Modul

eforMATH25
FUNDAMENTAL
CALCULUS
Authors
DianeCarmelizaN.Cuares
ma
AnthonyL.Cueno
Mar j
o-AnneA.Fernando
I
vyCar olB.Lomerio
GilyV.Magal
ona

Contri
butor
s
Gimell
eB.Gami l
la Juli
anG.Iqui
nJr.
JoeyR.Joson AzraMayB.Kabiri
JcobC.Malagui
t ArdeeC.Manalo
AngeloE.Maras
igan YanceeH.Olave
Pier
reLanceA.Tan MonicaC.Torr
es
 Module for
MATH 25. FUNDAMENTAL CALCULUS

Authors
Diane Carmeliza N. Cuaresma
Anthony L. Cueno
Marjo-Anne A. Fernando
Ivy Carol B. Lomerio
Gily V. Magalona

Editor
Rolando G. Panopio

Contributors
Jessa Camille C. Duero Ardee C. Manalo
Wielson M. Factolerin Angelo E. Marasigan
Gimelle B. Gamilla Yancee H. Olave
Julian G. Iquin Jr. Kemuel M. Quindala III
Joey R. Joson Mary Grace P. Recreo
Azra May B. Kabiri Pierre Lance A. Tan
Jcob C. Malaguit Monica C. Torres

Copyright © 2018. Published by Mathematics Division, Institute of Mathematical Sciences and

Physics, College of Arts and Sciences, University of the Philippines Los Baños
Tel. No.: (049) 536-6610

All rights reserved. No part of this module may be reproduced in any form by any electronic or
mechanical terms without permission from the authors and the publisher.
Contents

Preface

1 Limits and Continuity 1

1.1 Intuitive Notion of Limits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Rules on Evaluating Limits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.3 One-Sided Limits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
1.4 Limits Involving Infinities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
1.5 Continuity of Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

2 Differentiation of Functions of a Single Variable 43

2.1 Derivative of a Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
2.2 Basic Differentiation Rules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
2.3 Higher-Order Derivatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
2.4 Curve Sketching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
2.5 Optimization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
2.6 The Chain Rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82

3 Integration of Functions of a Single Variable 89

3.1 Antidifferentiation and the Indefinite Integral . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
3.2 Integration by Parts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
3.3 The Definite Integral . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
3.4 Area of a Plane Region . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115

4 Calculus of Several Variables 129

4.1 Functions of Several Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
4.2 Partial Differentiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
4.3 Extrema of Functions of Two Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
4.4 Lagrange Multipliers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
4.5 Multiple Integration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164

Appendices

Appendix A Solutions to Chapter 1 Assessment 185

Appendix B Solutions to Chapter 2 Assessment 189

Appendix C Solutions to Chapter 3 Assessment 197

Appendix D Solutions to Chapter 4 Assessment 203

CONTENTS
Preface

This study module is intended for students of MATH 25: Fundamental Calculus. This is
designed for dependent study of the course. Contents of this module are lifted from known
Calculus resources. Each chapter introduces or reiterates topics in Calculus, gives examples to
aid students on how to implement the concepts introduced and concludes with a set of exer-
cises that students can try, the answers to these exercises can be found in the Appendix section.

There are four parts in this module. The first three parts deal with functions of single
variable while the last part deals with functions of several variables. The functions given in the
entire module are limited to algebraic functions, sine functions, cosine functions, exponential
and logarithmic functions.

The first chapter introduces the notion of Limits. This concept maybe new to some stu-
dents. The concept of limits plays an important role in understanding Calculus. Definition
of the derivative and the integral of a function in the subsequent sections uses the concept of
limits. Students are advised to have a thorough understanding of the limits before proceeding
to the next sections.

The second chapter introduces the concept of derivative of functions, while the third chapter
introduced the integral of functions. Both chapters start with definition using limits, rules on
finding the derivative and the integral, and then its applications.

The last chapter deals with calculus of functions of several variables. The chapter starts
with the introduction of the three-dimensional space. Then, followed by the partial derivatives
and its applications, and concluded with multiple integral and its applications.
CONTENTS
Chapter 1

Limits and Continuity

1.1 Intuitive Notion of Limits

The development of Calculus is one of the most controversial in the history of mathematics:
there was a debate on who really developed Calculus between the camp of Sir Isaac Newton
and Gottfried Wilhelm Liebniz (there are other mathematicians such as Bolzano, Weierstrass,
Cauchy who contributed to the development of Calculus). Calculus, which comes from the
Latin word “small stone”, is the study of infinitesimals or very small quantities: differential
calculus looks into the very small quantities and see how they change, while integral calculus
looks into combining these very small quantities and see how much there are.

