Course: School Administrations & Supervisions

(8616)

Submitted to: Ishtiaque Ahmad

Name: Rabia Yasmeen

Roll No: CB 649659

Semester: Spring 2021

Level: B. ED
Question 1: what strategies can supervisor use to help teacher view evaluation as a
way of improving instructional opportunities for students?

Concept and Definitions of Administration:

Supervision in the workplace has become a fundamentally important exercise for both workforces and
clients. This article explores and discusses key messages of the supervision.
It provides insights and alignment about the functions of supervision and characteristics of a good
supervisor in human services. The article is a good resource for persons who want to learn about
supervision and those who want to advance their supervision practices. Supervision has been around
since 1970s as a form of counselling service to clients. After 1970s it began to move away from
counselling model to more educational development which aims to assist workers to reflect on the
processes of their practice when dealing with clients or vulnerable victims. In other words, supervision
has a history of changing focus from the person doing the work to the work itself. This has come as a
result of social roles and developmental frameworks in community services (Carroll, 2007). At present,
supervision is about supporting, getting work results to meet administrative needs and being
educational to ensure that supervisees are growing professionally in their careers.
Theory and Function of Supervision
Supervision is all about reflecting on your role, the opportunity to grow professional and
remain competent in your role as well as keeping a professional relationship with
supervisor and team. Reflection is a progression whereby a person reflects on what he/she
brings to an interaction and how this may impact on how he/she views and manages that
interaction. Supervision promotes a clear understanding of capacity building of
individuals and provides leadership and strategic thinking in order to implement work
related tasks. Understanding function, role and authority of the position held involves
openness, particularly sweeping interaction and honest communication (Borders, 2001).
Therefore, supervision should:
- Improve the quality of decision-making and interventions.
- Enable effective line management and organizational accountability.
- Identify and address issues related to caseloads and workload management.
- Help to identify and achieve personal learning, career and development
opportunities.
These functions are reinforced by the Alfred Kadushin’s theory and model of
supervision. There are many theories written about supervision practice that are not
mentioned in this article. The writer encourages people take time to visit and read many
theories in social work, social psychology and counseling that discusses supervision.
Alfred Kadushin argues supervision in social work is useful and helpful in many ways.
His argument goes back to earlier theories such as John Dawson (1926) who stated the
functions of supervision in the following terms:
- Administrative: the promotion and maintenance of good standards of work, coordination
of practice with policies of administration, the assurance of an efficient
and smooth-running office;
- Educational: the educational development of each individual worker on the staff in
a manner calculated to evoke her fully to realise her possibilities of usefulness; and
 - Supportive: the maintenance of harmonious working relationships, the cultivation
of esprit de corps (morale of the group or team spirit).
Supporting workers to learn and grow professionally is one of the key roles of a manager
within an organization. Some theories argue that managers must have a concern for both
performance and learning of workers (Smith, 2012). The essentially managerial aspects
of a managers’ work are their responsibility for monitoring and improving the work of
others; and their managerial effectiveness is determined by their capacity to improve the
work of others. If managers are not able to make this contribution, then what value are
they adding? The ultimate justification of managers’ existence is the improvement of the
work of their subordinates. If managers fail in this way they fail as managers
Monitoring and Evaluation
The monitoring and evaluation denotes finding out or deciding the amount or value of a
particular phenomenon. Obioma (1990) defines evaluation as the qualitative judgment,
which results from assessment, based on quantitative or qualitative data from the tools of
testing and measurement. Evaluation and monitoring of anything or program would
involve sample testing the products of the scheme to ascertain the level of literacy
acquired as well as survey of the percentage level of literacy in the nation. There is
however, the need for periodic evaluation of each of the processes and decisions put in so
as to confirm acceptability and effectiveness so that the end product would be desirable.
Evaluation on its own part would examine the quality and quantity of originators on
ground in terms of the amount of governmental and non-governmental bodies involved in
the implementation of the scheme; the number of teachers, pupils, classrooms, furniture
and other infrastructure. Evaluation would also provide base-line data on area of
effectiveness which need to be maintained and areas of weakness which should be
improved upon periodic results of evaluation would present the trend and the blueprint
for adjustments and remedy for the scheme as may be necessary.
Evaluation should come in the form of a survey (if need be in a questionnaire form) and
should cover areas such as:
1. Number of teachers and support staff available in the field as classified into groups.
2. Number of schools classification into operating bodies e.g. Government, NGO,
voluntary agency etc.
3. Enrolment of pupils.
4. Number of training institutions and enrolment in these institutions.
5. Infrastructure available for the scheme (classrooms, furniture and other materials).
6. Graduates from training institutions year by year and weighting them against the
enrolment (appropriate student: teacher ratio).
7. Job satisfaction of functionaries and the level of their performance.
8. Difficulties encountered in the field and possible solutions pilot tested.
9. Quality of products, physicians and supports
10. Management of resources e.g., time.
11. Community assessment/benefits.
12. Curriculum
All these are evaluations which are carried on as the scheme progresses. On the overall
view, there is need to assess the level of literacy in the country every 5 years and compare
the result with the starting point statistic such that a trend could be observed. This
periodic comparison, especially when took with the number of graduates of the scheme
would advise the nation to look somewhere else for the needed solution.
Skills Required for Supervision A lot of professional skills are required for supervision in schools.
According to Olowoye (1989), these skills can be classified into eight major groups as stated below:

1) Pedagogical Skills: These include mastery of subject matter, teaching methods, improvisation,
presentation of content, preparation of lesson notes, lesson plans and units etc.
2) Evaluation Skills: These include questioning, continuous assessment and examination skills.
3) Disciplinary Skills: These include class control, punishment, use of rules and regulations and
maintenance of order.
4) Motivational Skills: Issues bordering on rewards and reinforcement are emphasized.
5) Reportorial Skills: Documentation of report card, class register, log book, attendance book etc.
6) Managerial Skills: These are skills on time management, good use of teaching aids, difficult situation,
and students behavior.
7) Interactive Skills: Creation of rapport, teacher’s personality and general characteristics, cooperation
etc.
8) Analytical Skills: Possession of mathematical ability, statistical computation and interpretation of
data etc.

