FILAMER CHRISTIAN UNIVERSITY

COLLEGE OF TEACHER EDUCATION

Accredited Level IV – ACSCU-ACI
Roxas City, Capiz

METHODS OF INCREASING BEHAVIOR

The five most common techniques applied in behavior modification intervention for
increasing a target behavior are (1)positive reinforcement, (2) shaping (3) tangency
contracting (4) token economy, and 5 modeling. These basic models should be assistance to
the beginning practitioner attempting to establish and desirable behaviors in children. The
techniques are applicable with both individual and group behaviors.
POSITIVE REINFORCEMENT
Positive reinforcement is known by various labels, such as attention, approval social
reinforcement, and rewarding. It is the process of reinforcing a target behavior in order to
increase the probability that the behavior will recur. Positive reinforcement is the
presentation of desirable reinforcer after the behavior has been exhibited. The reinforce
tends to increase the frequency or duration with which the behaviour is exhibited in the
future. The advantages of positive reinforcement are (1) it is responsive to the child’s
natural need for attention and approval. and (2) it decreases the probability that the child
will exhibit inappropriate behavior in a effort to obtain needed attention.
Two rules are essential for the effective application of positive reinforcement. First,
when a child is initially exhibiting a new appropriate behaviour, it must be positively
reinforcing each time it occurs. Second, once the target behavior is established at a
satisfactory rate, the child should be reinforced intermittently.
To apply positive reinforcement. The teacher should follow these steps (Shea and
Bauer. 1987)
Step1 Carefully select a target behavior (do not attempt reinforce every positive
behavior a child exhibits)
Step 2: Observe the child’s behavior to a ascertain when he or she engages in the
behavior.
Step 3: During the initial stage, reinforce the behavior each time and immediately
after it is exhibited.
Step 4: Specify for the child the behavior that is being reinforced (“I like the _,’ or a
similar comment).
Step 5: When reinforcing, speak with enthusiasm and show interest in the child’s
behavior.
Step 6: When appropriate, the practitioner may become involved in the child’s
behavior, that is, give the child help.
Step 7: Vary the reinforcer.
Step 8: When appropriate, change to a variable reinforcement schedule.

A note of caution: Public reinforcement is unwelcome to some children, under some

circumstances. They may be embarrassed by positive reinforcement in the presence of
peers, teachers, Parents, and others.
Gross and Ekstrand (1983) student increasing and maintaining rates of teachers praise
and their effects on student behaviour. They found that teacher positive reinforcement
decreased student scolding, increased productivity, and increased teacher enthusiasm in the
classroom.
Examples.
Michael has extremely poor table manners. He not only eats with his hands and
fingers. But also, he eats very rapidly. His teacher. Ms, Vandan, is attempting to improve the
boy’s table manners by positively reinforcing Michael’s use of a fork and placement of the
fork on the plat between bite of food.
Michael is pleased with the extra attention, and over a period of several weeks his
table manners have dramatically improved. Ms. Vandan used first continuous reinforcement
schedule and then a variable schedule to help Michael.
Fourteen years-old George, a member of the “Wild and Crazy Bunch” like his math
teacher. Ms. Chinn very much He enjoys receiving her attention, but sometimes it is a little
annoying. This is especially true when Ms. Chinn makes a big show in front of the whole
class of his successfully completing a difficult problem. It seems the other members of the
“Bunch” hassle him after class when this occurs.
Brigham, Bekken, Scruggs. And Mastropieri (1992) researched the effects of positive
reinforcement on group behavior. The subjects of their investigations where eight middle-
school students, five girls and tree boys, in a self-contained special education class. The
students were of low socioeconomic status and resided in the inner city. They were mildly
mentally retarded and exhibited disruptive classroom behaviors.
The researchers applied cooperative behavior management strategies to promote
positive classroom behavior. They investigated on-task behavior (for example. Attending to
teacher, assignment, materials); off-task, active behavior (for example, drumming fingers,
tapping pencil, tapping feet, playing with objects, out of seat); and off-task, passive behavior
(for example, looking out window, starting, sleeping). After one week of baseline the class
was divided into two teams. In the first study, the team exhibiting the highest level of on
task behavior was rewarded. This intervention was effective with all but one student. In the
second study, which was implemented after a second baseline, both individuals and teams
were rewarded for appropriate classroom behavior. Direct prompts were provided for one
student. Both interventions were successful in decreasing inappropriate behavior for the
group, the second intervention was effective with all students.
West et all, (1995) discussed the use of the “musical clock light” to encourage positive
classroom behavior in individuals and groups. The clock light was applied as part of the
program for academic survival skills (PASS). Pass is a management program for academic
related behaviors. It includes three components (a) group reward contingency, (b) clearly
stated classroom rules, and (c) a clocklight that signals students when the whole group is
following the rules. The amount of time the total class is following the rules is recorded.
Rewards are based on the percent of available time that the whole group is following the
rules.
The clocklight itself includes three components: the clock, the light, and recorded music.
When the whole group is the following the rules, the clock is running the light is on, and
music is being played in the classroom. The clock light is not activated during instructional
periods, i.e ., lectures and discussions. Prior to implementation of PASS, Classroom rules are
discussed with the students and demonstrated by the teacher. During the program, teacher
use praise techniques and corrective teaching methods with students.
In the applications of the clock light in three middle -school classrooms, west and
associates found that classroom rule following, getting teacher attention appropriately .and
teacher satisfaction increased.
SHAPING
To increase an intervention for the purpose of increasing a behaviour, the teacher or
parents need only wait until the target behaviour is emitted by the child. When the
behaviour occurs, it must be immediately rewarded with a potent reinforce.
However, suppose a situation arises in which the level of performance of the
behaviour is at zero or near zero. What can the teacher or parent do to establish the
behaviour? These are the two alternatives:
1. Wait as undetermined length of time (in some cases; forever) for the behaviour to
naturally occur.
2. Use a behaviour shaping technique.
Shaping is the systematic immediate reinforcement of successive approximations of
the target behavior until the behavior is established (Shea &Bauer 1987). It is primarily used
to established behaviors that have not been previously manifested in the individual’s
behaviour repertoire (Cooper, Heron, & Heward, 1987). Just as the sculptor shapes and
molds an object of art from clay, the practitioner shapes and molds a new behaviour
undifferentiated behavioural response. Shaping may also be used to increase infrequently
exhibited behaviors. This technique is applicable to both behavior and academic problems.

