Republic of the Philippine
Region V (Bicol)
Bicol University Graduate School
Legazpi, City
Name: Ma. Contessa O. Guanzon
Subject: Theories of Reading
Topic: Theories of Language Acquisition
Professor:Merriam P. Maldo
THEORIES OF LANGUAGE ACQUISITION
Introductory Concept
Language learning starts at birth. However, we wonder how children could possibly
acquire language as such a complex skill with very little experience of life. So how do
children learn to speak? This topic will examine principles, factors, and contexts of
language acquisition and learning based on theories and research findings.
What is language?
Language is the process of exchanging of messages and creating meaning.
Language is part of culture.
Language is also intertwined with human biology.
What is Language Acquisition?
Language acquisition is a natural process and involves ‘picking up’ language in a non-conscious
way through exposure to language, not by studying it.
Language Acquisition is the process by which are able to develop and learn a language. This
generally includes, speaking, listening, writing and overall communication. The term language
acquisition often refers to the first-language acquisition, which simply means that it’s the first
language learned as an infant. However, there is also the term second-language acquisition,
which refers to the process in both children and adults when they learn additional languages
apart from their native one. Each of these terms has at least one language acquisition
theory behind them which seeks to answer the big question of “how do we learn a language?”
So, the following theories will help us deeply understand how well we learn a language:
Name of Theory: BEHAVIORIST THEORY
Central Idea: Children imitate adults. Their correct utterances are
reinforced when they get what they want or are praised
Proponent: Burrhus Frederich Skinner
Background Information About the Proponent
BURRHUS FREDERICH SKINNER (March 20,
1904 – August 18, 1990)
Born March 20, 1904
Susquehanna, Pennsylvania, U.S.
Died August 18, 1990 (aged 86)
Cambridge, Massachusetts, U.S.
Nationality American
Alma mate Hamilton College Harvard University
r
Known for Operant conditioning Behavior analysis
Radical behaviorism Verbal Behavior
Spouse Yvonne (Eve) Blue
Influences Charles Darwin Edward Thorndike
Ivan Pavlov William James
Ernst Mach Jean-Jacques
Rousseau
Jacques Loeb Henry David Thoreau
Criticism Noam Chomsky
He was an Psychodynamic Psychology
American psychologist, behaviorist, J.E.R Staddon
author, inventor, and social
philosopher. He was a professor of psychology at Harvard University from 1958 until his
retirement in 1974.
Considering free will to be an illusion, Skinner saw human action as dependent on
consequences of previous actions, a theory he would articulate as the principle of reinforcement:
If the consequences to an action are bad, there is a high chance the action will not be repeated; if
the consequences are good, the probability of the action being repeated becomes stronger.
Content Information
BEHAVIOURISM
One of the earliest scientific explanations of language acquisition was provided by B.F
Skinner. As one of the pioneers of behaviorism, he accounted for language development by
means of environmental influence. Skinner argued that children learn language, based on
behaviorist reinforcement principles by associating words with meanings. Correct utterances are
positive reinforced when a child realizes the communicative value of words and phrases.
The behaviorist psychologist developed their theories while carrying out a series of
experiments on animals. They observed that rats or birds, for example, could be taught to
perform various tasks by encouraging habit-forming. Researchers rewarded desirable behavior.
This was known as positive reinforcement. Undesirable behavior was punished or simply not
rewarded – negative reinforcement.
The behaviorist psychologist then B.F Skinner proposed this theory as an explanation for
Language Acquisition in humans. He suggested that a child imitates the language of its parents
or guardians. Successful attempts are rewarded because an adult who recognizes a word spoken
by a child will praise the child and or give it what it is asking for. Successful utterances are
therefore reinforced while unsuccessful ones are forgotten
Limitations of Behaviourism
While there must be some truth in Skinner's explanation, there are many objections to it.
1. Language is based on a set of structures or rules, which could not be worked out simply
by imitating individual utterances. The mistakes made by children reveal that they are not
simply imitating but actively working out and applying rules. For example, a child who
says "drinked" instead of "drank" is not copying an adult but rather over-applying a rule.
The child has discovered that past tense verbs are formed by adding a /d/ or /t/ sound to
the base form. The "mistakes" occur because there are irregular verbs which do not
behave in this way. Such forms are often referred to as intelligent mistakes or virtuous
errors.