The importance of acquiring these skills cannot be left to chance or in the hands of charlatans or
mediocre. This informs the need to improve on the skills of school supervisors in order to achieve the
objectives of primary education in Nigeria. Duties of School Supervisors In a nutshell, the
responsibilities of the heads supervisors could be outlined as follows According to Guynm (1981)
1. Helping teachers and stimulating curriculum improvement
2. Emphasizing the use of group process with teachers, students and other school personnel.
3. Performing administrative functions only to help instructions through in-service.
4. Teaching of teachers for improving instruction through inservice. Igwe (2001) noted that supervision
involves evaluation, monitoring and quality control for the purpose of curriculum and infrastructural
development and improvement.

In order to achieve this, some specific tasks of the supervisor in a modern school have been identified
and listed here under; a) Helping school head teachers to understand students better b) Helping
teachers and individuals for professional growth c) Acquiring cooperating spirit for team work d)
Making better use of teaching materials e) Improving methods of teaching f) Improving teacher’s
appraisal of his standards g) Acquisition of originality for the teacher within the commodity. h) Faculty
plan for curriculum improvement The common denominator in the objectives of supervision as
outlined above is to help teachers become more effective in planning their class work in terms of
utilizing maximally, textbooks and other basic materials and curricular aids as well as helping teachers
with guidance and evaluation.
Strategies use to help teacher view evaluation
Effective intra-school supervision is based on identifying certain criteria areas that if well supervised,
would help improve the quality of primary school education.
The Nature of Lesson Plan The lesson plan is a reflection of the level of preparedness as well as the
effort the teacher made in gathering information for the lesson. So a poorly written lesson plan not
only indicates the quality of the teacher, but also the level of commitment to his primary task of
teaching. The school head (principal) must critically examine the following items of the lesson plan.

The clarity and appropriateness of the learner behavioural objectives

The relevance and adequacy of the lesson notes,
Selection of appropriate teaching aids,
Selection of appropriate evaluation techniques to determine the extent of realizing the objective
effectively.
ii. Lesson Presentation Teaching is said to be effective if the desired objectives are achieved. The
school principal is required to carefully pay attention to the following areas: a) The introduction of
the lesson and the teacher’s ability to maintain students’ attention throughout the duration of the
lesson, b) The teacher’s voice quality, speech, clarity of expression, intelligibility and
appropriateness of language, effective use of learning materials such as audio-visual aids and
chalkboard, etc., c) Teacher’s knowledge of the subject matter in terms of structure and sequence,
d) Use of classroom management techniques including skills in affecting student’s participation in
class activities
iii. Reference Materials The use of appropriate reference materials such as textbooks, scheme of
work and syllabus cannot be overlooked. The principals must look into the following: a) The
duration of item or topic. b) The relevance and logicality of the materials used, c) The sequence of
presentation of contents, etc., d) Use of current as opposed to obsolete materials..

iv. The Relationship between Teacher and Student Without doubt, a harmonious interpersonal
relationship between teachers and students could engender learning and attainment of
educational goals. In this regard, the principal must seek for genuine love and concern, positive and
acceptable disposition between and among the teachers and students. His ability to accommodate
or tolerate and, if possible, lend a helping hand through guidance and counseling services must be
considered.
v. Classroom Management Effective classroom
management facilitates teaching and learning process. The principal or other appointed school
personnel must be conversant with the following: a) Ability to discipline and control students, b)
Reward skills to reinforce good performance or conduct, c) Ability to identify cases and causes of
students mis-behaviour, d) Creation of conducive classroom climate, e) Sitting arrangement of
students, f) Classroom physical condition
vi. Personality of the Teacher Teacher’s personality includes among things his personal traits or
characteristics, emotional status, appearance, intelligence, physique, leadership skills,
communication skills, etc.
Question 2: How financial audit & academic audit are different? Explain your answer
keeping in mind different aspects?

Subjecting your business for regular third-party review and evaluation helps your small business
successfully evolve. External reviews allow you to observe problems within your business that you
might not see because you are in the midst of the business. Whether for financial or academic
purposes, audits examine activities against set criteria and standards. Successful audits must be
independent, must have a set method and must be documented.
Financial Audits Financial audits evaluate financial statements and provide third-party opinions on
the truthfulness of these statements. Auditors test various claims against relevant accounting
standards to provide this opinion. All financial statements are based on these accounting standards.
The assertions include accuracy of the numbers, existence of the assets and liabilities, completeness
of the numbers and actual occurrence of transactions. In short, auditors check the entire accounting
process through which these numbers are placed on your financial statements.