The behavior-shaping process includes the following steps:

Step 1: Selecting a target behavior.
Step 2: Obtaining reliable baseline data.
Step 3: Selecting potent reinforcers.
Step 4: Reinforcing successive approximations of the target behavior each type they
occur.
Step 5: Reinforcing the newly established behavior each time it occurs.
Step 6: Reinforcing the behavior on a variable reinforcement schedule.
Many of these steps are explained in chapters 3 and 4. However. Some of them require
additional comment here for clarification
The behavior selected for shaping must be carefully specified. The teacher or parent
must be positive that the selected behavior is meaningful to the chills in terms of the child’s
present life context and development level.
If the performance level of the target behavior is at zero, the teacher or parent must
initiate the shaping process from the child’s indifferent behavioral mumification.
Examples
Tommy’s teacher, Ms. Allen, wishes to establish intelligible verbal responses in
Tommy’s behavioural repertoire. However, the child enunciates no understandable words.
His entire verbal behaviour consists of vocal noises such as screeches, howls, and guttural
sounds. The teacher must begin the shaping process with the manifested behaviour, that is,
vocal noise. She must reinforce successive approximations of intelligible verbal responses.
Jeff, a child with severe disabilities, was having a great difficulty interacting
appropriately on the playground during circle or ball games requiring running from one
specific location to another. When he was required to engage in a game of this type, he ran
about at random dashing here and there, jumping up and down, and in general confusing
himself and his playmates.
Mr. Speer, the physical education teacher, wished to modify this behaviour. He
realizes he had to start the change process with the behaviour presently being manifested
by Jeff. He determined that Jeff did attend to the action of the game and attempted to play
by the rules in this effort to help Jeff, Mr. Speer modified the rules of the game, he
established a “new rule” in which all team members ran hand-in-hand in pairs from one
location to another. Jeff was Mr. Speer’s partner until he was conditioned to the new
running patterns. The game was played by the traditional rules after Jeff developed
acceptable skills.
During the behavior-shaping process, the teacher or parent reinforces with those
behavioral manifestations that must closely approximate the desired behavior.
Example
Mr. Jackson designed a shaping intervention to increase the number of assigned
math problems that Robert would successfully complete in the workbook during
independents study. Robert never completed the 20 problems given for practice. However,
baseline data revealed that Robert consistently solved the first 9 problems successfully in
each practice section, He simply did not attempt the remaining 11 problems.
During the shaping process, Mr. Jackson reinforced Robert for improvements over
his baseline of 9. Robert was rewarded for successfully completing 10 problems, 11
problems, 12 problems, and so on. Robert was never rewarded for completing a quantity of
problems below this highest level of accomplishment. Within a short time, Mr. Jackson’s
intervention data confirmed the fact that Robert was consistently completing the 20
problems successfully. The reinforcer was phased out.

Reinforcing less than the existing baseline results in rewarding behavior in a direction
of chance that is the reverse of the proposed direction Remember, only the big best
approximations of the target behavior should be reinforced.
Another important consideration in the shaping process is the teacher’s or parent’s
knowledge of how long to provide reinforcement at one level for performance before
moving to the next level. Such a movement increases the demands on the child.
Determining when to move on is the teacher’s or parent’s greatest dilemma. If
reinforcement continues too long at a given performance level, the child’s behavior may
become so rigidly established that further progress will be difficult. However, if the
practitioner insists that the child progress too rapidly from one level to the new there is a
great possibility that the new behavior will be extinguished.
Knowing when to progress from one level of performance to the next is of utmost
importance. Unfortunately, this knowledge is part of the skill needed for behaviour
modification, and developing it is not easy. The teacher or parent develops this needed
sensitively and skill only with practice and experience in behaviour shaping and through
knowing the individual child.
The following two examples are presented to clarify the steps in the behaviour-
shaping process.

Examples
Ms. Simpskins wished to increase Jim’s letter identification skills. Jim could identify 7
of the 26 letters of the alphabet consistently. Before implementing a shaping intervention,
Ms. Simpskins determined that gumdrops were an effective reinforce for Jim.
During the intervention phase of the behaviour change program, Jim was exposed to
one new letter of the alphabet at a time. He was to learn each new letter before another
letter was presented. Jim was reinforced with a gumdrop only if he identified the new letter
and all previously identified letter. The new letter was always presented last in the daily
sequence of letters. After he had learned a letter, it was presented randomly with all the
other previously learned letters in the daily session.
 This procedure was continued until Jim successfully identified all the letter in the
alphabet.
Mr. Behe wished to increase Barry’s in-seat behaviour. Baseline data revealed that
on an average, Barry remained in his seat approximately six minutes. Mr. Behe had
determined through observation that Barry enjoyed listening to story records. This activity
was selected as a reinforcer for acceptable in-seat behavior.
During the intervention a timer was placed on Barry’s desk. He was told that each
time he remained in his seat until the timer bell sounded, he would be allowed to go to the
reinforcement area to the classroom and listen to his favorite story record for a specific
number of minutes. (The reinforcement schedule Mr. Behe used to shape the in-seat
behavior is presented in Table 5,1.)

Table 5.1
Reinforcement schedule for in-seat behaviour

Minutes of In-seat Behavior Minutes in Reinforcement Area

5 2

5 2

7 2.5

8 2.5

10 2.5

15 3

20 3

25 3

30 3.5

45 4

60 4

Barry’s behaviour was shaped with little difficulty. However, during the 20-minute
interval between reinforcement Barry became bored. As a consequence, he remained at the
20-minute interval longer than the teacher had anticipated. At Barry’s suggestion , Mr. Behe
changed the reinforcer from story records to jigsaw puzzles.
According to Panyan (1980), there are two distinct types of behavior-shaping
interventions: progressive and chain.
In forward shaping or chaining, the first component or link in the chain or series of links
is taught first, the second link is taught second, and so on. In backward shaping or changing,
the last component or link of a complex task or chain is taught to the individual first. The
second to last component of the task or chain is taught second, and so on in other words,
the components or links in the chain are taught in reverse order. Both forms of chaining are
useful; their application depends on the particular task being taught, the individual being
instructed, and other variables such as time and personnel availability.
Example
Mr. McGinnis and Mr. Solomon were responsible for teaching their daughters, Angie
and Beth, to make their beds before they left for school in the morning. Mr. McGinnis and
Mr. Solomon were very busy in the morning and had little time to teach the task. Mr.
McGinnis had a little more time in the morning because he was a professor of behaviour
management at the local university and left for work later than Mr. Solomon. Both men
decided to use shaping.
Mr. McGinnis and Mr. Solomon analysed the complex task of bed making into the
following discrete steps:
STEP TASK
1. Remove the pillows.
2. Pull back the blanket and top sheet.
3. Smooth the bottom sheet.
4. Pull up the top sheet and smooth.
5. Pull up the blanket and smooth.
6. Fold the top of the top sheet over the top of the blanket.
7. Put the bedspread on the bed.
8. Fold the top one-fourth to the bedspread back.
9. Put the pillow on the top of the bed, above the fold in the spread.
10. Place the top one-fourth of the bedspread over the pillow.
11. Smooth and check.