2. The vast majority of children go through the same stages of language acquisition. There
appears to be a definite sequence of steps. We refer to developmental milestones.
3. Children are often unable to repeat what an adult says, especially if the adult
utterance contains a structure the child has not yet started to use.
4. Few children receive much explicit grammatical correction. Parents are more
interested in politeness and truthfulness. According to Brown, Cazden and Bellugi
(1969): "It seems to be truth value rather than well-formed syntax that chiefly governs
explicit verbal reinforcement by parents - which renders mildly paradoxical the fact that
the usual product of such a training schedule is an adult whose speech is highly
grammatical but not notably truthful." (cited in Lowe and Graham, 1998)
5. There is evidence for a critical period for language acquisition. Children who have not
acquired language by the age of about seven will never entirely catch up. The most
famous example is that of Genie, discovered in 1970 at the age of 13. She had been
severely neglected, brought up in isolation and deprived of normal human contact. Of
course, she was disturbed and underdeveloped in many ways. During subsequent
attempts at rehabilitation, her guardian tried to teach her to speak. Despite some success,
mainly in learning vocabulary, she never became a fluent speaker, failing to acquire the
grammatical competence of the average five-year-old.
BEHAVIORISM IN THE CLASSROOM
Behaviorist techniques
have long been applied in
educational practices, especially
in classroom and behavior
management. The learning
process, according to
Behaviorism, places the teacher
in a primary role wherein he or
she adjusts the learner's behavior and directs learning through drill and practice, through habit-
breaking, and punishment/reward.
Name of Theory: INPUT OR INTERACTION THEORY
Central Idea: This theory emphasizes the interaction between children and
their care-givers.
Proponent: Jerome Bruner
Background Information about the Proponent
Born Jerome Seymour Bruner
October 1, 1915
New York City, New York, U.S.
Jerome Seymour Bruner (October 1, Died June 5, 2016 (aged 100)
1915 – June 5, 2016) Manhattan, New York City, New
York, U.S.
Nationality American
Alma mater Duke University
Harvard University
Known for Contributions to cognitive
psychology and educational
psychology
Coining the term "scaffolding"
Fields Psychology
Criticisms of Susan Carey
Bruner’s David Ausubel
Theory
Supporters Lev Vygotsky
Bruner was born blind (due to cataracts) on
October 1, 1915, in New York City, to Herman and Rose Bruner, who were Polish Jewish immigrants. An
operation at age 2 restored his vision. He received a bachelor's of arts degree in Psychology, in 1937 from
Duke University, and went on to earn a master's degree in Psychology in 1939 and then a doctorate in
Psychology in 1941 from Harvard University. In 1939, Bruner published his first psychological article on the
effect of thymus extract on the sexual behavior of the female rat During World War II, Bruner served on
the Psychological Warfare Division of the Supreme Headquarters Allied Expeditionary Force committee under
General Dwight D. Eisenhower, researching social psychological phenomena.
He was an American psychologist who made significant contributions to human cognitive
psychology and cognitive learning theory in educational psychology. Bruner was a senior research fellow at
the New York University School of Law. He received a B.A. in 1937 from Duke University and
a Ph.D. from Harvard University in 1941. He taught and did research at Harvard University, the University of
Oxford, and New York University. A Review of General Psychology survey, published in 2002, ranked Bruner
as the 28th most cited psychologist of the 20th century
Content Information
INTERACTIONISM
In contrast to the work of Chomsky, more recent theorists have stressed the importance
of the language input children receive from their care-givers. Language exists for the purpose of
communication and can only be learned in the context of interaction with people who want to
communicate with you. Interactionists such as Jerome Bruner suggest that the language behavior
of adults when talking to children is specially adapted to support the acquisition process. This
support is often described to as scaffolding for the child's language learning.
Bruner was one of the main social interaction theorists, who claimed that the interactions
that take place between a developing child and linguistically knowledgeable adults are crucial in
shaping language acquisition. (Emmit et al. 2015) Furthermore, he identified the importance of
providing the language learner with enough support during the initial stages of learning, through
a process he termed scaffolding. This process ensures that children receive enough support in the
initial stages of learning language, and is removed once the child is ready. (Jerome Bruner:
Scaffolding and Constructivism Theories.
