Radiator (engine cooling)
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For other uses, see Radiator (disambiguation).
A typical engine coolant radiator used in an automobile
Radiators are heat exchangers used for cooling internal combustion engines,
mainly in automobiles but also in piston-engined aircraft, railway
locomotives, motorcycles, stationary generating plant or any similar use of such
an engine.
Internal combustion engines are often cooled by circulating a liquid
called engine coolant through the engine block, where it is heated, then through
a radiator where it loses heat to the atmosphere, and then returned to the
engine. Engine coolant is usually water-based, but may also be oil. It is
common to employ a water pump to force the engine coolant to circulate, and
also for an axial fan to force air through the radiator.
Contents
• 1Automobiles and motorcycles
o 1.1Radiator construction
o 1.2Coolant pump
o 1.3Heater
o 1.4Temperature control
▪ 1.4.1Waterflow control
▪ 1.4.2Airflow control
o 1.5Coolant pressure
o 1.6Engine coolant
o 1.7Boiling or overheating
o 1.8History
o 1.9Supplementary radiators
• 2Aircraft
o 2.1Surface radiators
o 2.2Pressurized cooling systems
o 2.3Evaporative cooling
o 2.4Radiator thrust
• 3Stationary plant
• 4See also
• 5References
o 5.1Sources
• 6External links
Automobiles and motorcycles[edit]
Coolant being poured into the radiator of an automobile
In automobiles and motorcycles with a liquid-cooled internal combustion engine,
a radiator is connected to channels running through the engine and cylinder
head, through which a liquid (coolant) is pumped. This liquid may be water (in
climates where water is unlikely to freeze), but is more commonly a mixture of
water and antifreeze in proportions appropriate to the climate. Antifreeze itself is
usually ethylene glycol or propylene glycol (with a small amount of corrosion
inhibitor).
A typical automotive cooling system comprises:
• a series of galleries cast into the engine block and cylinder head,
surrounding the combustion chambers with circulating liquid to carry away
heat;
• a radiator, consisting of many small tubes equipped with a honeycomb of
fins to dissipate heat rapidly, that receives and cools hot liquid from the
engine;
• a water pump, usually of the centrifugal type, to circulate the coolant
through the system;
• a thermostat to control temperature by varying the amount of coolant going
to the radiator;
• a fan to draw cool air through the radiator.
The radiator transfers the heat from the fluid inside to the air outside, thereby
cooling the fluid, which in turn cools the engine. Radiators are also often used to
cool automatic transmission fluids, air conditioner refrigerant, intake air, and
sometimes to cool motor oil or power steering fluid. Radiators are typically
mounted in a position where they receive airflow from the forward movement of
the vehicle, such as behind a front grill. Where engines are mid- or rear-
mounted, it is common to mount the radiator behind a front grill to achieve
sufficient airflow, even though this requires long coolant pipes. Alternatively, the
radiator may draw air from the flow over the top of the vehicle or from a side-
mounted grill. For long vehicles, such as buses, side airflow is most common for
engine and transmission cooling and top airflow most common for air
conditioner cooling.
Radiator construction[edit]
Automobile radiators are constructed of a pair of metal or plastic header tanks,
linked by a core with many narrow passageways, giving a high surface area
relative to volume. This core is usually made of stacked layers of metal sheet,
pressed to form channels and soldered or brazed together. For many years
radiators were made from brass or copper cores soldered to brass headers.
Modern radiators have aluminum cores, and often save money and weight by
using plastic headers with gaskets. This construction is more prone to failure
and less easily repaired than traditional materials.
Honeycomb radiator tubes
An earlier construction method was the honeycomb radiator. Round tubes were
swaged into hexagons at their ends, then stacked together and soldered. As
they only touched at their ends, this formed what became in effect a solid water
tank with many air tubes through it.[1]
Some vintage cars use radiator cores made from coiled tube, a less efficient but
simpler construction.
Coolant pump[edit]
Thermosyphon cooling system of 1937, without circulating pump
Radiators first used downward vertical flow, driven solely by
a thermosyphon effect. Coolant is heated in the engine, becomes less dense,
and so rises. As the radiator cools the fluid, the coolant becomes denser and
falls. This effect is sufficient for low-power stationary engines, but inadequate
for all but the earliest automobiles. All automobiles for many years have
used centrifugal pumps to circulate the engine coolant because natural
circulation has very low flow rates.