Mr. McGinnis used forward chaining to teach Angie to make bed. During the teaching
process, he and Angie proceeded from step 1 to Step 11 in order. In the first session, Angie
was required to complete Step 1 and was reinforced when the step was completed. After
Angie completed step 1, Mr. McGinnis completed making the bed (Steps 2 through 11).
During the second session Angie completed Steps 1 and 2, was reinforced and Mr. McGinnis
completed making the bed.
Mr. Solomon used backward chaining to teach Beth to make her bed He did this
because he could reinforce “completed bedmaking” more frequency and, in addition, the
teaching task would be quicker and the bed would look better. During the teaching process
Mr. Solomon and Beth proceeded from Step 11 to Step 1. In the first session, Mr. Solomon
completed step 1 through 10, and Beth was required to complete Step 11 and reinforced to
making her bed. During the second session, Mr. Solomon completed Steps 1 through 9, and
Beth completed Steps 10 and 11, and was reinforced.(By the way, both Angie and Beth
learned to make the beds each morning before departing for school, However, Beth enjoyed
the learning task more than Angie.)
 In the progressive shaping interventions, the child is required to engage in a series of
steps, each of which is a continuation and progression of the previously learned step or
steps, Examples of this intervention are bathing, hand-washing ,putting on a sweater or
socks, and so on.
A chain intervention is composed of two or more separate and distinct steps or skills that
are learned and combined sequentially to complete a specific task (Alberto and Troutman,
1990). Examples of this intervention are tying shoes, polishing shoes, eating, buttoning
clothing, and so on.
The following example and conceptual model summarize this discussion of the behavior-
shaping process

Examples
Five-year-old Stephen was nonverbal. His speech teacher selected the initiation of verbal
exchanges with his preschool teacher as the target behavior. Baseline data revealed that
Stephen’s only verbal behavior consisted or babbling, yelling, and screaming, this behavior
was frequent when he was in the compony of adults he knew. However, he did not
consistently emit this behavior in response to questions from others.
Stephen was observed by the speech teacher, who determined that he consistently
responded to four tangible reinforcers: pickles, potato chips, prunes, and popsicles,
The behavior-shaping intervention was initiated daily basis for 30 minutes during the
preschool sessions that Stephen attended at a local school. The effectiveness of this
intervention was to be evaluated by means of direct observation of the behavior-shaping
sessions and the boy’s activities in the preschool classroom with his teacher and playmates.

Figure 5.1
Behavior-shaping model (Stephen’s verbal behaviour)

Initiates verbal exchange with the teacher 10 Target

Behavior
Initiates verbal exchange with the therapist 9
Initiates two or more word exchanges 8
Direction of desired behaviour
Initiates one word exchange 7
Gives two or more word responses 6
Gives one word response 5
Gives second level approximations 4
Gives first-level approximations 3
Emits undifferentiated consistent verbal noise 2
Emits undifferentiated inconsistent verbal noise 1
Baseline
Behavior
Shaping began with undifferentiated, inconsistent verbal responses. Within a single school
year, Stephen had progress to initiating some verbal exchanges with others in both the
shaping sessions and the preschool class. By the end of the year, he would ask his teacher
for milk, juice, cookies, toys, and the like. Although he seldom played with his classmates, he
did verbally object to their attempts to confiscate his toys and snacks.

Stephen’s accent up to the behaviour-shaping ladder is presented on Figure 5.1. The steps
of the ladder are self-explanatory with the possible exception of Steps 3 and 4. During these
steps, Stephen consistently used specific verbal noises in place of words. For example, “ah”
was used for the word “milk”, “eh” was used for the word “no”, and the like. Emphasis here
was put on converting these emissions into meaningful words.

CONTINGENCY CONTRACTING

When one considers contemporary emphasis in the media on deferred purchasing,

one believes that every child should have some idea of the meaning of a contract. A
contract is an agreement, written or verbal, between two or more parties, individuals, or
groups, that stipulates the responsibilities of the parties conceptualize specific item or
activity. Contingency contracting in behaviour modification process w as well defined by
Becker (1979) when he stated “Arrange the conditions so that the child gets to do something he
wants to do following something you want him to do.”

For the purposes of this chapter, contingency contracting is defined as the process of
contracting so that the child gets to do something he or she wants to do following completing
something the parent or teacher wants the child to do.
We are all parties of contracts in daily living. Some of us are fortunate enough to have a
written contract stating the terms of employment. This contract explains what duties we are to
perform, for what period of time, and for what compensation. If we perform as specified in the
contract, we cannot be fired under normal circumstances. A verbal contract exists between spouses.
The terms of the contract state that they will love, honor, and respect one another until death (or
divorce) does them part.
There are many lesser contracts in America society, such as home loans and loans on
automobiles, boats, and the like. Contracts such as these are indispensable to the efficient operation
of the business system.
 There are some contracts, seldom written, that are often taken for granted but nevertheless
are indispensable in a complex urban society. Among these unwritten contracts are trusts
arrangements with utility services that the rubbish will be collected on certain mornings, the lights
will go on when we turn a switch, or the water will flow when we open a faucet.
The use of contingency contracting as a behavior modification technique is based on a
principle developed by Premack (1965). Premack’s principle states “A behavior that has a high rate
of occurrence can be used to increase a behavior with a low rate of occurrence.” What Premack
stated was a very ancient and frequently used principle. For centuries people have applied this
principle to raising their children, teaching their students, and supervising their employees. If you do
X, then you can do or get Y. This principle has often been referred to as “Grandma’s Law.” Most
persons remember the power of this law from childhood:
  “Eat your spinach; then you can have some ice cream.”
 “Clean your room; then you can go to the movies.”
 “Cut the lawn; then you can use the car.”
 “Do your homework; then you can play computer games.”
This principle carries over to adult life:
 “Write 27 articles and 10 books; then you will be promoted to professor.”
 “Don’t join the union; then you will retain your job.”
 “Don’t make waves on the bureaucratic sea of calm; the you will be granted tenure.”

Table 5.2 presents a series of X and Y statements found in the classroom.

