ME 317 - Heat Transfer Lecture 1

Heat transfer (or heat) is thermal energy in transit due to a spatial temperature difference.

Whenever a temperature difference exists in a medium or between media, heat transfer must occur.

As shown in Figure 1.1, we refer to different types of heat transfer processes as modes.

Conduction

Conduction may be viewed as the transfer of energy from the more energetic to the less energetic particles of a
substance due to interactions between the particles.

For the one-dimensional plane wall shown in Figure 1.3, having a temperature distribution T(x). For heat
conduction, the rate equation is known as Fourier’s law.

(1)

The heat flux q }} rsub {x} ( {W} over {{m} ^ {2}} ¿ ¿ is the heat transfer rate in the x-direction per unit area perpendicular
to the direction of transfer, and it is proportional to the temperature gradient, dT / dx , in this direction.

The parameter k is a transport property known as the thermal conductivity.

The minus sign is a consequence of the fact that heat is transferred in the direction of decreasing temperature.

Under the steady state conditions shown in Figure 1.3, where the temperature distribution is linear, the
temperature gradient may be expressed as

and the heat flux is then

Note that this equation provides a heat flux, that is, the rate of heat transfer per unit area.

The heat rate by conduction, q x ( W ) through a plane wall of area A is then the product of the flux and the area,
q x =q} ¿.

Example 1.1
Convection

The convection heat transfer mode is comprised of two mechanisms. In addition to energy transfer due to random
molecular motion (diffusion), energy is also transferred by the bulk, or macroscopic, motion of the fluid.

We are especially interested in convection heat transfer between a fluid in motion and
a bounding surface when the two are at different temperatures. Consider fluid flow over the
hot surface of Figure 1.4.

A consequence of the fluid–surface interaction is the development of a region in the fluid through which the
velocity varies from zero at the surface to a
finite value u∞ associated with the flow. This region of the fluid is known as the hydrodynamic, or velocity,
boundary layer. Moreover, if the surface and flow temperatures differ,
there will be a region of the fluid through which the temperature varies from T s at y=0 to
T ∞ in the outer flow. This region, called the thermal boundary layer, may be smaller, larger,
or the same size as that through which the velocity varies. In any case, if T s >T ∞, convection heat transfer will
occur from the surface to the outer flow.

Fluid mechanics will play a vital role in our later analysis of convection.

Convection heat transfer may be classified according to the nature of the flow.

Forced convection when the flow is caused by external means, such as by a fan, a
pump, or atmospheric winds.

Free (or natural) convection when the flow is induced by buoyancy forces, which are due to density differences
caused by temperature variations in the fluid.
Figure 1.5 Convection heat transfer processes. (a) Forced convection. (b) Natural
convection.

In Fig. 1.5a a fan is used to provide forced convection air cooling of hot electrical components on a stack of printed
circuit boards.

A free convection heat transfer occurs from hot components on a vertical array of circuit boards in air is shown in
Figure 1.5b. Air that makes contact with the components experiences an increase in temperature and hence a
reduction in density. Since it is now lighter than the surrounding air, buoyancy forces induce a vertical motion for
which warm air ascending from the boards is replaced by an inflow of cooler ambient air.

We have described the convection heat transfer mode as energy transfer occurring within a fluid due to the
combined effects of conduction and bulk fluid motion.

There are two other special cases of convection heat transfer but we will discuss them as we study convection in
detail.

Regardless of the nature of the convection heat transfer process, the appropriate rate equation is of the form
expressed in eq. 3 which is known as Newton’s law of cooling.

where q ¿ , the convective heat flux (W /m 2), is proportional to the difference between the surface and fluid
temperatures, T s and T ∞, respectively. The parameter h (W/m2 ⋅⋅ K) is termed the convection heat transfer
coefficient.

Radiation

Thermal radiation is energy emitted by matter that is at a nonzero temperature. Although we will focus on
radiation from solid surfaces, emission may also occur from liquids and gases.

The energy of the radiation field is transported by electromagnetic waves (or alternatively, photons). While the
transfer of energy by conduction or convection requires the presence of a material medium, radiation does not. In
fact, radiation transfer occurs most efficiently in a vacuum.

Consider radiation transfer processes for the surface of Figure 1.6a. Radiation that is emitted by the surface
originates from the thermal energy of matter bounded by the surface, and the rate at which energy is released per
unit area (W/m2) is termed the surface emissive power, E. There is an upper limit to the emissive power, which is
prescribed by the Stefan–Boltzmann law
where T s is the absolute temperature (K) of the surface and σ is the Stefan–Boltzmann constant

Such a surface is called an ideal radiator or blackbody.

where ε is a radiative property of the surface termed the emissivity. With values in the
range 0 ≤ ε ≤1 , this property provides a measure of how efficiently a surface emits energy
relative to a blackbody. It depends strongly on the surface material and finish, and representative values are
provided in Appendix A.

Radiation may also be incident on a surface from its surroundings. The radiation may
originate from a special source, such as the sun, or from other surfaces to which the surface
of interest is exposed. Irrespective of the source(s), we designate the rate at which all such
radiation is incident on a unit area of the surface as the irradiation G (Figure 1.6a)

A portion, or all, of the irradiation may be absorbed by the surface, thereby increasing the thermal energy of the
material. The rate at which radiant energy is absorbed per unit surface area may be evaluated from knowledge of a
surface radiative property termed the absorptivity α. That is,

where α≤≤0 1 . If α<1 and the surface is opaque, portions of the irradiation are
reflected. If the surface is semitransparent, portions of the irradiation may also be transmit-
ted.

A special case that occurs frequently involves radiation exchange between a small sur-
face at Ts and a much larger, isothermal surface that completely surrounds the smaller one
(Figure 1.6b).

The surroundings could, for example, be the walls of a room or a furnace

If the surface is assumed to be one

This expression provides the difference between thermal energy that is released due to radiation emission and
that gained due to radiation absorption
The surfaces of Figure 1.6 may also simultaneously transfer heat by convection to an
adjoining gas. For the conditions of Figure 1.6b, the total rate of heat transfer from the surface is then

Example 1.2