In this chapter, we will learn the very basic of Calculus, the limits. We will take up here
what limits of functions are and how they are obtained.

Basically, limits give us an idea of what happens to the resulting values of a function as the
values of its inputs get closer and closer to a particular number.

As an example, consider the experiment conducted in which different weights x are attached
at the center of a rubber string and the corresponding vertical displacements y are measured.

x in kg. 0.5 0.75 1 1.25 1.5 1.4 1.45 1.49 1.499

y in in. 5.2 6.12 8.8 9.52 snaps 9.8 9.92 9.975 snaps

1
2 CHAPTER 1. LIMITS AND CONTINUITY

Based on the obtained data, what do you think is the maximum displacement for this type
of rubber string? What happens to the displacement y as the weight attached x gets closer
and closer to 1.5 kg? In calculus, we say that the limit of y as x approaches 1.5 is 10 and the
maximum possible displacement is 10.

We start the discussion on limits with our first activity.

Activity 1.1.1
ˆ Consider the function f defined by

x2 − 9
f (x) = .
x−3
Using a calculator, find f (x) for each given value of x.

x 2.9 2.99 2.999 2.9999 ··· 3.0001 3.001 3.01 3.1

f (x) ···

ˆ What happens to f (x) as x gets closer and closer to 3 from the left?

ˆ What happens to f (x) as x gets closer and closer to 3 from the right?

ˆ In general, what can we say about f (x) as x gets closer and closer to 3?

In this case, we say that the limit of f (x) as x approaches 3 is 6 and we write

x2 − 9
lim = 6.
x→3 x − 3

Limit of a Function
Let f be a function defined at every number on some open interval
containing a except possibly at a itself.

If f (x) approaches a number L as x gets closer and closer to a from the left
and from the right of a, then L is the limit of f (x) as x approaches a. We
write this as
lim f (x) = L.
x→a

This means that to have an idea of the limit of f (x) as x approaches a, we observe the value
of f (x) at numbers close to a and from both sides of a.
1.1. INTUITIVE NOTION OF LIMITS 3

Example 1.1.1. Consider the function g defined by g(x) = 1 + 2x. We use the following table
to observe the values of g(x) as x gets closer and closer to 2 from both sides of 2.
x 1.9 1.99 1.999 1.9999 · · · 2.0001 2.001 2.01 2.1
g(x) 4.8 4.98 4.998 4.9998 · · · 5.0002 5.002 5.02 5.2

Notice that as x gets closer and closer to 2 from the left, g(x) approaches 5. The same thing
happens to g(x) when x gets closer and closer to 2 from the left. Hence, we say that the limit
of g(x) as x gets closer and closer to 2 is 5 and we write
lim (1 + 2x) = 5.
x→2

Now, let us compare the results that we obtained from Activity 1.1.1 and Example 1.1.1. In
Activity 1.1.1, we have considered the function f which is undefined at 3 and concluded that
lim f (x) = 6. While in Example 1.1.1, we say that lim g(x) = 5 where g is defined at 2. From
x→3 x→2
these two results, we can say that the limit of a function as x approaches a may exist in both
cases whether the function is defined or undefined at a.

The next example shows that we can also use graphs of functions to have an idea of its
limit.

Example 1.1.2. Consider the graph of f given below.

From this, we can see that f (x) approaches 1 as x gets closer and closer to 3 from the left.
4 CHAPTER 1. LIMITS AND CONTINUITY

Also, f (x) approaches 1 as x gets closer and closer to 3 from the right.
Hence, we say that the limit of f (x) as x gets closer and closer to 3 is 1 and we write
lim f (x) = 1.
x→3

For the next activity, we will again use the graph of a function to determine the behavior
of f (x) as x gets closer and closer to a particular value.

Activity 1.1.2
ˆ Consider the graph of f given below.

ˆ What happens to f (x) as x gets closer and closer to 3 from the left?

ˆ What happens to f (x) as x gets closer and closer to 3 from the right?

ˆ In general, can we say something about f (x) as x gets closer and closer
to 3?