Heater[edit]
A system of valves or baffles, or both, is usually incorporated to simultaneously
operate a small radiator inside the vehicle. This small radiator, and the
associated blower fan, is called the heater core, and serves to warm the cabin
interior. Like the radiator, the heater core acts by removing heat from the
engine. For this reason, automotive technicians often advise operators to
turn on the heater and set it to high if the engine is overheating, to assist the
main radiator.
Temperature control[edit]
Waterflow control[edit]
Car engine thermostat
The engine temperature on modern cars is primarily controlled by a wax-
pellet type of thermostat, a valve which opens once the engine has reached its
optimum operating temperature.
When the engine is cold, the thermostat is closed except for a small bypass flow
so that the thermostat experiences changes to the coolant temperature as the
engine warms up. Engine coolant is directed by the thermostat to the inlet of the
circulating pump and is returned directly to the engine, bypassing the radiator.
Directing water to circulate only through the engine allows the engine to reach
optimum operating temperature as quickly as possible whilst avoiding localised
"hot spots." Once the coolant reaches the thermostat's activation temperature, it
opens, allowing water to flow through the radiator to prevent the temperature
rising higher.
Once at optimum temperature, the thermostat controls the flow of engine
coolant to the radiator so that the engine continues to operate at optimum
temperature. Under peak load conditions, such as driving slowly up a steep hill
whilst heavily laden on a hot day, the thermostat will be approaching fully open
because the engine will be producing near to maximum power while the velocity
of air flow across the radiator is low. (The velocity of air flow across the radiator
has a major effect on its ability to dissipate heat.) Conversely, when cruising
fast downhill on a motorway on a cold night on a light throttle, the thermostat will
be nearly closed because the engine is producing little power, and the radiator
is able to dissipate much more heat than the engine is producing. Allowing too
much flow of coolant to the radiator would result in the engine being over cooled
and operating at lower than optimum temperature, resulting in decreased fuel
efficiency and increased exhaust emissions. Furthermore, engine durability,
reliability, and longevity are sometimes compromised, if any components (such
as the crankshaft bearings) are engineered to take thermal expansion into
account to fit together with the correct clearances. Another side effect of over-
cooling is reduced performance of the cabin heater, though in typical cases it
still blows air at a considerably higher temperature than ambient.
The thermostat is therefore constantly moving throughout its range, responding
to changes in vehicle operating load, speed and external temperature, to keep
the engine at its optimum operating temperature.
On vintage cars you may find a bellows type thermostat, which has a
corrugated bellows containing a volatile liquid such as alcohol or acetone.
These types of thermostats do not work well at cooling system pressures above
about 7 psi. Modern motor vehicles typically run at around 15 psi, which
precludes the use of the bellows type thermostat. On direct air-cooled engines
this is not a concern for the bellows thermostat that controls a flap valve in the
air passages.
Airflow control[edit]
Other factors influence the temperature of the engine, including radiator size
and the type of radiator fan. The size of the radiator (and thus its cooling
capacity) is chosen such that it can keep the engine at the design temperature
under the most extreme conditions a vehicle is likely to encounter (such as
climbing a mountain whilst fully loaded on a hot day).
Airflow speed through a radiator is a major influence on the heat it dissipates.
Vehicle speed affects this, in rough proportion to the engine effort, thus giving
crude self-regulatory feedback. Where an additional cooling fan is driven by the
engine, this also tracks engine speed similarly.
Engine-driven fans are often regulated by a fan clutch from the drivebelt, which
slips and reduces the fan speed at low temperatures. This improves fuel
efficiency by not wasting power on driving the fan unnecessarily. On modern
vehicles, further regulation of cooling rate is provided by either variable speed
or cycling radiator fans. Electric fans are controlled by a thermostatic switch or
the engine control unit. Electric fans also have the advantage of giving good
airflow and cooling at low engine revs or when stationary, such as in slow-
moving traffic.