Lev Vygotsky was another theorist who provided important insights into the social
interaction model. He focused on the co-construction of knowledge between children and adults.
In this case, children seek to understand the behaviours provided by an adult and internalise this
information, using it to guide their own future actions (McLeod, 2014). Thus the connections
between people and the sociocultural context in which they interact in shared experiences
becomes important.
In addition, Vygotsky believed that language acquisition occurs from "guided learning
within the Zone of Proximal Development." (McLeod, 2014) That is, the difference between
what a child has already mastered and what they can achieve when provided with educational
support from their teacher can be is important to recognise when promoting learning.
Language Acquisition at an Early Age
From birth, children are surrounded by others who talk to them or with them. This
communication plays a part in how the baby learns to speak his or her native language. Some
argue that "nature" is entirely responsible for how a baby learns a language, while others argue
that "nurture" is responsible for how a baby picks up his or her mother tongue. Social
interactionists argue that the way a baby learns a language is both biological and social.
Everyone loves to coo at babies, and this "baby talk" is exposing the child to language,
whether we realize it or not. Interactionists believe that children are born with brains that
predispose them to the ability to pick up languages as well as with a desire to communicate.
Some Interactionists even argue that babies and children cue their parents and other adults into
giving them the linguistic exposure they need to learn a language. The Interactionist Theory
posits that children can only learn language from someone who wants to communicate with
them.
Limitations of Input/Interactionist theories
These theories serve as a useful corrective to Chomsky's early position and it seems
likely that a child will learn more quickly with frequent interaction. However, it has already been
noted that children in all cultures pass through the same stages in acquiring language. We have
also seen that there are cultures in which adults do not adopt special ways of talking to children,
so CDS may be useful but seems not to be essential.
Name of Theory: Theory of Second Language Acquisition
Central Idea: There is no fundamental difference between the way we acquire
our first language and our subsequent languages. He claims that
humans have an innate ability that guides the language learning
process. Infants learn their mother tongue simply by listening
attentively to spoken language that is (made) meaningful to them.
Foreign languages are acquired in the same way.
Proponent: Stephen Krashen
Background Information about the Proponent
Born May 14, 1941 (age 80)
Chicago, Illinois, U.S.
Academic background
Alma mater University of California, Los Angeles
Academic work
Discipline Linguist
Institutions University of Southern California
Main interests Second-language acquisition
Stephen Krashen is an expert in the field of
linguistics, specializing in theories of language
acquisition and development. Much of his recent
research has involved the study of non-English and
bilingual language acquisition. Since 1980, he has
published well over 100 books and articles and has
been invited to deliver over 300 lectures at
universities throughout the United States and
Canada.
Content Information
THEORY OF SECOND LANGUAGE
Krashen believes that there is no fundamental difference between the way we acquire our
first language and our subsequent languages. He claims that humans have an innate ability that
guides the language learning process. Infants learn their mother tongue simply by listening
attentively to spoken language that is (made) meaningful to them. Foreign languages are
acquired in the same way.
Krashen synthesizes his theories of second/foreign language learning in what is usually
referred to as the Monitor Model. The Monitor Model has 5 components:
1. The Acquisition-Learning Hypothesis
There are two ways of developing language ability: by acquisition and by learning.
Acquisition is a sub-conscious process, as in the case of a child learning its own language or an
adult 'picking up' a second language simply by living and working in a foreign country. Learning
is the conscious process of developing a foreign language through language lessons and a focus
on the grammatical features of that language.
Criticism
This hypothesis has been criticized for failing to provide sufficient evidence and for the fact
that language has been mastered in formal setups as well, where students do not interact with
people and yet speak the second language in a natural setting.
2. Monitor Hypothesis
Krashen believes that every second language learner has a monitor that he uses to refine his
language. A learner will use his learned system as a monitor to polish, edit, and correct what has
been learned through his acquired system. A monitor can be used more easily in written than in
oral form.
This is because while talking, there is more focus on what is being said rather on how it is
being said. Also, there is normally very little time to recollect what rules one has learned about
the language. Second language learners can either over-use, under-use or optimally use their
monitors.