Financial audits dig deep into an institutions/organization’s financial situation, probing accounting
records, internal controls policies, cash holdings and other sensitive financial areas. Publicly-traded
corporations are subject to external financial audits on a regular basis, and even privately owned
small businesses can be subjected to an external financial audit by the IRS or other government
authority. Knowing how to perform a financial audit on your own books can help you to prepare
for a possible external audit, keep your accounting system in order and discourage internal fraud
and theft.
1. Review the systems put in place to transmit financial information to the accounting
department. The first step in the accounting cycle is to gather financial documentation, such
as sales receipts, invoices and bank statements, and forward it to the accounting department
for processing. Without timely and reliable information, accounting records can become
unreliable themselves, creating inconsistencies in a company's financial records.
2. Look into the company's record-keeping policies and check to ensure records are being
stored properly. Small businesses should keep at least an electronic photocopy of cash
register tapes, cancelled checks, invoices and other financial documentation until the end
of the current accounting period. Make sure that archived records can be accessed quickly
to shed light on any potential issues that arise.

3. Identify and review each element of the company's accounting system, including
individual T-accounts (debits and credits), journal entries, the general ledger and current
financial statements. Systematically work through the accounting system to ensure that
all necessary accounts are present, that T-accounts are posted to the general ledger in a
timely manner and that the system has the ability to correct human errors, such as
arithmetic mistakes.
4. Check into the institution’s internal controls policies to gauge the level of protection they
provide from corruption. Internal switch policies include things like separation of
accounting duties between different employees, locked safes for holding pending bank
deposits and password-protected accounting software that tracks exactly who does what
and when.
5. Compare internal chronicles of cash holdings, income and expenses against external records.
Check the company's stored external records and compare selected transactions against
internal records. Compare purchase receipts sent from suppliers for a certain month
against internal purchase records, for example, or compare cash register tapes against
revenue recorded on the books.
6. Analyze the institution’s internal tax records and official tax returns. Tax records should
be kept for seven years to be on the safe side. Browse through the company's tax receipts
from the IRS and compare it against records of tax liabilities and taxes paid in the
company's accounting records. Take a little extra time to review the range of credits and
deductions claimed on the most recent tax return, looking for areas of dubious reporting,
such as inflated expense numbers.