Within the last two decades, teachers and parents have recognized the significance of individual
differences caused by such factors as maturation, general knowledge, locus of control, and
experience. Various instructional programs have been

Table 5.2
X then Y Statements

               X                                                  y
Then

Sit in your seat 2 hours Get a 10-minute recess

Complete your term paper Get an A
Be a “good” student Receive a good report card
Volunteer for the football team  Receive a recognition from the cheerleader
Learn a letter of the alphabet Immediately receive a gumdrop

Developed in response to these differences. Contingency contracting is a time method that

can be used to individualized instruction and behavior control to respond to the child’s interests,
needs, and abilities; it can be applied to the cognitive, affective and psychomotor domains of
learning.
In a study of truancy behavior of students in an inner-city middle school Hess, Rosenberg,
and Levy (1990) demonstrated that contingency contracting can be applied effectively in conjunction
with group counseling. Counseling and interventioning are discussed in Chapter 7.
According to Downing (1990), contingency contracts can be applied to teach new behavior,
maintain existing behaviors, decrease inappropriate behavior, and promote enrichment and
independent study for both individuals and groups.
According to Kelly and Stokes (1982), there are few published empirical studies on the use of
contingency contracting in the schools. In his review of the research, however, Murphy (1988) cites
school-based studies on contingency contracting and academic productivity, performance accuracy,
study skills, school attendance, and social behavior. He suggests that contracting is an excellent
method for facilitating self-management and academic and social development.
The advantages of contingency contracting are many. The method is positive that is, the
child takes an active role in deciding the type and amount of work required. Consequently, personal
responsibilities are understood by the child as circular intervals the contract is reviewed for the
child’s reaffirmation. Accountability factors are built into this intervention. The teacher collects
empirical data that indicates where the child was, where the child has progressed, and the child’s
current needs. The teacher can use this information to develop the program, instructional
objectives, and developmental objectives with the child.
 Salend (1987) suggests that student involvement will increase the effectiveness of the
contingency contracting system. He notes several areas of this management system in which
students maybe involved.

 Selecting the target behavior.

 Gaining an understanding of the specific behavior to be changed through decision with the
teacher, giving examples and explanations, and defining the behavior.
 Selecting reinforcers.
 Writing and reviewing the contract
 Evaluating the system from a student’s perspective

The teacher serves as contract manager providing facts and explaining the principles. The teacher
encourages the child to realistic limits. The teacher ensures that both the tasks and the reinforcer
are fair to both parties of the contract (child and teachers).

When contingency contracting is first used with a child, small tasks and small reinforcers are
most effective because they allow frequent reinforcerment. Lengthy or complex tasks and small
reinforcers defeat the motivational factors inherent in the intervention. If the task is more
demanding than the reinforce is desirable, the learner is not sufficiently motivated to perform.
Likewise, the reinforce should not be greater than the task warrants, otherwise ithe instructional
objective establishes for the child is difficult to obtain.

Initially, contracts may encourage and reward approximations of desired behaviour. Short
work peeriods are desirable because they permit frequent reinforcement. Low achieving children
usually require immediate reinforcers; consequently, short-term contracts (daily) are most
appropriate. Higher-achieving children can usually delay reinforcements; therefore, long-term
contracts (one or two weeks) are feasible.

Some practitioners believe it is beneficial to separate the locations for task performance and
reinforce delivery. In this way, the learner equates the task performance as a means to a desirable
end, that is, going to the reinforcement are. This also broadens the type and variety of reinforcers
that can be made available to the end students. Teachers are encourage to establish a
reinforcement area in their classroom. Reinforcement areas are discussed in Chapter 4.

The teacher must encourage the child to adhere to the contract for the designated period of
time. The child should be cautioned that if the agreed-on task is not performed, the child will not
receive the reinforce. However, if the original contracts is too difficult, a new contract must be
written for the learner to perform successfully. Every effort should be made to ensure the success of
the original contract.

The underlying principle of contingency contracting is constant; the learner, by making

decisions concerning personal productivity, develops critical thinking skills, self-control, and the
independence hat increases productivity.

There are two types of contracts applicable in the classroom setting: verbal and written.
Educators have generally found verbal contracts more useful than written contracts. The following
are examples of verbal contracts that can be used in the classroom:

 “John, when you have completed eight addition problems correctly, you may play with the
puzzles.”
  “Mary, if you remain in your seat for five minutes, you may work in your coloring book.”
 “James, if you come to school on time tomorrow, you may be first in line for lunch.”
 “Tom, if you don’t hit anyone this morning, you may have an extra milk at lunch”
 “Mike, if you complete your seat work, you may watch Sesame Street on television.”

Verbal contracts such as these are made daily in the classroom. They work effectively for
both the teacher and the child.
Written contracts are more elaborate than verbal contracts. The elaborateness of the
written contract depends on the child for whom it is designed. Contracts frequently lose their
effectiveness when they include pseudolegal jargon such as “the parties of the first part,” “the
parties of the second part,” or “henceforth and forevermore”. It is recommended that the teacher or
parent use the contract format in figure 5.2 or a similar one.
Homme and others (1979) have suggested ten basic rules for writing a contract for
classroom use. These rules are as follows:

1. The contract payoff (reinforce) should be immediate.

2. Initially contracts should call for and reinforce approximations of target behaviour.
3. The contract should provide for frequent reinforcers in small amounts.
4. The contract should call for and reinforce accomplishments rather than just obedience.
5. The performance should be reinforced after it occurs.
6. The contract must be fair to both parties.
7. The terms of the contract must be clear.
8. The contracts must be honest.
9. The contract must be positive.
10. Contracting must be used systematically as an integral part of the ongoing classroom
program.

In addition to the preceding rules, the practitioner should consider the following
factors when developing and implementing a contract:

1. The contract must be negotiated and freely agreed on by both child and the teacher.
2. The contract must include the target achievement or production level.
3. The reinforce must be consistently delivered in accordance with the terms of the contract.
4. The contract must include the date for review and renegotiation.

One of the major functions of contingency contracting is to get children to the level of
development at which they will initiate a contract instead of waiting for suggestion from the teacher.
The key to successful contracting is a negotiation session during which (1) the system of
contracting is explained and discussed, (2) the contract is written, and (3) the contract is signed by
the child and the teacher.

Negotiation should be systematic and precise. The teacher, as manager, has an obligation to
ensure that the session is productive. It is recommended that the new practitioner use the following
negotiation procedure (Shea and others, 1974).