Since f (x) approaches 3 as x gets closer and closer to 3 from the left but approaches 2 as
x gets closer and closer to 3 from the right, we say that lim f (x) does not exist.
x→3

Non-Existence of Limits
Suppose that f (x) approaches a number L as x gets closer and closer to a
from the left of a. If f (x) approaches a number M not equal to L as x gets
closer and closer to a from the right of a, then we say that lim f (x) does not
x→a
exist.
1.1. INTUITIVE NOTION OF LIMITS 5

Example 1.1.3. Let us consider f defined by

(
1 x<0
f (x) = .
x x≥0

We observe the values of f (x) at numbers close to 0 from both sides of 0.

As x gets closer and closer to 0 from the left, f (x) is 1 . However, f (x) approaches 0 as x
gets closer and closer to 0 from the right. Hence, we can say that lim f (x) does not exist.
x→0

We will see more examples and discussions of non-existence of limits in Sections 1.3 and
1.4.

Assessment 1.1
Concepts
Answer the following questions briefly.
1. What does lim f (x) = L mean?
x→a

2. When does lim f (x) exist?

x→a

3. Give a case where the limit of a function fails to exist.

4. Is it necessary for the function value at a number to be defined to

say the limit of the function exists at that number? If not, give a
counterexample.
6 CHAPTER 1. LIMITS AND CONTINUITY

Computations
A. Use a calculator to complete the tables to estimate the limit or to show
if the limit does not exist.

1. lim e
x→−1

x −1.1 −1.01 −1.001 −1.0001 · · · −0.9999 −0.999 −0.99 −0.9

f (x) ···

2. lim (x + 3)
x→2

x 1.9 1.99 1.999 1.9999 · · · 2.0001 2.001 2.01 2.1

f (x) ···
3. lim x2 − 5x + 6


x→3

x 2.9 2.99 2.999 2.9999 · · · 3.0001 3.001 3.01 3.1

f (x) ···
x−1
4. lim √
x→1 x−1
x 0.9 0.99 0.999 0.9999 · · · 1.0001 1.001 1.01 1.1
f (x) ···
√
5. lim 5−x
x→5

x 4.9 4.99 4.999 4.9999 · · · 5.0001 5.001 5.01 5.1

f (x) ···
(
x2 − 10 x < −4
6. lim f (x) where f (x) = √
x→−4 5 + x + 5 x > −4
x −4.1 −4.01 −4.001 −4.0001 · · · −3.9999 −3.999 −3.99 −3.9
f (x) ···
(
11 − 5x x ≥ 1
7. lim g(x) where g(x) =
x→1 2x2 + 3 x < 1
x 0.9 0.99 0.999 0.9999 · · · 1.0001 1.001 1.01 1.1
g(x) ···
1


 x<0
8. lim h(x) where h(x) = x√+ 2
x→0
 x−2
 x≥0
x−4
x −0.1 −0.01 −0.001 −0.0001 · · · 0.0001 0.001 0.01 0.1
h(x) ···
2



x x < −2
√
9. lim j(x) where j(x) = 4 − x2 −2 ≤ x < 2
x→2 

x−1 x≥2


x 1.9 1.99 1.999 1.9999 · · · 2.0001 2.001 2.01 2.1

j(x) ···
10. lim j(x) where j is given in Item 9
x→−2
x −2.1 −2.01 −2.011 −2.0001 · · · −1.9999 −1.999 −1.99 −1.9
h(x) ···
1.1. INTUITIVE NOTION OF LIMITS 7

B. Use the graphs to determine if the limit exists or does not exist. If it
exists, find the limit.

1. lim f (x)
x→−1

2. lim g(x)
x→0

3. lim h(x)
x→−1

4. lim j(x)
x→0

5. lim j(x) where the graph is given in Item 4

x→1
8 CHAPTER 1. LIMITS AND CONTINUITY

1.2 Rules on Evaluating Limits

Finding the limit of a function using graphs and by observing the behavior of some values of a
function may not always be efficient and may be prone to error. It will be nice if a set of rules
to easily evaluate limits will be available.

In this section, we will learn how to find the limit of a function using rules on evaluating
limits. We start with the following activity.

Activity 1.2.1
ˆ Consider the functions f , g and h defined by

f (x) = 5, g(x) = x and h(x) = x + 5.

Using a calculator, find the value of f (x), g(x) and h(x) for each given
value of x.

x 0.9 0.99 0.999 ... 1.001 1.01 1.1

f (x)
g(x)
h(x)

ˆ Based on the table, what is lim f (x)?

x→1

◦ If f is defined instead by f (x) = 3, what will be lim f (x)?

x→1

◦ In general, what is lim f (x) if f is given by f (x) = k where k is a

x→a
constant?