Criticism
The criticism here is that there is no concrete knowledge of how the monitor works and if it
actually works at all. There is also a debate as to why a monitor should only exist in a learned
system.
3. Natural Order Hypothesis
This hypothesis states that individuals tend to acquire grammatical structures of a second
language following a natural order that is predictable. This means that they are more likely to
acquire certain grammatical structures before others. The acquiring patterns are different for the
first and the second language. But the acquiring patterns for a second language are the same for
both a child and an adult.
Criticism
The hypothesis is criticized for being based solely on observations of how a second language
that is used in a surrounding environment is acquired by people. The second criticism is that it
makes the process of cognitive learning seem very simple by drawing a clear distinction between
acquiring and learning.
4. Input Hypothesis
This hypothesis explains how a language is actually acquired. When a person, is exposed to
comprehensible content/input by reading or listening to language structures that exceeds his
current stage of language competence, he acquires the language. Krashen uses the formula i+1 to
show that input should consist of language structures from the next stage.
Krashen believes that, learning progresses and takes place in a natural order and not all
individuals will have the same level of competence. Hence, the natural communicative input
should be used to meet individual needs. The input should not consist of grammar structures that
have been used on purpose and should be natural. Finally, the learner should not be forced to
speak. Speech will occur when he is ready.
Criticism
In this hypothesis, comprehensible input cannot be clearly defined. The other criticism is
that the language level of a learner or a level higher than their existing level cannot be
determined.
5. Affective-filter Hypothesis
According to this hypothesis, the emotions of an individual act as filters that help or obstruct the
acquisition of language. A highly motivated and confident person with low anxiety levels will be
more successful than someone with low motivation, confidence and high anxiety levels in
acquiring a language. Lower levels of motivation and confidence will hinder the process of
subconscious language acquisition.
Criticism
The criticism is that this filter is said to be present only in adults and not in children and
there is no concrete explanation of how such filters work.
The practical implications of Krashen's ideas for the classroom
From Krashen's theories, and having looked at the advantages that children have over
adults when it comes to learning languages, we can draw certain conclusions about what
conditions make for a successful learning environment. First, class time should be taken up with
as much comprehensible input as possible. Second, classes should be stress-free environments
where students are encouraged to relax and acquire the language by having fun with it.
One particularly important implication of Krashen’s findings is that students, particularly
at lower levels, should have lower demands made on them to speak, and materials and teacher
talking time should be modified for each student's level. Furthermore, grammar instruction
should be done on a need-to-know basis, and only with older learners. Last, but perhaps most
important, lessons should not be based on grammar points, but rather on the exchange of
meaning
The Role of Grammar in Krashen's View
According to Krashen, the study of the structure of the language can have general
educational advantages and values that high schools and colleges may want to include in their
language programs. Any benefit, however, will greatly depend on the learner being already
familiar with the language. It should also be clear that analizing the language, formulating rules,
setting irregularities apart, and teaching complex facts about the target language is not language
teaching, but rather is "language appreciation" or linguistics, which does not lead to
communicative proficiency.
The only instance in which the teaching of grammar can result in language acquisition
(and proficiency) is when the students are interested in the subject and the target language is
used as a medium of instruction. Very often, when this occurs, both teachers and students are
convinced that the study of formal grammar is essential for second language acquisition, and the
teacher is skillful enough to present explanations in the target language so that the students
understand. In other words, the teacher talk meets the requirements for comprehensible input and
perhaps, with the students' participation, the classroom becomes an environment suitable for
acquisition. Also, the filter is low in regard to the language of explanation, as the students'
conscious efforts are usually on the subject matter, on what is being talked about, and not the
medium.
Name of Theory: Second Language Acquisition Theory by Jim Cummins
Central Idea: Cummins believed that if a learner has already learned a language,
namely their native tongue, then they are readily eqquipe to learn a
second.
Proponent: Jim Cummins
Background Information about the Proponent
Content Information
Jim Cummins’s language acquisition theories have directly influenced classroom
instruction. Cummins distinguishes between two types of language, Basic Interpersonal
Communications skills (BICS) and Cognitive Academic Language Proficiency (CALP) have
directly influenced classroom instruction. This distinction had led teachers to a better
understanding of language ability and expectations. Research has shown that the average student
can develop conversational fluency within two to five years.