1. Teacher establishes and maintain rapport with the child.

2. Teacher explains the purpose of the meeting by saying something such as “I know you’ve
been working hard on your schoolwork [reading, writing, spelling, arithmetic] and I’d like to help
you.”
3. Teacher gives a sample definition of a contract, explaining that a contract is an agreement
between two people.
 a. Teacher gives an example of a contract such as “when your mother takes your TV
to the repair shop, the clerk gives her a ticket. The ticket is a contract between your mother and the
repairman. He will repair and return the TV and your mother will pay him”.
b. teacher asks the child to give an example of contract.
c. If the child cannot respond, he teacher gives another example and repeat
4. Teacher explains to the child that they are going to write a contract.
5. Teacher and child will discuss the task.
a. Child suggest tasks for the contract.
b. Teacher suggests task for the contract.
c. Child and teacher discuss and agree on the specific task.
6. Teacher and child discuss reinforcers.
a. Teacher asks the child which activities the child enjoys doing and what things he
or she likes (see chapter 4). The teacher may also suggests reinforcers.
b. Teacher writes a reinforce menu of suggested reinforce.
c. Child selects reinforcers for which he or she would like to work.
d. Teacher and child rank the reinforcers in the child’s order of preference.
7. Teacher and child negotiate the task-to-reinforcer ratio.
8. Teacher and child agree on the time to be allotted for the child to perform the task; for
example, the child works ten additional problems in 15 minutes to receive the reinforce, the child
completes a unit of science and does the oratory experiments in two weeks to receive an A.
9. Teacher and child identify the criteria for achievement; that is, the child will work the ten
addition problems in 15 minutes with atleast 80 percent accuracy.
10. Teacher and child discuss evaluation procedures.
a. Teacher discuss various types of evaluations with the child.
b. Teacher and child agree on a method of evaluation.
c. teacher ask the child to explain the method of evaluation. If the child appears
confused, the teacher clarifies the evaluation procedure.
11. Teacher and child agree on a date for renegotiation of the contract.
12. Teacher and child agree on a date for renegotiation of the contract.
13. Teacher and child writes the contract. If feasible, the child should be encourage to write
it. Teacher gives a copy of the contract to the child.
14. Teacher reads the contract with the child as the child follows on his or her copy.
15. Teacher elicits the child’s verbal affirmation to the written affirmation
16. Child and teacher sign the contract.
17. teacher congratulates the child for making the contract and wishes the child success.

A proper conducted negotiating session is complex and time consuming particularly if the
teacher has not previously introduced the concept of contracting in the classroom. Both the
complexity and time consumed by the negotiation process decrease confusion on the part of the
teacher or the child and in an effort to facilitate the negotiation process, a contract work sheet is
provided (see figure 5.3)
The left-handed column of the work sheet be checked as the practitioner and child complete
each of the specific tasks. The tasks to be accomplished are specified in the middle column. The tasks
are presented in logical order. It is strongly recommended that the order of presentation be
followed during the session. The right-hand column of the work sheet is reserved for comments and
notations.
Three examples of contracts drawn from the classroom experience are found in Figures 5.4
through 5.6.
Contract forms need not be as formal as suggested by these procedures. Many home and
school situations are responsive to less formal contracts. Examples of less formal contracts,
developed by Kaplan and Hoffman (1990), are presented in the supplement at the end of this
chapter.

Token Economy

When most of us think of learning, we recall our participation in formal educational systems,
which involved acquiring knowledge by listening to teachers, having discussions, taking tests, and
the like. This symbolic or verbal learning is essential to our development, but it is not the only kind of
learning in which we participate. Human nature permits us to learn directly from experiences in our
environment. It is through learning that we develop habitual ways of working our environment for
reinforcers, that is, to obtain and sustain pleasure and to avoid discomfort and pain.
Although they differ in some ways, all learning environments are similar in that they are
worked by individuals for reinforcers. Reinforcers may be defined as stimuli that induce changes in
the person. These are positive reinforcers if they induce a pleasant state and negative reinforcers if
they induce an aversive or painful state. Generally, we work the environment to acquire positive
reinforcers and to avoid or escape negative reinforcers. Learning occurs by discovering behaviors
that produce rewards and then repetitively working the environment to continue to obtain the
reward. In general, the strength of a reinfocer is judged by the magnitude of the change it produces
in the individual. The stronger or more desirable the reinforcers, the more quickly and easily the
individual learns.

Figure 5.3
Sample work sheet for contract negotiation.

Child ____________________________________________________
Teacher___________________________ Date:___________

(x) Tasks Comments

( ) 1. Establish and maintain rapport.
( ) 2. Explain the purpose of the meeting
( ) 3. Explain a contract
( ) 4. Give an example of contract
( ) 5. Ask the child to give an example of a contract
( ) 6. Discuss possible tasks,
( ) 7. List child-suggested tasks:
_________________________________________

( ) 8. List teacher-suggested tasks:

9. Agree on the task.

( ) 10. Ask the child what activities he/she enjoys and what items
( ) he/she wishes to possess.
( ) 11. Record child-suggested reinforcers.
( ) 12. Negotiate the task-to-reinforcer ratio.
( ) 13. Identify the time allotted for the task.
( ) 14. Identify the criterion or achievement level.
( ) 15. Discuss methods of evaluation.
 ( ) 16. Agree on the method of evaluation.
( ) 17. Restate and clarify the method of evaluation.
( ) 18. Negotiate the delivery of the reinforcer.
( ) 19. Set the date for renegotiation.
( ) 20. Write two copies of the contract
( ) 21. Read the contract with the child.
( ) 22. Elicit the child’s verbal affirmation and give your own
affirmation.
( ) 23. Sign the contract and have the child sign it.
( ) 24. Congratulate the child (and yourself).
( )
( )

Figure 5.4
Simple Contract

Date: February 5, 1998

Contract

This is an agreement between Bob Weltrack and Rose Bars . The contract begins on
Child’s name Teacher’s name
02/09/1998 and ends on 02/11/1998 . It will be reviewed on 02/10/1998.
Date Date Date

The term of the agreement are:

Child will spell the 90% accuracy the 20 assigned spelling words for Friday
Teacher will provide a ticket good for admission to the school movie on February 11,1998.

If the child fulfils his or her part of the contract, the child will receive the agreed-on reward from
the teacher. However, if the child fails to fulfil his or her part of the contract, the reward will be
withheld.

Child’s signature ___________________

Teacher’s signature ___________________
Figure 5.5
Sample Contract

Date: April 06, 1998

Contract

This is an agreement between Russell Palmer and Mr. Davis . The contract begins on
Child’s name Teacher’s name
04/08/1998 and ends on 04/13/1998 . It will be reviewed on 04/10/1998.
Date Date Date

The term of the agreement are:

Child will not engage in any fights during the school for he period of the contract.
Teacher will take the child to a Golden Gloves boxing match at the local orlens.

