listening to instructions/information.
Kinesthetic: learning based on movement, e.g. hands-on work and engaging in activities.

Other commonly employed modalities include musical, interpersonal, verbal, logical, and
intrapersonal.

Dunn and Dunn[67] focused on identifying relevant stimuli that may influence learning and
manipulating the school environment, at about the same time as Joseph Renzulli[68]
recommended varying teaching strategies. Howard Gardner[69] identified a wide range of
modalities in his Multiple Intelligences theories. The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator and Keirsey
Temperament Sorter, based on the works of Jung,[70] focus on understanding how people's
personality affects the way they interact personally, and how this affects the way individuals
respond to each other within the learning environment. The work of David Kolb and Anthony
Gregorc's Type Delineator[71] follows a similar but more simplified approach.

Some theories propose that all individuals benefit from a variety of learning modalities, while
others suggest that individuals may have preferred learning styles, learning more easily through
visual or kinesthetic experiences.[72] A consequence of the latter theory is that effective teaching
should present a variety of teaching methods which cover all three learning modalities so that
different students have equal opportunities to learn in a way that is effective for them.[73] Guy
Claxton has questioned the extent that learning styles such as Visual, Auditory and
Kinesthetic(VAK) are helpful, particularly as they can have a tendency to label children and
therefore restrict learning.[74][75] Recent research has argued, "there is no adequate evidence base
to justify incorporating learning styles assessments into general educational practice."[76]

Mind, brain, and education

Educational neuroscience is an emerging scientific field that brings together researchers in

cognitive neuroscience, developmental cognitive neuroscience, educational psychology,
educational technology, education theory and other related disciplines to explore the interactions
between biological processes and education.[77][78][79][80] Researchers in educational neuroscience
investigate the neural mechanisms of reading,[79] numerical cognition,[81] attention, and their

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attendant difficulties including dyslexia,[82][83] dyscalculia,[84] and ADHD as they relate to

education. Several academic institutions around the world are beginning to devote resources to the
establishment of educational neuroscience research.

Philosophy

As an academic field, philosophy of education is "the philosophical

study of education and its problems its central subject matter is
education, and its methods are those of philosophy".[85] "The
philosophy of education may be either the philosophy of the process
of education or the philosophy of the discipline of education. That is,
it may be part of the discipline in the sense of being concerned with
the aims, forms, methods, or results of the process of educating or
being educated; or it may be metadisciplinary in the sense of being
concerned with the concepts, aims, and methods of the
discipline."[86] As such, it is both part of the field of education and a
field of applied philosophy, drawing from fields of metaphysics,
epistemology, axiology and the philosophical approaches
(speculative, prescriptive or analytic) to address questions in and
about pedagogy, education policy, and curriculum, as well as the
process of learning, to name a few.[87] For example, it might study
what constitutes upbringing and education, the values and norms
revealed through upbringing and educational practices, the limits and
legitimization of education as an academic discipline, and the relation John Locke's work Some
between education theory and practice. Thoughts Concerning
Education was written in
1693 and still reflects
Purpose traditional education
priorities in the Western
There is no broad consensus as to what education's chief aim or aims world.
are or should be. Different places, and at different times, have used
educational systems for different purposes. The Prussian education
system in the 19th century, for example, wanted to turn boys and girls into adults who would serve
the state's political goals.[88][89]

Some authors stress its value to the individual, emphasizing its potential for positively influencing
students' personal development, promoting autonomy, forming a cultural identity or establishing a
career or occupation. Other authors emphasize education's contributions to societal purposes,
including good citizenship, shaping students into productive members of society, thereby
promoting society's general economic development, and preserving cultural values.[90]

The purpose of education in a given time and place affects who is taught, what is taught, and how
the education system behaves. For example, in the 21st century, many countries treat education as
a positional good.[91] In this competitive approach, people want their own students to get a better
education than other students.[91] This approach can lead to unfair treatment of some students,
especially those from disadvantaged or marginalized groups.[91] For example, in this system, a
city's school system may draw school district boundaries so that nearly all the students in one
school are from low-income families, and that nearly all the students in the neighboring schools
come from more affluent families, even though concentrating low-income students in one school
results in worse educational achievement for the entire school system.