Academic Audit
Academics are short-term efforts, and their ultimate goal is to create unique outputs for your
business. Academic audits, therefore, observe the true status of academic cost, schedule, scope and
quality. They identify issues and problems that may hinder your business’ academic development,
and then provide solutions to improve the performance of that academic. First, academic auditors
identify the success parameters and then interview the core academic members and relevant
investors. Next they analyze the issues, challenges and opportunities using information they gained
from interviews and academic documents. Finally, auditors develop reports that they present to
management.
The Academic Audit, like more traditional program reviews, is a peer review process including a self-
study and a site visit by peers from outside the institution. However, the similarities end there.
Unlike the traditional approach to program evaluation, this process emphasizes self-reflection and
self-improvement rather than compliance with predetermined standards. The purpose of an
academic audit is to encourage departments or programs to evaluate their “education quality
processes” – the key faculty activities required to produce, assure, and regularly improve the quality
of teaching and learning.
An audit asks how faculty approach educational decision-making and how they organize their work,
using the resources available to them and working collegially to provide a quality education in the
best interests of the discipline and student learning.
Purpose of the Academic Audit:
The objective of academic audit is to evaluate the performance of the institution and to identify the
issues that are to be attended in order to improve the quality of teaching and Research. The
following are the major objectives of abstract audit:
1. To understand the existing system and assess the strengths and weaknesses of the Departments
and Administrative Units and to suggest the methods for improvement and for overcoming the
weaknesses while teaching, learning and evaluation, student support and progression.
2. To ascertain whether the Departments/centers are functioning efficiently and effectively with
proven records of capacity building, research projects and publications and extension over a period
of time or not.
3. To identify the bottlenecks in the existing administrative mechanisms and to identify the
opportunities for academic reforms, administrative reforms and examination reforms for a long
term progression with excellence and to face the challenges of Internationalization in higher
education.
4. To evaluate the optimum utilization of financial and other resources, issues concerning with
leadership and organization, functional autonomy and financial management.
5. To suggest the methods of improvement for maintaining quality in higher education.
Main Differences
The differences in financial audits and academic audits are in their objectives. While financial audits
seek financial statement accuracy, academic audits seek to unearth and resolve academic problems.
The methods used in either case similarly are largely different. Unlike academic audits, financial
auditing uses a range of substantive procedures. Additionally, businesses submit to financial
auditing activities because of statutory or regulatory pressures. However, business owners,
managers and stakeholders initiate academic audits to ensure that academic activities remain on
track.
Other Differences
Financial audits are mainly close-ended exercises. This means that auditors focus only on verifying
the financial information. Conversely, academic audits are open-ended, consultative exercises.
Academic auditors act as consultants who try to add value to academics and business by suggesting
improvements and ways to close gaps. Depending on the academic type, the auditor must have
relevant expertise and skills to provide meaningful output. For example, a academic auditor who
has no knowledge of trigonometry and design might have difficulties performing academic audits of
the world’s tallest buildings.
Question 3: How synergistic supervision improves the performance of students and
teachers?
Synergistic Supervision
Synergistic supervision has been described as having the greatest utility for working with student
affairs professionals. Its cooperative nature allows joint effects to exceed the combination of
individual efforts. Important characteristics of synergistic supervision include:
Dual Focus - Staff members need to feel that they have a significant influence on selecting and
defining the goals of the unit and in devising strategies to accomplish them. If staff members
perceive goals as being imposed on them, they may not make a personal investment in trying to
achieve the goals of the unit.
Joint Effort - Supervision is not something done to staff but rather a cooperative activity in which
each party has an important input to make. Plans for accomplishing tasks such as determining unit
priorities, scheduling and distributing work and coordinating the efforts of the division are worked
out jointly between the supervisor and the staff member.
Two-way Communication - In the synergistic model of staffing practices, supervision is dependent
upon a high level of trust between staff members and supervisors. Staff members must be willing
to allow supervisors to learn personal information about them.
Staff members must also feel free to give their supervisors honest, direct feedback. Communication
is key in developing this trust.
Synergistic supervision can be defined as a cooperative effort between the supervisor and
supervisee with a focus on joint-effort, two-way communication, and competency and goals (for the
betterment of the organization and individual).Emergent Themes Compared with Characteristics of
Synergistic Supervision is as follows:
• Supervisor Accessibility (Helping Process)
• Meaningful Interaction with Supervisor (Cooperative Effort)
• Utilization of Formal Evaluations (Focus on Competence / Goals)
• Providing Unique Supervision (Joint Effort / Two-way Communication)
• Providing Professional Development Opportunities
The learning-teaching synergy happens when teachers are thinking, observing, and focusing in all
sorts of ways on learning—when we are constantly asking, “What’s going to help students learn
this?” This focus on learning and attempts to understand how it’s happening for students drives
decision-making about teaching. It is what determines whether students will work in groups,
whether they need to write or speak answers, whether their understanding of a concept should be
tested, and on and on. Teachers become learners of learning. We have always been learners of
content, but now in every class we seek to better understand the relationship between the learning
experiences of students and the instructional approaches we are using.
The teaching-learning synergy happens when students are focused on learning—what
they are learning (the content and skills of the course) and how they are learning it. Both
are important. Students need to develop an understanding of themselves as learners. The
synergy happens when students are learning from and with others. They are learning from
the teacher who has relevant experiences and expertise. They are also learning from classmates
who offer explanations that make sense to novice learners and use examples that beginners find
meaningful. When classmates act as teachers, their confidence grows, as does the confidence of
those learning from them. Through this synergy student discover that they can figure things out for
themselves.
The synergy happens when teachers are open to learning from students. Sometimes (not all the
time) a student asks a question, offers an example, or shares an insight and the teacher learns
something new about the content. More often students are instructing the teacher about learning—
what content causes them confusion, what examples aren’t meaningful, and what assignments
don’t generate much engagement. On the other side they’re also able to help us understand the
things that inspire them to learn, and the tactics that help them to do so.
Synergy Education Solution works directly with educators, professional and parent organizations,
and publishers to improve students’ learning and achievement in our nations’ schools. Synergy
offers services that focus on the integration of evidence-based assessment and instructional
programs, professional development for teachers and educational leaders, and strategies for the
implementation of effective programs. Synergy works closely with educational leaders at state and
federal levels in developing initiatives and policies that are informed by current research and assists
institutions of higher education in building graduate programs that enhance the teaching graduate
programs that in turn enhance the teaching effectiveness and leadership abilities of educational
professionals.
The learning-teaching synergy happens when teachers are thinking, observing, and focusing in all
sorts of ways on learning—when we are constantly asking, “What’s going to help students learn
this?” This focus on learning and attempts to understand how it’s happening for students drives
decision-making about teaching. It is what determines whether students will work in groups,
whether they need to write or speak answers, whether their understanding of a concept should be
tested, and on and on. Teachers become learners of learning. We have always been learners of
content, but now in every class we seek to better understand the relationship between the learning
experiences of students and the instructional approaches we are using.
The teaching-learning synergy happens when students are focused on learning—what they are
learning (the content and skills of the course) and how they are learning it. Both are important.
Students need to develop an understanding of themselves as learners. The synergy happens when
students are learning from and with others. They are learning from the teacher who has relevant
experiences and expertise. They are also learning from classmates who offer explanations that make
sense to novice learners and use examples that beginners find meaningful. When classmates act as
teachers, their confidence grows, as does the confidence of those learning from them. Through this
synergy student discover that they can figure things out for themselves.
The synergy happens when teachers are open to learning from students. Sometimes (not all the
time) a student asks a question, offers an example, or shares an insight and the teacher learns
something new about the content. More often students are instructing the teacher about learning—
what content causes them confusion, what examples aren’t
meaningful, and what assignments don’t generate much engagement. On the other side, they’re
also able to help us understand the things that inspire them to learn, and the tactics that help them
to do so.
Synergy Education Solution works directly with educators, professional and parent organizations,
and publishers to improve students’ learning and achievement in our nations’ schools. Synergy
offers services that focus on the integration of evidence-based assessment and instructional
programs, professional development for teachers and educational leaders, and strategies for the
implementation of effective programs. Synergy works closely with educational leaders at state and
federal levels in developing initiatives and policies that are informed by current research and assists
institutions of higher education in building graduate programs that enhance the teaching graduate
programs that in turn enhance the teaching effectiveness and leadership abilities of educational
professionals.
Question 4: Discuss in detail Developmental model of supervision and give your opinion
about this model?