ˆ Based on the table, what is lim g(x)?

x→1

◦ Using the same process, what is lim g(x)? what is lim g(x)?
x→2 x→−1

◦ In general, given a number a, what is lim g(x)?

x→a

ˆ Based on the table, what is lim h(x)?

x→1

◦ Can you express the function h in terms of the functions f and g?

◦ Can you express lim h(x) in terms of lim f (x) and lim g(x)?
x→1 x→1 x→1

In our activity, we can say that the limit of a constant is the constant itself; the limit of x
as x approaches a number a is a; and the limit of a sum is the sum of the limits. We list these,
together with other rules on evaluating limits, on the next page.
1.2. RULES ON EVALUATING LIMITS 9

Rules on Evaluating Limits

(L1) If k is any constant, then

lim k = k.
x→a

(L2) For any number a,

lim x = a.
x→a

(L3) If lim f (x) exists and k is any constant, then

x→a

lim kf (x) = k lim f (x).

x→a x→a

If lim f (x) and lim g(x) both exist, then

x→a x→a

(L4) lim [f (x) ± g(x)] = lim f (x) ± lim g(x);

x→a x→a x→a
h i h i
(L5) lim [f (x) · g(x)] = lim f (x) · lim g(x) ; and
x→a x→a x→a

f (x) lim f (x)

(L6) lim = x→a , provided that lim g(x) 6= 0.
x→a g(x) lim g(x) x→a
x→a

If lim f (x) exists and n is any positive integer, then

x→a
h in
n
(L7) lim (f (x)) = lim f (x) ; and
x→a x→a
p q
n
(L8) lim f (x) = n lim f (x) provided that lim f (x) > 0 when n is even.
x→a x→a x→a

We will better understand the rules given above if we apply them to specific functions as in
the next examples.

Example 1.2.1. Evaluate the following limits and state the rules used.
√
1. lim (2x − 7) 2. lim x2 x+1
x→3 x→−5 3. lim
x→0 1−x
10 CHAPTER 1. LIMITS AND CONTINUITY

Solution
1. We apply the first four rules so that
lim (2x − 7) = lim 2x − lim 7 (L4)
x→3 x→3 x→3
= 2 · lim x − lim 7 (L3)
x→3 x→3
= 2(3) − 7 (L1) and (L2)
= −1.

2. By rule (L7), we have

 2
2
lim x = lim x (L7)
x→−5 x→−5

= (−5)2 (L2)
= 25.

3. We apply rules (L6) and (L8) so that

√ √
x+1 lim x+1
lim = x→0 (L6)
x→0 1 − x lim (1 − x)
x→0
q
lim (x + 1)
x→0
= (L8)
lim (1 − x)
x→0
q
lim x + lim 1
x→0 x→0
= (L4)
lim 1 − lim x
x→0 x→0
√
0+1
= (L1) and (L2)
1−0
= 1.

Time to Think!
1. Suppose lim f (x) = −1, lim g(x) = 9 and lim h(x) = 0.
x→2 x→2 x→2

(a) What is lim 2f (x)?

x→2

(b) What is lim [g(x) − 3x]?

x→2
p
(c) What is lim 3 h(x)?
x→2

2. Suppose lim f (x), lim g(x) and lim h(x) exist. How do we evaluate
x→a x→a x→a
lim [f (x) ± g(x) ± h(x)] and lim [f (x) · g(x) · h(x)]?
x→a x→a
1.2. RULES ON EVALUATING LIMITS 11

Example 1.2.2. Consider the limit

x2 − 4
lim .
x→−2 x + 2

Can we use the rule for evaluating limit of quotients? The answer is no since lim (x + 2) = 0.
x→−2
However, we can cancel the common factor of x2 − 4 and x + 2 so that

x2 − 4 (x + 2) (x − 2)
lim = lim
x→−2 x + 2 x→−2 x+2
= lim (x − 2)
x→−2

= lim x − lim 2 (L4)

x→−2 x→−2

= −2 − 2 (L1) and (L2)

= −4.