Curriculum

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In formal education, a curriculum is the set of courses and their content offered at a school or
university. As an idea, curriculum stems from the Latin word for race course, referring to the
course of deeds and experiences through which children grow to become mature adults. A
curriculum is prescriptive and is based on a more general syllabus which merely specifies what
topics must be understood and to what level to achieve a particular grade or standard.

An academic discipline is a branch of knowledge which is formally taught, either at the university
– or via some other such method. Each discipline usually has several sub-disciplines or branches,
and distinguishing lines are often both arbitrary and ambiguous. Examples of broad areas of
academic disciplines include the natural sciences, mathematics, computer science, social sciences,
humanities and applied sciences.[92]

Instruction

Instruction is the facilitation of another's learning. Instructors in primary and secondary

institutions are often called teachers, and they direct the education of students and might draw on
many subjects like reading, writing, mathematics, science and history. Instructors in post-
secondary institutions might be called teachers, instructors, or professors, depending on the type
of institution; and they primarily teach only their specific discipline. Studiesfrom the United States
suggest that the quality of teachers is the single most important factor affecting student
performance, and that countries which score highly on international tests have multiple policies in
place to ensure that the teachers they employ are as effective as possible.[93][94] With the passing
of NCLB in the United States (No Child Left Behind), teachers must be highly qualified.

Economics
It has been argued that high rates of education are essential for countries to be able to achieve high
levels of economic growth.[95] Empirical analyses tend to support the theoretical prediction that
poor countries should grow faster than rich countries because they can adopt cutting-edge
technologies already tried and tested by rich countries. However, technology transfer requires
knowledgeable managers and engineers who are able to operate new machines or production
practices borrowed from the leader in order to close the gap through imitation. Therefore, a
country's ability to learn from the leader is a function of its stock of "human capital". Recent study
of the determinants of aggregate economic growth have stressed the importance of fundamental
economic institutions[96] and the role of cognitive skills.[97]

At the level of the individual, there is a large literature, generally related to the work of Jacob
Mincer,[98] on how earnings are related to the schooling and other human capital. This work has
motivated many studies, but is also controversial. The chief controversies revolve around how to
interpret the impact of schooling.[99][100] Some students who have indicated a high potential for
learning, by testing with a high intelligence quotient, may not achieve their full academic potential,
due to financial difficulties.[101]

Economists Samuel Bowles and Herbert Gintis argued in 1976 that there was a fundamental
conflict in American schooling between the egalitarian goal of democratic participation and the
inequalities implied by the continued profitability of capitalist production.[102]

Development
The world is changing at an ever quickening rate, which means that a lot of knowledge becomes
obsolete and inaccurate more quickly. The emphasis is therefore shifting to teaching the skills of
learning: to picking up new knowledge quickly and in as agile a way as possible. Finnish schools

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have begun to move away from the regular subject-focused

curricula, introducing instead developments like
phenomenon-based learning, where students study concepts
like climate change instead.[103] There are also active
educational interventions to implement programs and paths
specific to non-traditional students, such as first generation
students.

Education is also becoming a commodity no longer reserved

for children; adults need it too.[104] Some governmental
Computer-supported group learning
bodies, like the Finnish Innovation Fund Sitra in Finland,
have proposed compulsory lifelong education.[105]