Basic Interpersonal Communication Skills (BICS)
This aspect supports and encourages natural communication in social situations. This
form of the language is practiced outside of the classroom, be it inside or outside of school. It can
take place at recess, the lunch room, during sports and other extra-curricular activities, and any
other social events in the personal lives of learners. Communicative interaction is conducted in a
social context, and it’s often more familiar and less nuanced than academic communication.
According to Cummins, these skills are in full bloom between six months and two years after
coming to a new country. The biggest concern with BICS lies within the falsehood that a learner
has become proficient in the language when they are able to demonstrate a good grasp of social
language. This is not the case.
Cognitive Academic Language Proficiency (CALP)
This aspect puts a greater focus on the learner’s ability to demonstrate proficiency in the
academic sense. CALP refers to the learner’s ability to read, write, and communicate on a level
effective enough to exceed in their academic pursuits. But the important thing to keep in mind is
that it goes beyond those basic attributes of the language, extending to how they use it to make
decisions, comprehend learning, compare, contrast, evaluate, and classify their lessons in the
classroom. Social interaction skills are insufficient to prove that a learner is academically
proficient in the language as well.
Common Underlying Proficiency
Cummins believed that if a learner has already learned a language, namely their native
tongue, then they are readily equipped to learn a second. This previous knowledge serves to
support their understanding of basic skills and concepts related to language and, thus, a second
language should theoretically come easier to them, as would a third or even fourth come even
easier as they progress. This common underlying proficiency gives every learner the ability to
learn new languages!
Cummins’s language acquisition theories break language down into categories that are
very critical for teachers to understand. His theories can be summarized as:
1. Second language learners become proficient in Basic Interpersonal Communication
years before becoming proficient in Cognitive Academic Language.
2. The ease of understanding language depends on the context in which it is used.
Context-embedded Communication is easier to understand than Context-reduced
Communication.
3. The ease of understanding language also depends on whether the language is
cognitively demanding or undemanding.
Why Reading is Important in Language Acquisition?
Reading offers a wide range of vocabulary and grammar, it essentially supports and feeds
the brain with the correct language structure.
As learning is facilitated with learning cues, reading helps the brain to remember these
language structures as the learner will connect an image to the world it represents.
Reading improves and develops your communication skills, it helps you learn how to use
the language creatively.
Reading is important because it is an active skill which involves referencing, guessing,
predicting, and etc.
Reading Approach Brief History
1. Reading approach or reading method was first devise for English Learners in India and French
or German learners in the United States of America.
2. It has been advocated in England for pupils of inferior language-learning ability.
3. Reading approach is like GMT (Grammar, Translation, Melody), only grammar necessary for
reading comprehension and fluency is taught.
References:
1. Cooter, R. B & Reutzel, D. R (2004). Teaching children to read: Putting the pieces
together. Upper Sadle River, NJ: Pearson Education, Inc.
2. Gillet, Jew., & Temple, C. , Crawford, A.N (2004). Understanding reading problems:
Assessment and Instructions. Boston, MA : Allyn & Bacon.
3. Krashen, Stephen D. Second Language Learning. Prentice-Hall International, 1998.
4. Lemetyinen, H. (2012, October 24). Language Acquisition Simply Psychology.
https://www.simplypsychology.org/
5. Cummins, J. (2000) Language, Power and Pegagogy. Clevedon : Multimlingual Matters
6. Cummins, J.: 1979, ‘Cognitive/academic language proficiency, linguistic
interdependence, the optimum age question and some other matters’, Working Papers
on Bilingualism 19, 121–129.
7. Bloom, L.M. (1974). "Imitations in Language Development: If, When, and Why",
“Cognitive Psychology”, pp. 380-420.
8. Brooks, Nelson (1960). “Language and Language Learning”. New York: Harcourt, Brace
and World.
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Retrieved 19 Aug. 2016
from https://www.boundless.com/psychology/textbooks/boundless-psychology-
textbook/language-10/human-language-408/human-language-development-235-12770/
10. Bloom, P. (2000). How Children Learn the Meanings of Words. Cambridge, MA: MIT
press.
Prepared by:
MA. CONTESSA O. GUANZON