Example 1.2.3. Consider the limit √

x−1
lim .
x→1 x − 1

Similar to the previous example, lim (x − 1) = 0. Hence, we cannot use the rule for evaluating
x→1
limit of quotients to find the limit. However,
√ we can manipulate the function by rationalizing
the numerator; that is, we multiply x + 1 to both the numerator and the denominator. We
have
√ √ √
x−1 x−1 x+1
lim = lim ·√
x→1 x − 1 x→1 x − 1 x+1
x−1
= lim √
x→1 (x − 1) ( x + 1)
1
= lim √
x→1 x+1
lim 1
x→1
= √
(L6)
lim x+1
x→1
lim 1
x→1
= √ (L4)
lim x + lim 1
x→1 x→1
lim 1
x→1
=q (L8)
lim x + lim 1
x→1 x→1
1
=√ (L1) and (L2)
1+1
1
= .
2
12 CHAPTER 1. LIMITS AND CONTINUITY

Assessment 1.2
Concepts
Answer the following questions briefly.
1. How do we evaluate the limit of a constant, sum, product, quotient,
power, and root?
f (x)
2. How do we evaluate lim if lim g(x) = 0?
x→a g(x) x→a

Computations
Evaluate if the limit exists and state the rules used.

1. lim (π + e)
x→0

2. lim a2 + b2


c→1
x 
3. lim +4
x→−1 2
4. lim x2 − 5x + 11


x→2
 
1 2 1
2y 2 − 5y + 8


5. lim y −
y→0 2 4

6. lim y 3 − 6y + 3 y2 + 9



y→3

u2 + 2
7. lim1
u→ 2 u3 − 1

s2 − 2s + 3
8. lim
s→4 s2 − 1
y 2 + 2y − 8
9. lim
y→−4 y 2 − 16
t3 − t2
10. lim
t→0 t2
u4 − u3 + u − 1
11. lim
u→−1 u3 + 1
2v 2 + v − 6
12. lim3 2
v→ 2 4v − 4v − 3

√
13. lim 4 + 3w − w2
w→2
√
3
14. lim1 4t2 − 1
t→ 2

√
15. lim 49 − α2
α→7

27y 3 + 1
16. lim
y→−1/3 3y + 1
1.2. RULES ON EVALUATING LIMITS 13

s
125y 3 − 8
17. lim
y→2/5 25y 2 − 4
√
4 z−3
18. lim
z→9/16 16z − 9

29 − x
19. lim √
x→29 5 − x−4
√
33x−2
20. lim
x→8/27 27x − 8
14 CHAPTER 1. LIMITS AND CONTINUITY

1.3 One-Sided Limits

Let us recall the function f given in Activity 1.1.2. The function is described by the graph
below.

We have learned from Chapter 1.1 that lim f (x) does not exist. Although the limit of a
x→3
function at a particular point does not exist, we can still study the “one-sided” behavior of the
function values and call it one-sided limits.

The following is the intuitive notion of one-sided limits.

One-Sided Limits
Let f be a function defined at every number in some open interval (b, a). If
f (x) approaches a number L as x gets closer and closer to a from the left,
then L is the limit of f (x) as x approaches a from the left. We write this as

lim f (x) = L.
x→a−

Similarly, let f be a function defined at every number in some open interval

(a, c). If f (x) approaches a number L as x gets closer and closer to a from
the right, then L is the limit of f (x) as x approaches a from the right. We
write this as
lim+ f (x) = L.
x→a

We can observe from the graph that f (x) approaches 3 as x gets closer and closer to 3 from
the left. Hence, lim− f (x) = 3. Furthermore, f (x) approaches 2 as x gets closer and closer to
x→3
3 from the right. Hence, lim+ f (x) = 2.
x→3
1.3. ONE-SIDED LIMITS 15

Example 1.3.1. Consider the function h defined by

(
2x, if x ≤ 1
h(x) =
x2 , if x > 1.

Evaluate lim− h(x), lim+ h(x) and lim h(x).

x→1 x→1 x→1

Solution If x ≤ 1, then h(x) = 2x. Hence,

lim h(x) = lim− 2x = 2(1) = 2.

x→1− x→1

On the other hand, if x > 1, then h(x) = x2 . Thus,

lim h(x) = lim+ x2 = 12 = 1.

x→1+ x→1

Based from our previous knowledge in Section 1.1, since the limit from right at 1 is not equal
to the limit from the left at 1 then the limit does not exist.

√
Example 1.3.2. Consider the function f defined by f (x) = x + 1. Evaluate lim f (x),
x→−1−
lim f (x) and lim f (x).
x→−1+ x→−1

Solution Take note that the function is defined for x ≥ −1 and so

√ √
lim + f (x) = lim + x + 1 = −1 + 1 = 0.
x→−1 x→−1

However, the function is not defined for x < −1. So, lim − f (x) does not exist. Again, since
x→−1
the limit from right at 1 is not equal to the limit from the left at 1 then the limit does not
exist.