A developmental approach to teaching and learning is simply put catering to the needs of
the individual learner through an individualized program that works with their development long a
range of measures:
➢ Cognitive – their brain readiness for mastery of existing concepts and introduction to new
Australian Curriculum challenges
➢ Physical – the physical gross and fine motor skills needed for a range of learning and social skills
➢ Moral Development – developing empathy and compassion
➢ Ego Development – understanding of the self in the world (e.g. time, space, selfreflection)
➢ Faith Development – belief in how their world is controlled (Ghosts and monsters
or logical reasoning)
➢ Emotional and Social Development – self-awareness and self-management of emotions and
working with others
➢ Self-Direction – understanding of learning needs and ways of working (learning styles and
organizational skills)
Development cannot be forced or ignored. If we try and work more than one level of development
beyond where the child is at it will just sound like nonsense and they won’t
understand. If we try to push them to the next level they will keep returning to the previous one
whenever they are stressed.
You cannot skip a level, you need to be in it and explore it and find out that there are better ways
to think and do that you can see other’s do. When your level stops working you move to the next
one. Experiential learning is key to the process. So we look at the individual child’s readiness to
identify where they need to be within the BIS cultural expectations for moral development and
community participation and where they need to be to fit societal expectations of the Australia
Curriculum.
This Means in Practice:
➢ We don’t race children through when they are not ready – we wait and support them but
always show them the next level for them to aspire
➢ We work with them to develop the areas they need to and harness those that they excel
within, giving them time to master skills
➢ We learn to understand them as they will have the same teacher for much of their schooling
who gets to understand their idiosyncrasies and learns how to motivate and extend them
➢ We find out about your learning preferences and use them actively in your learning program
➢ We put in limits when they need it and take them away when they need to stretch their wings
and fly
➢ We listen to their body patterns and physical needs, allowing them to eat when hungry and go
to the toilet whenever they need
➢ We have four basic school rules to follow and know that depending on your age,
developmental level and understanding those rules will need different explanations and
consequences.
The underlying premise of developmental models of supervision is the notion that individuals are
continuously growing. In combining our experience with hereditary predispositions we develop
strengths and growth areas. The objective of supervision from this perspective is to maximise and
identify growth needed for the future. Thus, it is typical to be continuously identifying new areas
of growth in a life-long learning process as a clinical practitioner.
Studies revealed that behaviour of supervisors changed as supervisees gained experience, and the
supervisory relationship also changed. There appeared to be a scientific basis for developmental
trends and patterns in supervision. In general, the developmental model of supervision defines
progressive stages of supervisee development from beginner to expert, with each stage consisting
of discrete characteristics and skills.
For example, supervisees at the beginner stage would be expected to have limited skills and lack
confidence as counsellors, while middle stage supervisees might have more skill and confidence
and have conflicting feelings about perceived independence/dependence on the supervisor. A
supervisee at the expert end of the developmental spectrum is likely to utilise good problem-
solving skills and be deeply reflective and intuitive about the counselling and supervisory process
(Haynes, Corey, & Moulton, 2003, Jones, 2008).
Developmental supervision is based on the following two assumptions:
In the process of becoming competent, the counsellor will progress though a number of stages
that are qualitatively different from each other;
Each stage requires a qualitatively different environment for optimum growth to occur.
Stoltenberg and Delworth (1987) described a developmental model with three levels of
supervisees: beginning, intermediate, and advanced. Within each level the authors noted a trend.
The beginner supervisee would tend to function in a rigid, shallow, imitative way and then over
time move toward more competence, self-assurance, and self-reliance.
Areas of focus in the observation of development includes the supervisees development in (1) self-
and-other awareness, (2) motivation, and (3) autonomy. For example, a beginner psychotherapist
who was beginning supervision for the first time would tend to be relatively dependent on the
supervisor for client diagnoses and in establishing plans for therapy.
Intermediate supervisees would tend to have dependence on their supervisors for only the more
difficult clients. Resistance, avoidance, and/or conflict is typical of the intermediate stage of
supervisee development, because self-concept is easily threatened. Advanced supervisees
function far more independently, seeking consultation when appropriate, and take responsibility
for their correct and incorrect decisions.
For supervisors employing a developmental approach to supervision, the key is to accurately
identify the supervisee’s current phase of development and provide feedback and support
appropriate to that developmental stage. While doing this, it is also important to facilitate the
supervisee’s progression to the next stage (Stoltenberg & Delworth, 1987).
To this end, a supervisor uses an interactive process, often referred to as “scaffolding” which
encourages the supervisee to use prior knowledge and skills (the scaffold) to guide them on to the
development of new knowledge and skills. As the supervisee approaches mastery of each stage of
development, the supervisor gradually moves the scaffold to incorporate knowledge and skills
from the next stage. Throughout this process, not only is the supervisee exposed to new
information and counselling skills, the contact between supervisor and supervisee also fosters the
development of advanced critical thinking skills and effective reflective practice principles.
It is important to note that while the developmental process of the supervisee appears linear, it is
not. This is because in reality a supervisee may be in different stages simultaneously. For example,
the supervisee may be predominately at an intermediate level overall, but experience the
attributes of a beginner when faced with a new, more complex and challenging client situation.
The table below offers an overview of the typical attributes found within each of the three primary
levels of development within the supervisee.
An essential task of a professional school counselor is the commitment to continuous professional
development. Within the school setting school counselors get pulled in many different directions.
Taking the time to attend to the emotional needs of students can sometimes get lost as counselors
prioritize academic or career needs. An emphasis on the development and refinement of
counseling skills can help school counselors become more competent counselors. Stoltenberg,
McNeil, and Delworth (1998) identify eight domains of clinical practice: intervention skills
competence, assessment techniques, interpersonal assessment, client conceptualization,
individual differences, theoretical orientation, treatment plans and goals, and professional ethics.
The opportunity for a supervisor to help the school counselor measure their development within
each of these domains in addition to providing an environment conducive to growth, will not only
improve the supervisee’s self-confidence but also their ability to provide more effective counseling
with their students (Stoltenberg et al., 1998). The supervisor/supervisee relationship allows the
school counselor opportunities to talk about the mental health needs of their students. School
counselors can begin to feel disconnected to the world of higher academia after graduating from
their school counseling programs and therefore, may no longer be connected to the latest
research and developments in these areas. The IDM model helps identify the areas of growth they
can focus on. Stoltenberg, McNeil, and Delworth’s (1998) model of supervision provides a
significant amount of information regarding the common obstacles supervisees encounter and
strategies for the supervisor to help them avoid or overcome these in the future. For example, in
the area of professional ethics, supervisees may struggle with limits of confidentiality in counseling
sessions with adolescents. Supervisors can help the supervisee determine how to best handle this
situation by using probing questions and helping them discover how ethical codes as defined by
ASCA might help them navigate this situation. In the domain area of individual differences,
supervisors can help supervisees take notice of how cultural influences, such as low socio-
economic status, race, ethnicity, gender identity, or religious affiliation, might impact a student’s
access to resources or general wellbeing. For example, these resources could include tutoring,
information on the local food bank, or a private place to perform a spiritual practice during
specified times of the day. These are new experiences for the supervisee, and a counselor with the
knowledge of how “school” influences can affect a child, can be a great asset to a counselor-in-
training. Lastly, understanding how school culture can affect counseling plans and goals is
important. Supervisors can help supervisees understand how counseling plans work within the
school setting, the different school personnel or stakeholders that might play a role in the plan,
and how to work within the parameters of the school environment.
Question 5: write your understandings about?