Before the development of viscous-drive and electric fans, engines were fitted
with simple fixed fans that drew air through the radiator at all times. Vehicles
whose design required the installation of a large radiator to cope with heavy
work at high temperatures, such as commercial vehicles and tractors would
often run cool in cold weather under light loads, even with the presence of
a thermostat, as the large radiator and fixed fan caused a rapid and significant
drop in coolant temperature as soon as the thermostat opened. This problem
can be solved by fitting a radiator blind (or radiator shroud) to the radiator
that can be adjusted to partially or fully block the airflow through the radiator. At
its simplest the blind is a roll of material such as canvas or rubber that is
unfurled along the length of the radiator to cover the desired portion. Some
older vehicles, like the World War I-era S.E.5 and SPAD S.XIII single-engined
fighters, have a series of shutters that can be adjusted from the driver's or pilot's
seat to provide a degree of control. Some modern cars have a series of shutters
that are automatically opened and closed by the engine control unit to provide a
balance of cooling and aerodynamics as needed.[2]
Cooling fan of radiator for prime mover of a VIA Rail GE P42DC locomotive.
These AEC Regent III RT buses are fitted with radiator blinds, seen here covering the lower half of
the radiators.
Coolant pressure[edit]
Because the thermal efficiency of internal combustion engines increases with
internal temperature, the coolant is kept at higher-than-atmospheric pressure to
increase its boiling point. A calibrated pressure-relief valve is usually
incorporated in the radiator's fill cap. This pressure varies between models, but
typically ranges from 4 to 30 psi (30 to 200 kPa).[3]
As the coolant system pressure increases with a rise in temperature, it will
reach the point where the pressure relief valve allows excess pressure to
escape. This will stop when the system temperature stops rising. In the case of
an over-filled radiator (or header tank) pressure is vented by allowing a little
liquid to escape. This may simply drain onto the ground or be collected in a
vented container which remains at atmospheric pressure. When the engine is
switched off, the cooling system cools and liquid level drops. In some cases
where excess liquid has been collected in a bottle, this may be 'sucked' back
into the main coolant circuit. In other cases, it is not.
Engine coolant[edit]
Main article: Coolant § Liquids
Before World War II, engine coolant was usually plain water. Antifreeze was
used solely to control freezing, and this was often only done in cold weather.
Development in high-performance aircraft engines required improved coolants
with higher boiling points, leading to the adoption of glycol or water-glycol
mixtures. These led to the adoption of glycols for their antifreeze properties.
Since the development of aluminium or mixed-metal engines, corrosion
inhibition has become even more important than antifreeze, and in all regions
and seasons.
Boiling or overheating[edit]
An overflow tank that runs dry may result in the coolant vaporizing, which can
cause localized or general overheating of the engine. Severe damage can
result, such as blown headgaskets, and warped or cracked cylinder
heads or cylinder blocks. Sometimes there will be no warning, because the
temperature sensor that provides data for the temperature gauge (either
mechanical or electrical) is exposed to water vapor, not the liquid coolant,
providing a harmfully false reading.
Opening a hot radiator drops the system pressure, which may cause it to boil
and eject dangerously hot liquid and steam. Therefore, radiator caps often
contain a mechanism that attempts to relieve the internal pressure before the
cap can be fully opened.
History[edit]
The invention of the automobile water radiator is attributed to Karl
Benz. Wilhelm Maybach designed the first honeycomb radiator for
the Mercedes 35hp.[4]
Supplementary radiators[edit]
It is sometimes necessary for a car to be equipped with a second, or auxiliary,
radiator to increase the cooling capacity, when the size of the original radiator
cannot be increased. The second radiator is plumbed in series with the main
radiator in the circuit. This was the case when the Audi 100 was
first turbocharged creating the 200. These are not to be confused
with intercoolers.
Some engines have an oil cooler, a separate small radiator to cool the engine
oil. Cars with an automatic transmission often have extra connections to the
radiator, allowing the transmission fluid to transfer its heat to the coolant in the
radiator. These may be either oil-air radiators, as for a smaller version of the
main radiator. More simply they may be oil-water coolers, where an oil pipe is
inserted inside the water radiator. Though the water is hotter than the ambient
air, its higher thermal conductivity offers comparable cooling (within limits) from
a less complex and thus cheaper and more reliable[citation needed] oil cooler. Less
commonly, power steering fluid, brake fluid, and other hydraulic fluids may be
cooled by an auxiliary radiator on a vehicle.