1
Example 1.3.3. Consider the function g defined by g(x) = . Evaluate lim− g(x),
1−x x→1
lim g(x) and lim g(x).
x→1+ x→1

1
Solution Evaluating lim− , we have a zero denominator. Now, let us get a number on the
x→1 1 − x
left of 1 that is very close to 1, say 0.5. Since 1 − 0.5 = 0.5 ≥ 0, then denominator approaches
0 through positive numbers. Thus,
1
lim− = +∞.
x→1 1−x
16 CHAPTER 1. LIMITS AND CONTINUITY

1
Evaluating lim+ , we have another zero denominator. We get a number on the right
x→1 1 − x
of 1 that is very close to 1, say 1.5. Since 1 − 1.5 = −0.5 ≤ 0, then denominator approaches 0
through negative numbers. Thus,
1
lim+ = −∞.
x→1 1−x

Since, the limit from right at 1 is not equal to the limit from the left at 1, then the limit
does not exist.

Time to think!
In the domain of a square root function, at which point does the limit of
the function does not exist? How about in a rational function with a linear
denominator?

When will the (two-sided) limit of a function exist?

Existence of (two-sided) Limit

If the limit of f (x) as x approaches a from the left and from the right both
exist and are equal to L, then the (two-sided) limit of f (x) as x approaches
a exists and is equal to L.

Example 1.3.4. Consider the function g defined by

(
5 − x, if x < 2
g(x) =
x + 1, if x ≥ 2.

Evaluate lim− g(x), lim+ g(x) and lim g(x).

x→2 x→2 x→2

Solution Take note that if x < 2, then g(x) = 5 − x. So,

lim g(x) = lim− (5 − x) = 5 − 2 = 3.

x→2− x→2
1.3. ONE-SIDED LIMITS 17

If x ≥ 2, then g(x) = x + 1. Hence,

lim g(x) = lim+ (x + 1) = 2 + 1 = 3.

x→2+ x→2

Since the limit of g(x) as x gets closer and closer to 2 from the left and from the right both
exist and are equal to 3, then
lim g(x) = 3.
x→2

Assessment 1.3
Concepts
In terms of one-sided limits, what are the instances in which lim f (x) fails
x→a
to exist?

Computations
1. Consider the graph of f below.

4 y

2
x

−6 −4 −2−2 2 4 6

−4

Determine the following limits:

a. lim− f (x)
x→0

b. lim+ f (x)
x→0

c. lim f (x)
x→0

d. lim− f (x)
x→1

e. lim+ f (x)
x→1

f. lim f (x)
x→1
18 CHAPTER 1. LIMITS AND CONTINUITY

2. Consider the graph of the function g below.

Determine the following limits:

a. lim− g(x)
x→0

b. lim+ g(x)
x→0

c. lim g(x)
x→0

d. lim− g(x)
x→2

e. lim+ g(x)
x→2

f. lim g(x)
x→2

g. lim− g(x)
x→5

h. lim+ g(x)
x→5

i. lim g(x)
x→5

j. lim g(x)
x→−∞

k. lim g(x)
x→+∞

3. Consider the function

√
2
 x − 1, if x < −1

g(x) = x + 2, if − 1 ≤ x ≤ 2

 2
x, if x > 2

Evaluate the following limits:

a. lim g(x)
x→−1−

b. lim g(x)
x→−1+

c. lim g(x)
x→−1

d. lim− g(x)
x→2

e. lim+ g(x)
x→2

f. lim g(x)
x→2
1.3. ONE-SIDED LIMITS 19

4. Consider the function



 |4 − x|, if x < 2

g(x) = 2, if 2 ≤ x < 4
2
 x , if x ≥ 4.


x+4
Find the following:

a. lim− g(x)
x→2

b. lim+ g(x)
x→2

c. lim g(x)
x→2

d. lim− g(x)
x→4

e. lim+ g(x)
x→4

f. lim g(x)
x→4

x
5. Find lim if it exists.
x→0 |x|
√
x−1
6. Find lim+ if it exists.
x→1 x−1
7. Consider the function
(√
x − k, if x < 1
f (x) =
k − x, if x ≥ 1

where k is a positive real number. Find the value of k such that

lim f (x) exists.
x→1
20 CHAPTER 1. LIMITS AND CONTINUITY

1.4 Limits Involving Infinities

In the previous section, we have learned how to get the limit of a function and that the limit
of the function only exist when the left-hand and the right-hand limit coincide. However, in
a
finding limits of functions, there will be time that we will encounter a form , a ∈ R. Using
0
our highschool mathematics knowledge, we know that this form is undefined (or that anything
divided by zero is undefined). However, this is the not case in limits. In this section, we will
pick up from these examples.