i)Supervising School Environment

ii) Supervising teaching & learning

Supervising School Environment

Supervisor verify that teachers establish and maintain a suitable learning environment. Therefore,
each teacher should develop and implement clear classroom routines and appropriate standards
at the beginning of each school year to insure the health, safety, and welfare of their students.
This includes maintaining a clean, safe, and orderly learning environment that includes
establishment of good work habits and discipline.
Teachers should post and communicate the classroom standards and procedures as well as the
consequences for misbehavior with students and their parents. Students should show evidence of
respect for the rules in the classroom and on the campus. Teachers should strive to be fair, firm,
and consistent as they maintain effective student control in the classroom and uphold the rules
throughout the school. Teachers should refer students to support staff when necessary to
maintain the appropriate learning environment.
Administrators should ensure that appropriate behavior is supported with regular and ongoing
recognition and reinforcement activities. Mutual respect among pupils, teachers, and staff should
be evident on campus and in classrooms. Everyone should work together cooperatively,
communicate with sensitivity, and utilize appropriate language.
Administrators and teachers should serve as role models for students in developing self-control,
a sense of responsibility, and attitudes of tolerance and sensitivity. Emergency procedures should
be reviewed with students and practiced regularly. In addition, administrators should verify that
materials and supplies that will be needed in an emergency, including exit routes and student
information, are readily available.
Teachers should adjust the heating, lighting, and ventilation to promote comfort. The classroom
arrangement should make good use of space, foster good study habits, and enable students to see
and hear instruction. The classroom should have attractive and appropriate visuals and
decorations that do not distract from learning.
Good home-school relationships help create a positive learning environment and can be enhanced
by regular communication. This can include information on what is to be taught as well as the
methods and materials that will be used to achieve the objectives.
Evaluators should check to see that systems have been established to communicate with parents
on a regular basis regarding student progress. Parents should have opportunities for classroom
visitations as well as parent conferences. Teachers should make every effort to promptly return
parents' phone calls.
Here are few Supervision Strategies e.g. Supervision of instruction must be built on the observer's
thorough understanding and in-depth knowledge of instructional theory, not on a check list of
what should be in a lesson.
Gathering data: Three main sources of information help identify a teacher's competency
include: observations, interviews, and documents. Observations should include walkthrough
conducted on at least a weekly basis. These brief visits, lasting only a minute or two, provide a
quick look at teacher performance and classroom environmental factors.
Walk-through are helpful in identifying ongoing patterns of behavior. An informal observation is
an unannounced visit lasting more than 10 minutes throughout which the teacher's behaviors or
classroom factors may be observed to document consistent trends or patterns of behavior. The
informal observation can be followed by a written summary or conference with the teacher. A
formal observation is an announced visit lasting an agreed-upon amount of time. During the
observation, the administrator records what was said by the teacher and the students. The formal
observation also includes a pre- and post-conference and a written summary. The summary
includes a description of the conference, observation, observer's judgments, and agreements or
directions for changes in teacher behaviors, activities, or classroom environment. A peer
observation is agreed upon by the educator and peer and can be used to verify a trend or pattern
of behavior perceived by the evaluator.
Interviews are also a helpful source of obtaining information. They can include discussions with
students to verify perceptions. At times, parents request a conference to discuss their perceptions.
In addition, other members of the administrative team or classified employees who are assigned
to work in the classroom can be interviewed to provide their perceptions.
The review of various types of documents can be helpful in identifying trends or behaviors. These
include written parent and student letters or complaint forms. Individual pieces of students' work,
folders, or portfolio assessments which contain a number of samples of students' work also
provide helpful information on their achievement.
Documents should include both formative (ongoing assessment measures) and summative
measures (culminating assessment) including homework, practice exercises completed in class,
examinations, and student projects.
Teacher Conference: Conferences throughout the year provide a means to communicate the
evaluation of the teacher's performance. Decisions shared during the conference are based upon
the data collected through observations, review of documents, and interviews that relate to the
assessment and evaluation of the educator's ability to meet the requirements adopted by the local
district governing board. The conference should provide the teacher with the means to change
unsatisfactory behavior or options for enhancement of performance. The conference should
provide an opportunity to expand the teacher's knowledge and concepts and reinforce his or her
understanding of the missions of the school.
The pre-conference is held before a formal observation and provides the administrator with the
opportunity to obtain as much information about the upcoming observation as possible.
Post-conferences can be collaborative, guided, or directive in nature. Each type of conference is
planned by the supervising administrator to achieve a different goal. A collaborative conference is
effective when the teacher is able to identify problem areas, suggest alternatives, develop a plan,
and is ready and willing to grow professionally, needing little support. This conference is designed
to conclude with mutually determined follow-up activities that will enhance the teacher's
capabilities.
The conference begins with the teacher presenting an overview and analysis of the lesson that
was observed. The teacher identifies the strengths and weaknesses of the lesson while the
administrator listens to the teacher's perceptions. The administrator then verifies the teacher's
perceptions and offers his or her own opinions. After this mutual exchange, possible activities for