Studies found that automation is likely to eliminate nearly half the jobs in developed countries
during roughly the next two decades.[106][107][108][109] Automation is therefore considered to be a
major factor in a "race between education and technology".[110] Automation technologies and their
application may render certain currently taught skills and knowledge redundant while increasing
the need for other curricula – such as material related to the application of automation. It has been
argued that formal education is "teaching workers the wrong things, and that deep reform is
essential to facilitate the development of digital knowledge and technical skills, as well as
nonroutine cognitive and noncognitive (or "soft") skills"[111] and that the formal state-organized
education system – which is built on the Industrial Revolution model and focuses on IQ and
memorization is losing relevance.[112][113] Furthermore, it has been argued that with contemporary
education policy creativity is restricted, inquiry-based learning is not facilitated,[113] education is
not meeting the needs of knowledge economies and is largely not personalized to the students.[114]
Schools were found rarely teach in forms of "learning by doing", and many children above a certain
age "hate school" in terms of the material and subjects being taught, with much of it being a "waste
of time" that gets forgotten quickly and is useless in modern society.[115][113] Moreover, the
material currently being taught may not be taught in a highly time-efficient manner and analyzing
educational issues over time and using relevant forms of student feedback in efficiency analysis
were found to be important.[116] Some research investigates how education can facilitate students'
interest in topics – and jobs – that scientific research, data, economic players, financial markets,
and other economic mechanisms consider important to contemporary and future human
civilization and states.[117][118][119]

Research and data indicate future environmental conditions will be "far more dangerous than
currently believed", with a review concluding that the current challenges that humanity faces are
enormous.[120][121][122] The effective resolval of such challenges may require novel lesson plans
tailored towards skills and knowledge found to be both required and reasonable to be taught at the
respective age with the respective methodology despite novel technological computation and
information retrieval technologies such as smartphones, mathematical software and the World
Wide Web. Environmental education is not widely taught extensively or facilitated while being
potentially important to the protection and generation of – often unquantified – economic value
such as clean air that agents of the economy can breathe.[123] Education is often considered to be a
national investment which may not always optimize for cost-efficiency while optimizing only in
terms of contemporary economic value metrics or evaluations such as of finance and GDP without
consideration of economic values or priorizations beyond these tools such as minimized marine
pollution and maximized climate change mitigation. Researchers found that there is a growing
disconnect between humans and nature and that schools "are not properly preparing students to
become the scientists of tomorrow".[124] They also find that critical thought, social responsibility,
health and safety are often neglected.[124] According to UNESCO, "for a country to meet the basic
needs of its people, the teaching of science is a strategic imperative".[125]

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One example of a skill not commonly taught in formal education systems around the world but
increasingly critical to both the individuals' lives and modern society at large is digital media
literacy – the ability to access, analyze, evaluate, create, and act using all forms of modern
ICTs,[126] with scientists calling for inclusion of it in curricula as well as for adult
education.[127][128][129][130][131]

Studies have shown that active learning rarely applied in schools is highly
efficacious.[132][133][134][135] Studies found that massive open online courses offer a pathway to
employment that currently bypasses conventional universities and their degree programs while
often being more relevant to contemporary economic activities and the students' interests.[136]
Such online courses are not commonly part of formal education but are typically both completed
and selected entirely on behalf of the student, sometimes with the support of peers over online
forums. In contrast, blended learning merges online education with forms of face‐to‐face
communication and traditional class-based education in classrooms, revealing itself to have the
general capacity for increasingly relevant, resource-efficient and effective approaches to
education.[137][138][139][140][141] Deploying, using, and managing various tools or platforms for
education typically imply an increase in economic investment.[142] Expenses for education are
often large with many calling for further increases. Potential policies for the development of
international open source educational software using latest technologies may minimize costs,
hardware requirements, problem-resolval efforts and deployment-times while increasing
robustness, security and functional features of the software.[143][144][145]