Activity 1.4.1
1
Consider lim . From our previous discussion, we know that this limit
x→5 x − 5
does not exist. However, let us try filling out the table below:
x f (x)
4.9
4.99
4.999
4.9999
5.0001
5.001
5.01
5.1

What do you notice as we keep on getting closer and closer to 5?

In our world today, we readily accept the concept of infinity, in symbol ∞: we accept that
the set of natural numbers is infinite, we believe that time is infinite. However, this is not the
case during the ancient times. They had difficulty in accepting that something is infinite, be-
cause perhaps it is untangible. The closest they had come to accepting the concept of infinity is
accepting that something is “potentially infinite” (aperion). It would be years before the world
accepts the concept of infinity. Many classical mathematicians studied the concept of infinity.
Galileo Galilei proved that there are as much square numbers as integers: an intriguing finding
since there are integers that are not squares. Galileo abandoned his work on infinities due to
some difficulties in performing arithmetic on infinities. Another mathematician, who is the
most prominent when it comes to studying infinities, is Georg Cantor. Cantor established, in
addition to Galileo’s previous work, that there is as much rational number as natural numbers,
and while finding a pattern to pair up the natural numbers to the decimals/irrationals, he
established that the irrationals present a higher form of infinity than the natural numbers. You
can read more on this during your free time.

The concept of infinity is one of the things that set mathematics apart from the other sci-
ences. Mathematicians are able to study something that they cannot touch. They are able to
perform operations and draw conclusions on something that extend beyond what they can see.
This makes mathematics awesome and beautiful!

Before we proceed, let us first define some operations on infinities.

1.4. LIMITS INVOLVING INFINITIES 21

Operations on Infinities
(I1) ∞ ± k = ∞ for any real number k

(I2) ∞ + ∞ = ∞

(I3) ∞ · (±k) = ±∞ for k > 0

(I4) −∞ · k = −∞ for k > 0

(I5) −∞ · (−k) = ∞ for k > 0

∞
(I6) = ±∞ for k > 0
±k
−∞
(I7) = −∞ for k > 0
k
−∞
(I8) = ∞ for k > 0
−k
(
∞, k > 1
(I9) k ∞ =
0, 0 < k < 1

Infinite Limits
Let f be a function defined on some open interval containing a except pos-
sibly at a. If f (x) increases without bound as x gets closer and closer to a,
then the limit of f (x) as x gets closer and closer to a is +∞. We write this
as
lim f (x) = +∞.
x→a

Similarly, if f (x) decreases without bound as x gets closer and closer to a,

then the limit of f (x) as x gets closer and closer to a is −∞. We write this
as
lim f (x) = −∞.
x→a

In both cases, we say that f (x) has an infinite limit at a.

Time to Think!
What do we mean by infinite limits? Can we give a real problem where
infinite limits can be of help?
22 CHAPTER 1. LIMITS AND CONTINUITY

Let us have some example of functions with infinite limits.

1
Example 1.4.1. The function j(x) = has infinite limit as x approaches 1.
x−1

Notice that the limit is +∞ as x approaches 1 from the right, and −∞ as x approaches 1 from
the left.

Time to think!
Think of a function that increases without bound as x approaches 5 from
the left, and decreases without bound as x approaches 5 from the right.

Example 1.4.2. The function f (x) = ln(x) has infinite limit as x approaches 0 from the right.
1.4. LIMITS INVOLVING INFINITIES 23

Now, in cases where the graphs of the functions are not available to us, we can utilize the
following rules:

Evaluating Infinite Limits

Suppose lim f (x) = c > 0 and lim g(x) = 0 then
x→a x→a
(L9) If g approaches 0 through positive values then

f (x)
lim = +∞.
x→a g(x)

(L10) If g approaches 0 through negative values then

f (x)
lim = −∞.
x→a g(x)

Example 1.4.3. Evaluate the following limits.

1 −3
1. lim 2. lim
x→3 (x − 3)2 x→2 (x − 2)2

Solution
1
1. We can notice that we will have . But we know that (x − 3)2 ≥ 0. Thus,
0
1
lim = +∞
x→3 (x − 3)2

−3
2. Notice that we will have . But we know that (x − 2)2 ≥ 0. However, unlike the first
0
example, the numerator is −3 < 0. Thus,
−3
lim = −∞
x→2 (x − 2)2

It is important to note that when a function has an infinite limit, then the limit of the
function does not exist. Having a limit of +∞ or −∞ only tells us the behavior of the function
as x gets closer and closer to a certain value. Thus, it is only telling us that f (x) increases
without bound, or decreases without bound, as x gets closer and closer to a certain value, say
a.