If the child fulfils his or her part of the contract, the child will receive the agreed-on reward from
the teacher. However, if the child fails to fulfil his or her part of the contract, the reward will be
withheld.

Child’s signature ___________________

Teacher’s signature ___________________

Learning environments generally provide feedback process cues that predicts the
presentation of delayed reinforcers. The immediacy of feedback, whether it is reinforcement per se
or a process cue predictive of later reinforcement, is an important determinant of the rate of
learning. In general, learning occurs more easily and more rapidly when feedback is immediate.
Learning environments vary in the consistency of feedback that they provide is the learner;
the more consistent the feedback, the more quickly and easily the individual learns. Learning
environments also vary in the degree to which individuals are allowed to set their own work at a
self-selected rate that others. Individuals leave more easily and quickly when they are free to set
their own pace in working the environment for the desired reinforcer (Aylion & McKittrick,1982).
Many children are not able to function appropriately if they must wait as extended time for
their reinforcer. In addition, there are some children who have not developed to the level at which
social rewards alone are satisfactory reinforcers. In these cases, the use of a token economy has
proved to be an effective behaviour change intervention.
The tokens are usually valueless to the children when introduced to them. Their value
become apparent as the children learn the tokens can be exchanged for a variety of reinforcers such
as being first in the lunch time, earning ten minutes of free time, listening to phonograph records,
watching television, purchasing a favoured toy, and so on.
 It is an accepted fact that the child who is first in line for lunch today may not wish to be the
first in line next week. A properly administered token economy adjusts to this human tendency by
providing a variety of rewards, that is, a reward menu.
When teacher “sells” admission to a movie, use of Play-doh or the like, the tokens rapidly
take on value for the children. When the teacher states the price and asks a child to count out the
needed quantity of tokens, they are engaged in a token economy.
In this manner, the tokens become potent reinforcers. They can be awarded over a period of
time for acceptable effort and work. The system allows the teacher to structure the learning
environment for positive reinforcement and to provide immediate feedback to the children via
tokens. Hence, a moderately well run token exchange can promote direct learning regardless of the
content of the activity.
We are all exposed to and use tokens daily. The most common form of token exchange is the
use of currency to purchase various items and services. It is generally agreed (especially in today’s
economy) that money itself has no value, only the objects for which it is exchanged have real value.
In the classroom, the token takes on the same meaning as currency has in the marketplace.
The classroom token economy suffers the same problems as the marketplace economy, that
is, loss, theft, and counterfeiting. Some of these problems can be prevented by not using poker chips
and other readily available objects for tokens.
Items that could be used include:
  Check marks
 Points
 Stars
 Smiling faces
 Point cards
 Point tally forms
 Conservation stamps
 Trading stamps
 Animal stickers
 Fairytale character stickers
 Teacher-made tokens
 Play money

These tokens have several advantages over tokens made of rigid, hard materials such as metal,
plastic, and wood. They are made of soft, flexible materials, that is, paper, vinyl, or simple pen and
pencil markings. They are less distracting to have in the classroom atmosphere because they neither
rattle nor make noise if dropped on a hard surface. These characteristics eliminate much potential
and actual distraction and confusion in the classroom. The tokens are easily glued to a paper
desktop, record card, or chart. They can be permanently affixed to various surfaces to minimize the
incidence of misplacement, loss, or theft. However, they must be sufficiently distinctive to prohibit
unauthorized duplication.
The following are the basic rules when establishing a token economy system in the classroom.

1. Select a target behaviour. This topic is thoroughly discovered in chapter 3 and does not warrant
further elaboration here.

2. Conceptualize and present the target behaviour to the child or group. It is a such known fact that
an emphasis on “what you can do” is more palatable to children (and adults) than an emphasis on
“what you cannot do”. Many unsuccessful behaviour modification practitioners have determined
their own failure by introducing a program by saying, “Now you boys and girls are going to stop the
noise and fooling around in here. I have this new… [and so on].” The children are immediately
challenged; they prepare to defeat the teacher and defend their personal integrity.

3. Post the rules and review them frequently.

4. Select an appropriate token.

5. Establish reinforcers for which tokens can be exchanged.

6. Develop a reward menu and post it in the classroom. The children should be permitted to
thoroughly discuss and consider the items on the menu. They should be encouraged to make their
selections from among the items available. The children should not be permitted to debate the cost
(number of tokens) of the various rewards after prices have been established.

7. Implement the token economy. Introduce the token economy on a limited basis initially. A
complex sophisticated system as an initial exposure confuses and frustrates the children. Start small
and build on firm understanding. Explain the system to the children with great clarity and precision.
Be patient and answer all the children’s questions. It is better to delay implementation than create
confusion and frustration.
8. Provide immediate reinforcement for acceptable behaviour. The children will lost interest in the
program if the process for obtaining tokens is more effort than the reward is desirable. Many
desirable systems fail because the teacher neglects to dispense tokens at the appropriate time.
Reward the children immediately reduces frustration and overconcern with the system. When the
children are sure they will receive the tokens at the proper time, they can ignore the delivery system
and concentrate on their work or behaviour.

9. Gradually change from a continuous to a variable schedule of reinforcement. As discussed in

Chapter 3, quick, unpredictable, or premature changes in a reinforcement schedule can destroy the
program.

10. Provide time for the children to exchange tokens for rewards. If the token economy is a
legitimate class program, time during the school day should be much available for the exchange.
Time should not be taken from the children’s received lunch, or free time.

11. Revise the reward menu frequently. Children like adults became bored with the same old lunch
day after day.
Rosenberg, 1986 studied the effects of daily rule review and rehearsal procedures on the
effectiveness of a token economy with five disruptive and distractible elementary school age
students in a resource room program. He found that stable review of classroom rules resulted in an
overall time- on-task empowerment of 12 percent and a 50 percent reduction in disruptive
behaviour of two boys and one girl ranging in age from six to seven years.
The token economy has worked very effectively in the classroom to reverse for its success
are its lack of emphasis on compilation with others and the fact that the reward menu provides
sufficient variety to prevent boredom Table 5.3 is an example of a reward menu for classroom use.