the next steps are discussed and the conference concludes with agreement on a final plan.
A guided conference is effective for teachers who have difficulty identifying problem
areas and alternatives to current practices and need support to carry out the action plan. In
addition, the guided conference is effective with a teacher who has little or no difficulty identifying
areas that need improvement but is unwilling or not committed to making the necessary changes.
During a guided conference it is important that the principal provides prompts to encourage the
teacher's thinking, to allow the teacher freedom to explore various possibilities, and to enable the
teacher to make a commitment.
Planning the Conference: In preparation for the conference, the administrator will need to
review the data and identify the strengths and areas of worry. The administrator should
select only one or two behavioral changes and the professional growth activity or activities that
will have the greatest effect on the learning for the largest number of students. These selected
areas will be the focus or objective of the conference. It will be necessary to identify specific
aspects of the data collected that support the need for growth in these areas. It is helpful to
formulate questions before the conference that will help the teacher focus on these issues or
clarify aspects of the example for the administrator. The administrator must identify possible
resources and personnel that could assist in a follow-up plan prior to the conference. The
recommendations considered should be doable and reasonable based on the teacher's readiness
and the time available.
The administrator should select the type of conference collaborative, guided, or directive) and
prepare a conference plan. A good conference should last 30-40 minutes. Longer sessions become
an ordeal for both the teacher and the administrator. It is the administrator's responsibility to
have his or her thoughts well-organized and to keep the conference on task so it can be completed
in a timely manner.
During the conference, the teacher and/or manager should cite purpose, strengths, and areas of
concern with reference to supporting data. A follow-up plan with the desired specific outcome,
activities, and a summary of decisions should be developed.
The evaluation conference should be held at the close of the evaluation period or at the end of the
year. The purpose of the conference is to communicate the teacher's rating based upon the SB
813 performance criteria adopted by the district and should include any commendations for
exemplary performance. Additionally, the conference should provide an opportunity to expand
the teacher's thinking and develop means to strengthen performance. The conference provides
yet another forum to communicate and clarify the school's missions, goals, and values. The
administrator prepares for the evaluation conference in much the same manner as other
conferences. The administrator should review all of the data collected to-date, including
conference memoranda and data prepared during the evaluation period. He or she should
determine the teacher's ratings, commendations, and recommendations, then prepare the
evaluation forms.
In addition, the administrator should identify the objectives that will have the greatest effect on
student learning, recommendations for improvement, methods of improvement and support, and
a reasonable time line. The administrator should select the type of conference (collaborative,
guided, or directive) and formulate questions that help guide the staff to review specific areas of
performance.
Supervising Teaching and Learning
Through the effective supervision of teaching and learning, administrators can reinforce and
enhance school improvements that will contribute to improve student learning. By skillfully
analyzing performance and appropriate data, administrators can provide meaningful feedback and
direction to teachers that can have a profound effect on the learning that occurs in each
classroom. Because student learning is the primary function of the schools, the effective
supervision of instruction is one of the most critical functions of the administrator. If schools are to
provide equal access to quality educational programs for all students, administrators must hold
teachers accountable for as long as an appropriate and well-planned program. These programs
include a variety of teaching strategies designed to meet the diverse needs of all students in our
complex society.
To enhance the professional effectiveness of the teaching staff administrators must be skilled in
these areas: (a) what to evaluate, (b) how to observe and analyze classroom observation
information and other data, and (c) how to translate the results of observations and the summary
of data into meaningful conference feedback that guides and encourages teachers to improve
instruction. Here, evaluation and assessment of certificated employee competency are required in
four areas.
These include:
(1) The progress of pupils toward the district-adopted standards
(2) The instructional strategies and techniques utilized by the teacher
(3) The teacher's adherence to curricular objectives.
(4) The establishment and maintenance of a suitable learning environment. The ability to assess
teacher competence in the four areas outlined is achieving educational excellence and a positive
learning experience for all students.
To assess student progress toward the established district standards and to facilitate the planning
of various types of instruction, administration should ensure that teachers are utilizing information
from a variety of valid and appropriate sources before they begin planning lessons or teaching.
This could include data regarding students' backgrounds, academic levels, and interests, as well as
other data from student records to ascertain academic needs and to facilitate planning
appropriate initial learning. It is important for the administration to note that information
regarding students and their families is used by the staff for professional purposes only and is kept
confidential as a matter of professional ethics.
The beginning of each lesson provides the challenge of how to change the focus of students’
attention from previous classes or discussions with friends to the objective of the lesson.
Research indicates that the learning of facts is greatly facilitated when memories of organized
principles and prerequisite ideas related to the lesson are reviewed at the beginning of the lesson.
During the opening, it is important for students to know the direction of the instruction, the
relevance of what they are learning, and to have a sense of continuity. Students are often not able
to see the relationship between today's work and the work from yesterday. Sharing the objective