COVID-19 pandemic

Beginning in early 2020, the COVID-19 pandemic disrupted education systems throughout the
world, affecting nearly 1.6 billion learners in more than 190 countries. Closures of schools and
other learning spaces have impacted 94 percent of the world's student population, up to 99 percent
in low and lower-middle income countries.[146] Many schools made alternative plans during the
pandemic, leading to a variety of in-person, hybrid, and online-only plans, which led to challenges
for many students, teachers, and families including children with learning disabilities and those
learning in a language that is not their native one.[147] As of September 30, 2020 there were 27
countries that had localized school closures. In the United States, an estimated 55.1 million
students were forced to cease in-person instruction as of April 10, 2020. A switch to a virtual
learning experience is particularly challenging for families that cannot afford the proper
technology, such as laptops, printers, or a reliable Internet connection. When schools close,
parents are often asked to facilitate the learning of children at home and can struggle to perform
this task. This is especially true for parents with limited education and resources. Students who
require special education found it difficult to progress through the curriculum without tools and
support that they require.[148] Polling suggests that schools that serve a majority of students of
color are far less likely to have access to the technology needed for remote learning.[147] Only 66%
of Black households in the U.S. had home broadband service in 2019. Only 45% of Black
Americans owned a desktop or laptop computer in 2015. Without access to the internet or a
computer, Black parents are at a disadvantage in educating their children.[149] The mental health
of students has been greatly impacted due to the pandemic. It is estimated that three in ten
participating in school at home have had their emotional and mental health negatively impacted.
Similarly, the social lives of students have also been upended and this has been detrimental to the
health of students worldwide which has also negatively impacted educational quality. This will be
an issue for years to come. COVID-19 has shone a light on opportunity gaps and it will be up to
educators and policymakers to direct the necessary resources to mitigating them in the coming
years.[147]

See also
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Education for Justice Mixed-sex education – System of education

Alternative education – Term referring to where males and females are educated
forms of non-mainstream educational together
approaches Outline of education – Overview of and
Bildung topical guide to education
Co-teaching Pedagogy – Theory and practice of
Comprehensive sexuality education – Sex education
education instruction method Progressive education
Education for Sustainable Development Right to education
Educational technology – Use of technology Sociology of education – Study of how
in education to improve learning and public institutions and individual experiences
teaching affect education and its outcomes
Glossary of education terms – Wikimedia list Student – Learner, or someone who attends
of lists an educational institution
Human rights education School – Institution for the education of
Index of education articles – Wikipedia students by teachers
index School uniform – Standardized outfit worn
List of education articles by country – by students of an educational institution
Wikipedia list article Unschooling – Educational method and
philosophy; form of homeschooling
Education in Islam – Islam and education

Notes
a. Article 13 of the United Nations' 1966 International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural
Rights recognizes a universal right to education. ICESCR, Article 13.1.
b. King's School Canterbury has been in continuous existence from 597 AD

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Attribution

 This article incorporates text from a free content work. Licensed under CC BY-SA IGO 3.0
License statement/permission on Wikimedia Commons (http://www.unesco.org/ulis/cgi-bin/ulis.
pl?catno=244756&set=0058EDE0FB_3_252&gp=1&lin=1&ll=1). Text taken from Out in the
Open: Education sector responses to violence based on sexual orientation and gender
identity/expression (http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0024/002447/244756e.pdf), 54,
UNESCO.
 This article incorporates text from a free content work. License statement/permission on
Wikimedia Commons (http://www.unesco.org/ulis/cgi-bin/ulis.pl?catno=253479&set=0059F0B7
A6_3_454&gp=1&lin=1&ll=1). Text taken from Cracking the code: girls' and women's education
in science, technology, engineering and mathematics (STEM) (http://unesdoc.unesco.org/imag
es/0025/002534/253479e.pdf), UNESCO.

External links
Media related to Education at Wikimedia Commons

Education (https://curlie.org/Reference/Education/) at Curlie

UNESCO Institute for Statistics: International comparable statistics on education systems (htt
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n)
World Bank Education (http://www.worldbank.org/en/topic/education)
Systems Approach for Better Education Results (SABER) (http://saber.worldbank.org/index.cf
m)
Education Statistics (EdStats) (http://datatopics.worldbank.org/education/)
OECD Education GPS: Statistics and policy analysis, interactive portal (http://gpseducation.oe
cd.org/)
OECD Statistics (http://stats.oecd.org/Index.aspx?DatasetCode=RGRADSTY)
IIEP Publications on Education Systems (http://www.iiep.unesco.org/information-services/publi
cations/search-iiep-publications.html)
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