Turbo charged or supercharged engines may have an intercooler, which is an
air-to-air or air-to-water radiator used to cool the incoming air charge—not to
cool the engine.
Aircraft[edit]
Aircraft with liquid-cooled piston engines (usually inline engines rather than
radial) also require radiators. As airspeed is higher than for cars, these are
efficiently cooled in flight, and so do not require large areas or cooling fans.
Many high-performance aircraft however suffer extreme overheating problems
when idling on the ground - a mere seven minutes for a Spitfire.[5] This is similar
to Formula 1 cars of today, when stopped on the grid with engines running they
require ducted air forced into their radiator pods to prevent overheating.
Surface radiators[edit]
Reducing drag is a major goal in aircraft design, including the design of cooling
systems. An early technique was to take advantage of an aircraft's abundant
airflow to replace the honeycomb core (many surfaces, with a high ratio of
surface to volume) by a surface-mounted radiator. This uses a single surface
blended into the fuselage or wing skin, with the coolant flowing through pipes at
the back of this surface. Such designs were seen mostly on World War
I aircraft.
As they are so dependent on airspeed, surface radiators are even more prone
to overheating when ground-running. Racing aircraft such as the Supermarine
S.6B, a racing seaplane with radiators built into the upper surfaces of its floats,
have been described as "being flown on the temperature gauge" as the main
limit on their performance.[6]
Surface radiators have also been used by a few high-speed racing cars, such
as Malcolm Campbell's Blue Bird of 1928.
Pressurized cooling systems[edit]
Radiator caps for pressurized automotive cooling systems. Of the two valves, one prevents the
creation of a vacuum, the other limits the pressure.
It is generally a limitation of most cooling systems that the cooling fluid not be
allowed to boil, as the need to handle gas in the flow greatly complicates
design. For a water cooled system, this means that the maximum amount of
heat transfer is limited by the specific heat capacity of water and the difference
in temperature between ambient and 100 °C. This provides more effective
cooling in the winter, or at higher altitudes where the temperatures are low.
Another effect that is especially important in aircraft cooling is that the specific
heat capacity changes and boiling point reduces with pressure, and this
pressure changes more rapidly with altitude than the drop in temperature. Thus,
generally, liquid cooling systems lose capacity as the aircraft climbs. This was a
major limit on performance during the 1930s when the introduction
of turbosuperchargers first allowed convenient travel at altitudes above
15,000 ft, and cooling design became a major area of research.
The most obvious, and common, solution to this problem was to run the entire
cooling system under pressure. This maintained the specific heat capacity at a
constant value, while the outside air temperature continued to drop. Such
systems thus improved cooling capability as they climbed. For most uses, this
solved the problem of cooling high-performance piston engines, and almost all
liquid-cooled aircraft engines of the World War II period used this solution.
However, pressurized systems were also more complex, and far more
susceptible to damage - as the cooling fluid was under pressure, even minor
damage in the cooling system like a single rifle-calibre bullet hole, would cause
the liquid to rapidly spray out of the hole. Failures of the cooling systems were,
by far, the leading cause of engine failures.
Evaporative cooling[edit]
Although it is more difficult to build an aircraft radiator that is able to handle
steam, it is by no means impossible. The key requirement is to provide a
system that condenses the steam back into liquid before passing it back into the
pumps and completing the cooling loop. Such a system can take advantage of
the specific heat of vaporization, which in the case of water is five times the
specific heat capacity in the liquid form. Additional gains may be had by
allowing the steam to become superheated. Such systems, known
as evaporative coolers, were the topic of considerable research in the 1930s.
Consider two cooling systems that are otherwise similar, operating at an
ambient air temperature of 20 °C. An all-liquid design might operate between
30 °C and 90 °C, offering 60 °C of temperature difference to carry away heat.
An evaporative cooling system might operate between 80 °C and 110 °C, which
at first glance appears to be much less temperature difference, but this analysis
overlooks the enormous amount of heat energy soaked up during the
generation of steam, equivalent to 500 °C. In effect, the evaporative version is
operating between 80 °C and 560 °C, a 480 °C effective temperature difference.
Such a system can be effective even with much smaller amounts of water.
