INTRODUCTION
Carbohydrates are made up of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. Carbohydrates are formed by
the combination of carbon dioxide and water molecules. It contains two specific functional
group which is the hydroxyl groups and carbonyl groups.
Then there are two types of sugar; reducing and non-reducing sugar. Reducing sugar is a
type of sugar that has an open-chain form with a free aldehyde group which is the carbonyl
group that is bonded to at least one hydrogen atom. The presence of this free aldehyde
group means that the sugar can act as a reducing agent. All monosaccharides such as
glucose, fructose and galactose are reducing sugar as they have free anomeric carbon (free
aldehyde or ketone group) than can reduce cupric salt.
However, in the disaccharides, the monosaccharide unit is linked together by glycosidic
linkage formed between the OH hydroxyl group of one and the anomeric carbon of others.
Some disaccharides cannot reduce cupric salt due to no availability of free anomeric carbon
in their structure and hence they are termed as non-reducing sugars. Monosaccharides can
be detected based on their oxidation in alkaline solution by Cu2⁺ or Ag⁺⁺ or ferricyanide, the
mild oxidizing agent. The reducing property can be determined and demonstrated using
Benedict’s solution. Examples of reducing disaccharides sugar are maltose and galactose.
Benedict’s test is used to test for simple carbohydrates. Benedict’s test identifies reducing
sugars (monosaccharides and some disaccharides), which have free ketone or aldehyde
functional groups. Benedict’s solution can be used to test for the presence of glucose in
urine.
OBJECTIVE
-To test the presence or absence of reducing sugar in carbohydrates.
INTRODUCTION
Proteins are the complex compound formed by thousands of amino acids. Amino acids are
amphoteric electrolytes having carboxyl and amino groups that act like acid and base, side
chain (R group) and H atom. It has one positive charge and one negative charge, hence
these ions are electrically neutral and do not migrate in the electric field. The two amino
acids are linked together with the help of a bond called peptide bond and it yields dipeptide.
The bond is formed between the α amino group of one amino acid and the α carboxyl group
of another amino acid with the removal of a water molecule. The formation of the peptide
bond is referred to as the condensation reaction. Similarly, three amino acids linked together
by two peptide bonds are called tripeptide, and as the chain elongates, it is called a
polypeptide.
Biuret test is a general test for compounds having a peptide bond. Biuret is a compound
formed by heating urea to 180° C. When biuret is treated with dilute copper sulfate in
alkaline condition, a purple-coloured compound is formed. This is the basis of biuret test
widely used for identification of proteins and amino acids.
OBJECTIVE
-To detect the presence of protein.
-To see the presence of peptide bond.
INTRODUCTION
Starch is a carbohydrate found in plants. It consists of two different types of polysaccharides
that are made up of glucose units which are connected in two different ways. One is the
linear and unbranched polymer of α-glucose units linked together by α 1-4 glycosidic bonds
which is amylose and the other is a highly branched polymer called amylopectin. Each
branch of amylopectin is a short chain made up of many glucose subunits linked together
through a α 1-4 glycosidic bonds while branches are linked together through a α 1-6
glycosidic bonds.
Iodine test is a chemical test used to distinguish mono- or disaccharides from certain
polysaccharides like amylase, dextrin, and glycogen. This test has a variation termed starch-
iodine test that is performed to indicate the presence of glucose made by plants in the
leaves. Iodine test is based on the fact that polyiodide ions form colored adsorption complex
with helical chains of glucose residue of amylase (blue-black), dextrin (black), or glycogen
(reddish-brown). Monosaccharides, disaccharides, and branched polysaccharides like
cellulose remain colorless. Amylopectin produces an orange-yellow hue.
The reagent used in the iodine test is Lugol’s iodine, which is an aqueous solution of
elemental iodine and potassium iodide.
OBJECTIVE
-To detect the presence of polysaccharides, primarily starch.
INTRODUCTION
Lipids are the one class of large biological molecules that do not form polymers and mainly
consist of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. Lipids are nonpolar and therefore is insoluble in
water as it is hydrophobic due to its structure that is mainly consists of hydrocarbons which
form non-polar covalent bonds. and soluble in alcohol, ether and chloroform.There are three
important groups of lipids; fats or also known as tryglycerides, phospholipids and steroids.
Together with carbohydrates and proteins, lipids are the main constituents of plant and
animal cells.
Fats or also known as triglycerides esters which is the product of condensation of one
molecule glycerol and 3 molecule fatty acids by an ester linkage. This process is also known
as esterification that involves alcohol and acids. The alcohol, glycerol is a three-carbon
alcohol with a hydroxyl group attached to each carbon while the acids, fatty acids are
consisted of a carboxyl group attached to a long carbon skeleton. Fatty acids vary in length
(number of carbon) and in the number and location of double bonds on its structure.
Triglycerides can be found in variety fats from fodd that we consume of butter, margerines
and oils.
Sudan IV (Red) is a fat-soluble dye that stains lipids red as it dissolves in lipid . It is used to
detect lipids in a substance, especially the triglycerides. If lipid is present in a substance that
have come into contact with Sudan IV, the colour red will stain the lipids therefore
determining and qualifying whether lipids is present or absent.
OBJECTIVE
-To detect the presence of lipid, specifically triglycerides.
1.RecNotes, “Benedict’s Test- Objectives, Principles, Procedure, Results”, April 11, 2021,
https://recnotes.com/benedicts-test-objectives-principle-procedure-results/
2. Microbe Notes, “Biuret Test for Protein”, July 12, 2021, https://microbenotes.com/biuret-
test-for-protein/
3. Online Biology Notes, “Biuret test-Principle, Requirements, Reagents, Preparation,
Procedure and Result”, April 20, 2018, https://www.onlinebiologynotes.com/biuret-test-
principle-requirements-reagents-preparation-procedure-and-result/
4. Microbe Notes, “Iodine Test- Definition, Principle, Procedure, Result, Uses”, July 18,
2021, https://microbenotes.com/iodine-test/