Table 5.3
Reward Time Cost (Points)

Getting free time 10 mins 20

Watching television 30 mins 45
Reading comic books 5 mins 15
Listening to records 10 mins 20
Cutting and pasting 10
Purchasing modelling clay 55
Purchasing crayons 45
Purchasing coloring books 50
Finger painting 12 mins 25
Playing with toys 10 mins 25
Borrowing a book 48 hours 35
Borrowing a game 48 hours 50

The menu need not be lengthy or elaborate but should contain at least ten items and
activities. The children should exchange tokens daily; they should not be allowed to take them
home. If they are deferring their reinforcers and saving tokens, their tokens should be collected and
recorded each day.
The number of tokens earned may be recorded on a point card or tally form. The teacher
can affix the card or form to each child’s desk and then either record or circle the points earned by
the child. The points are totalled at the end of each day. The child may either delay the reward or
accept it immediately.
 In a discussion of token economy reinforcers, Raschke, Dedrick, and Thompson (1987)
recommended the use of contingency packages to motivate reluctant learners. The packages are
tangible reminders of potential reinforcers. They consist of three-dimensional displays designed
specifically to advertise rewards. The packages should be novel, exciting, and age-appropriate. Two
packages described in detail by Raschke and others 91987) included the “Flip-The-Lid-Robot,” a
multi-drawered container in which each drawer holds various rewards, and “Touchdown Triumph,” a
football game board designed for adolescents. Reschke (1986) suggested a similar package using
available classroom materials (construction paper, sponges, pipe, cleaners) to make “delicious”
incentives (hamburgers, French fries, ice cream cones) for display in the classroom.
In an effort to increase motivation and lessen possibility of boredom among fifth grade
student they studied, Anderson and Katsiyannis (1997) developed and implemented a token
economy based on an automobile driving and speedway theme. The economy included common
items related to driving and auto racing such as license plates, stop signs, stop lights, speeding
tickets, and so on. The authors found the economy to be effective with their students.
Lyon and Lagarde (1997) suggested that teachers develop a “Graduated Reinforcement
System” for use with individuals, small groups, and whole classroom groups at the upper elementary
and secondary school levels. According to the authors the system is easy for students to understand,
allows, the monitoring of both social and academic performance, simplifies record keeping, and
eliminates differential points for each target behaviour and differential prices for each reinforcer.
Points are awarded by levels of performance and groups of reinforcers are related to their various
levels.
Clark (1988) recommended the use of “Behavior tickets” to extend the token economy
outside the classroom. The tickets can be used by involved adults in any class or area of the school in
which the student works or plays. When the student leaves the classroom to go to the restroom,
lunchroom, playground, or elsewhere, he or she is given a ticket. To earn points, the students must
return to class with the ticket in one piece. If the student is caught misbehaving by another teacher,
the teacher stops the student, requests the tickets, and tears it into two pieces. Missing tickets are
considered to be torn tickets. This technique, according to Clark, has two advantages: the student
can be reinforced for appropriate out-of-classroom behaviors and misbehaviour can be addressed as
soon as the student returns to the classroom. All tickets must be returned to the teacher at the end
of the class period or day.
Of course, the system assumes that all adults in the school are trained in the technique and
willing to participate.
Examples of the point card and tally form to be used for specific behaviors are presented in
Figure 5.7 and 5.8. Maher (1989) suggested a “punch out” card for use as a behaviour recording
technique. The teacher punches a hole in the card when the student exhibits the appropriate
behaviour. Punching the card is paired with social and tangible reinforcement if tangible
reinforcement is used.

Figure 5.7
Point card for specific behaviour

Point Card
Child’s name: ____________________________________________ Date: ___________

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40
41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50
51 52 53 45 46 56 57 58 59 60
61 62 63 46 47 66 67 68 69 70
71 72 73 47 48 67 77 78 79 80
81 82 83 48 49 68 78 88 89 90
91 92 93 49 59 69 79 98 99 100

Figure 5.8
Tally form for specific behaviour

Point Tally Form

Child

Monday

Tuesday

Wednesday

Thursday

Friday

__________________________________________
Date_________

TOTAL
Monday
Tuesday
 Wednesday
Thursday
Friday

The teacher, with little difficulty, may plan and implement a multipurpose token economy in the
classroom. In this situation, the children earn token for a variety of appropriate behaviors as well as
academic effort and academic success.
Token or points can be presented to the child for any or all of the following behaviors:
 Being present at the work station on time.
 Having appropriate work tools available for use.
 Attending to the instructor’s directions.
 Exhibiting appropriate social behaviour during the work period (raising the hand for
attention, remaining at the work station, not talking without permission).
 Engaging in the assigned work task during the work period, that is, showing effort.
 Correctly or satisfactorily completing the assigned work task.
 Returning work tools to their appropriate place.

Tokens are presented for various appropriate behaviors and withheld for inappropriate behaviors.
A point card for a multipurpose token economy is presented in Figure 5.9. Copies of each of
the forms for recording points in a token economy are provided in the back of the text.

Figure 5.9
Point card for multipurpose token economy

Point Card for Multipurpose Token Economy

Child ______________________________ Day _____________ Date___________

Work Period Readiness Social Behavior Work Effort Work Success Teacher
Comments
9:00-9:15 . .
9:15-10:00
10:00-10:30
10:30-10:45 . .
10:45-11:30
11:30-12:00
12:00-1:00 . .
1:00-1:30
1:30-2:45
2:45-3:00 . .

*Points for work effort and work success are not available during these period due to the nature of
the activity opening exercise, recess, lunch, and closing exercises.

Examples
Mr. Newman, a junior high school math teacher, was having difficulty with Charlie, who had
developed the habit of counting and computing aloud while doing math assignments. At first, this
behaviour was not a serious problem, but then it began to distract many of the other students.
 Mr. Newman decided to implement a token economy system to modify Charlie’s behaviour.
He discussed the system with the class, established a set of rules, and developed a reward menu
before implementing this intervention. (The reward menu is presented in table 5.4.) The token
economy was used with the entire class and effectively modified the behaviors of Charlie and his
peers.