of the lesson informally with students would include teacher statements such as “what we are
going to do today" and "the reason we are studying this concept.”
Presenting the lesson: The body of the lesson includes the presentation of information;
explanation-demonstration stage of the lesson. To implement this phase of the lesson,
administrators should note that teachers have a wide variety of different styles and
models of teaching from which to choose. The larger the number of alternative teaching
styles teachers are comfortable utilizing, the more likely they will select techniques that
match the desired objectives, learning styles, and academic levels of their students. To
determine if the best teaching strategy was selected administrators should determine if the
teacher achieved the objective.
While well over a hundred instructional strategies have been identified, there are some
attributes common to all strategies (Joyce & Weil, 1986). Classroom observers should be
aware that each strategy has a set of activities with a distinct purpose and role for the
teacher and students. Each strategy has a logical sequence which is necessary if students
are to accomplish the objective of the lesson. Therefore, the selection of an instructional
strategy is a complex task because there are numerous effective strategies that could be
used, depending on the instructional goal. Joyce and Weil (1986) drew from a wide range
of teaching studies to organize the methods of instruction into four major categories
which they refer to as families of instruction.
It is clear that good teaching requires diagnosing student progress during the lesson and
adjusting instruction. Periodic and formal assessments of student learning through a midterm
or final examination may be helpful in formulating grades, but are not frequent
enough to enable the teacher to adjust the teaching to correct for misconceptions. When
observing a lesson, administrators should note points in the lesson where teachers should
monitor instruction as it progresses to enable them to immediately respond to students'
misunderstandings and insure that all students are learning the material. Checking for
understanding can be done in large groups by having all of the students signal the response
at the same time to the same question. This can be done by the use of their fingers to
signal multiple excellent answers 1, 2, or 3, the first letter of a word, or thumbs up or down to
indicate true or false (Hunter, 1982). Other techniques for group signaling include the use
of individual chalkboards, ceramic tiles, or laminated cards on which students record their
responses with a grease pencil or crayon and flash the answer. A group choral response can
also be used. Students' understanding can also be checked through the use of brief written
responses, or mini-diagnostic tests. As students are completing the quick puzzle the teacher
walks around the room monitoring the approach the students are using to solve the
problems as well as their answers, and determines if adjustment in teaching needs to be
made. Another method would be a pair share where students take turns telling each other
the answers to two different questions related to the same objective while the teacher
monitors. Although some measures may not indicate specifically which students are
confused, they do provide the teacher with the information needed to determine if the
direction or pace of the lesson needs to be adjusted.
Teachers who monitor progress as part of their teaching have all students perform some
observable behavior congruent with the objective of the lesson while they check the
behavior. They analyze the correctness and completeness of the responses and determine
if it is necessary to reteach certain segments of the lesson before they move on. Once this
is completed they proceed to the next concept--teaching, re-teaching if necessary, and
providing the necessary practice.
Conducting Practice Session: Once students have an adequate level of understanding,
research concludes that it is extremely important that students be given the opportunity to
practice the new skill and its application. In the initial phase, practice should be
conducted under the direct supervision of the teacher. Hunter refers to the process as
guided practice. The teacher moves about the room providing support, encouragement,
praise, individual assistance, and re-teaching. It can be particularly effective during this
portion of the lesson if the teacher utilizes cooperative learning groups or heterogeneous
grouping strategies to form practice groups. This provides an opportunity for peer tutoring
while the teacher circulates among the groups and keeps them on task while
monitoring their level of understanding.
It is important to remember that individuals are only able to assimilate a certain amount
of information before it needs to be organized. Otherwise, new learning interferes with
the old and produces confusion. For longer or more complicated lessons it may be critical
to stop and get closure at several points throughout the lesson as well as at the end.
Students who actively participate in the process are able to reorganize the material and
achieve greater retention and clarity of the information.
Prior to allowing the students time for independent practice, the use of summary or
review statements helps students put the information into perspective and identify the key
points. It is also helpful if the teacher identifies how it will relate to the lesson planned for
the following day. Providing closure, at any point in the lesson, provides students with
the opportunity to consolidate and organize what they have learned.
After providing adequate explanation and practice in a monitored setting, students should
be provided the opportunity to practice the new skill independently. To insure that this
practice session is positive and productive, the material must relate directly to the lesson
just mastered.
Planning should include a time line so the teacher can monitor the pace of instruction to
insure that the intended curricular objectives are taught and mastered in the allocated
time. Administrators should verify that a variety of ongoing assessment measures are
being utilized by the teacher to monitor achievement of intended objectives. Information
from these measures should be used to make adjustments to the pace, objectives, or
sequence when necessary. Teachers should utilize district-adopted materials and
appropriate supplemental materials to meet individual student's academic needs and
learning styles.
Teachers should be encouraged by administrators to participate in recommending texts
and supplementary materials and developing curriculum so they can utilize their
knowledge of students' skills, needs, and interests in selecting a product that will more
closely meet the needs of students in the school or grade level.