Table 5.4
Mr. Newman’s reward menu

Reward Time Management (Mins) Core Points

Checkers 10 10
Cards 10 10
Puzzles 15 10
Magazines 18 15
Chess 12 10
Model car kits 10 10
Comic books 5 10
Bingo 15 15
Quiet conversation 10 10

Tokens were initially presented on a fixed interval schedule; as the group progressed,
however, a variable interval schedule was introduced. Throughout the program Mr. Newman
conscientiously paired social rewards with the tokens.
Two physical education teachers were having problems with student participation in class.
They were being bombarded with complaints such as headaches, backpains, sore toes, and sore
ears. After discussing the token economy system system between themselves and with their
student, they decided to initiate a program to increase participation. A student delegation aided the
teachers in developing the reward menu shown in Table 5.5

Table 5.5
Physical education class reward menu

Reward Time Management (Mins) Core Points

Getting free time 15 50
Using trampoline 10 40
Shooting baskets 5 30
Acting as activity leader -- 25
Talking with friend 10 40
Playing badminton 10 30
Using trapeze 15 50

Mrs. Thomas has been attempting to get Mary, her sixteen year-old daughter to do the
housekeeping. Mrs. Thomas has had very little success.
On day Mary asked if she and three of her friends could go into the city to go to the theatre.
The big evening ws to be in four weeks. Mrs. Thomas said ‘yes’ and would pay for the trip by helping
her with the housekeeping. Mrs. Thomas made a lot of tasks Mary was responsible for around the
house. In included cleaning her room, wash and drying clothes, ironing, washing windows, cleaning
the bathroom, helping with the cooking, and so on. Each task was assigned a specific point value.
The points could exchanged for money.
When the time for the trip arrived, Mary had sufficient money for they evening, she had an
improved attitude about helping to take care of the house.

In these three examples, the token economy system proved to be effectively increasing
participation. In two of the cases, the teachers changed the rewards in frequently in cooperation
with their students throughout the duration of the program.
Frequently, the token economy intervention described in this section include “response
cost” procedures. This intervention is defined and discussed in the next chapter.

Modeling

One of the most common forms of human learning is accomplished through the processes of
observation and imitation. All parents and teachers can relate a variety of acceptable and
unacceptable behaviors exhibited by their children and students that are imitations of their own (the
adults) personal acceptable and unacceptable behaviors. This form of learning at various times and
by various theorists and practitioners has been called modelling, observational learning,
identification, copying various learning, social facilitation, contagion, role playing, and so on
(Bandure 1969, Striefel, 1981). In this text, the term modelling is used to describe learning by
observation and imitation.
As a behaviour change method, modelling is the provision of an individual or group
behaviour to be imitated or not imitated by an individual. This is one of the oldest and most
frequently applied methods of changing behaviour.
Mothers and fathers, husband and wives, teachers and principals have been suggesting
models to their sons, daughters, spouses, and students for generations.

 “Be a good boy like your brother John.”

 “Why can’t you be like George, an excellent father, a great lover, and a good provider?”
 “Mary, can’t you be a good student like Elleen?”
 “Why can’t you behave like the other boys and girls?”

Several state and national organizations exist for the purpose of providing children with
acceptable social models. These organization provide children with either the direct services of a
live model or an abstract model inherent in their program and printed materials. Among thse
organizations are Big Brother and Big Sister, Boy Scouts and Girl Scouts, 4-H, and Little League.
According to Bandura (1969), and Clarizo and Yelon (1967), exposure to model has three
effects:

1. Modeling effect or observational learning. Children may acquire behaviour from a model that
was not previously a part of their behavioural repertoire. In this situation, the model performs a
behaviour that is imitated by the child in substantially identical form. Examples of the modelling
effect are teaching a nonverbal child to verbalize in imitation of a model and teaching a child
signing skills as a method of communication.

2. Inhibitory and disinhibitory effects. Modeling is not confined exclusively to the learning of new
behaviors as in the preceding modelling effect. Modeling includes not imitating a model for the
purpose of disinhibiting or inhibiting a behaviour. Example, a child may observe and not imitate
a peer who is punished or ignored for exhibiting a behaviour. In this situation, the child may be
said to be experiencing the other child’s behaviour and its consequences vicariously.

3. Eliciting or response facilitation effect. In this situation, the model’s behaviour is employed to
facilitate the occurrence of a previously learned but dormant behaviour from the child. For
example, a child may know that this is appropriate to say “ Thank you” when given a cookie at
snack time. However, this child may not say “Thank you” as a matter of common practice.
Appropriate social responsiveness may be facilitated if all the children who receive cookies
previous to the child during snack time say “Thank you”.

Before implementing a modelling intervention, the teacher or parent should consider the
following factors:

1. Is the child able developmentally and cognitively imitate the model? Practitioners must be
cognizant of the fact that some children are simply not ready to use modelling.

2. Will the child be rewarded for imitating the model? Some children are simply act intrinsically
rewarded by performing behaviors that others consider acceptable.

3. Is the model “good”? Caution must be taken when a model is being selected for a child.
Remember, what the model does in science class may be quite different from what this
individual does in English, shop, on the playground, at the home, or behind the barn.

4. Is the model acceptable to the child? A model who is too good, too bright, fast, or just plain
obnoxious will be rejected by the child.

Modeling techniques can be effectively applied by teachers in an effort to change behaviour

only when consideration is given to these factors.

Examples

Ms. Simpson is a resource teacher for children with mental retardation. Dave and Carl work
with Ms. Simpson in the resource room for one hour each day. Until recently, Dave would
usually attempt his assigned tasks, whereas Carl would seldom attempt his assigned tasks.
It was determined by Ms. Simpson that both boys were reinforced by her attention.
Therefore, she decided to use her attention as a reward they received for completing their work.
Dave was reinforced by Ms. Simpson’s attention. She praised him each time he did his classwork,
attended to the appropriate stimulus, or completed an assigned task; she ignored Carl’s
inappropriate behaviour.
After several sessions during which Dave’s behaviour was rewarded, carl began to imitate
Dave to receive Ms. Simpson’s attention. She immediately reinforced Carl whenever he
exhibited the appropriate behaviour.
The result of this intervention was a dramatic change in Carl’s behaviour. He is now
completing his work to gain approval from Ms. Simpson.

Mr. Cohen is an instructor of three boys and one girl in a class for children with behavioural
disorders. The students’ names are John, James, Charles, and Shirley. Of the four students,
Charles is the most troublesome. Charles constantly moves about the room, exhibiting feelings
of indignation at assignments and disrupting the activities of his classmates and Mr. Cohen. This
behaviour occurs throughout the school day. Originally, when the behaviour occurred, the other
children remained busy at their seats. On these occasions, Mr. Cohen would chase after Charles
or provide him with attention for the unacceptable behaviour he was exhibiting. The acceptable
behaviors manifested by Shirley, John, and James were ignored. Lately, Shirler, John, and James
have begun to move about the room and exhibit behaviors that disturb Mr. Cohen. They are
imitating the behaviour of Charles.
One can conclude that Shirley, John, and James are modelling Charles’ behaviour for the
purpose of receiving attention from their teacher.

In both of these examples the procedure of modelling is effective, in fact, it is effective in

developing both appropriate and inappropriate behaviors. The consequence of behaviour is
again the key factor.
In too many classroom appropriate behaviour is taken for granted. Modeling is a potentially
effective preventive technique.