It is also possible to look at the limit of a function as x increases or decreases infinitely.

24 CHAPTER 1. LIMITS AND CONTINUITY

Activity 1.4.2
A business manager determines that n months after production begins on a
new phone, the number of units produced will be p thousand, where

4n2 + 7n
p(n) = .
(n + 1)2

ˆ How many cellphones are produced after 10 months? after 100 months?
after 1000 months?

ˆ What do you think happens to production in the long run?

To verify the answer, we observe the graph of p.

Limits at Infinity
Let f be a function defined on some open interval (a, +∞). If f (x) ap-
proaches a number L as x increases infinitely, then L is the limit of f (x) as
x increases without bound. We write this as

lim f (x) = L.
x→+∞

Similarly, let f be a function defined on some open interval (−∞, b). If f (x)
approaches a number L as x decreases infinitely, then L is the limit of f (x)
as x decreases without bound. We write this as

lim f (x) = L.
x→−∞

Limits at infinity helps us in looking at the long-term behavior of a function. For exam-
ple, this can help biologists determine the population of a bacterial colony after an indefinite
1.4. LIMITS INVOLVING INFINITIES 25

number of time. This can also help conservationists predict if the population of an endangered
species will increase or die out.

The graphs of functions can greatly help us in estimating limits at infinity. Let us have a
look at some of these examples.

Example 1.4.4. What is the limit of the function f defined by f (x) = 1 + e−x as x increases
without bound? To have an idea of the limit, consider the graph of f below.

Observe that as x increases, f (x) approaches 1.

Hence, we say that the limit of f (x) as x increases without bound is 1 and write this as,

lim f (x) = 1.
x→+∞

We note that even though f (x) > 1 for all x, the limit is 1.
26 CHAPTER 1. LIMITS AND CONTINUITY

Example 1.4.5. What is the limit of the function g defined by

5 sin x
g(x) =
x
as x increases without bound? We observe the graph of g,

Notice that the value of g(x) becomes closer to 0 as x increases. In this case, we say that
the limit of g(x) as x increases without bound is 0 and we write

lim g(x) = 0.
x→+∞

In cases where the graph of the function is not available to us, how do we evaluate the limit
of a function at infinity?

Evaluating Limits at Infinity

P (x)
To get the limit of a function f of the form f (x) = , where both P
Q(x)
and Q are polynomials functions,

1. divide each term in P (x) and Q(x) by xk , where k > 0 is the highest
power of x in the denominator Q(x), and

2. evaluate the limit using the rules we discussed in the previous section
and these additional rules:

For a non-zero constant A, and k > 0

(L11)
A
lim =0
x→+∞ xk
(L12)
A
lim =0
x→−∞ xk
1.4. LIMITS INVOLVING INFINITIES 27

For our discussions, we will limit ourselves with evaluating limits at infinity of the form
given above. However, there are rules for other types of functions. These are free for your own
exploration.

Example 1.4.6. Evaluate the following limits.

3x5 3x + 1
1. lim 3. lim
x→−∞ x + 2x5 x→−∞ x2
x2 + x + 1 4x2
2. lim 4. lim
x→+∞ x3 + x2 x→+∞ x2 + x

Solution

1. We divide the numerator and denominator by x5 so that

3x5
3x5 x5
lim = lim
x→−∞ x + 2x 5 x→−∞ x 2x5
+
x5 x5
3
= lim
x→−∞ 1
+2
x4
lim 3
x→−∞
=
1
lim + lim 2
x→−∞ x4 x→−∞
3
=
0+2
3
=
2

2. We divide the numerator and denominator by x3 so that

x2 x 1
x2 + x + 1 3
+ 3+ 3
lim = lim x 3 x 2 x
x→+∞ x3 + x2 x→+∞ x x
3
+ 3
x x
1 1 1
+ 2+ 3
= lim x x x
x→+∞ 1
1+
x
1 1 1
lim + lim 2 + lim 3
x→+∞ x x→+∞ x x→+∞ x
=
1
lim 1 + lim
x→+∞ x→+∞ x
0+0+0
=
1+0
=0
28 CHAPTER 1. LIMITS AND CONTINUITY

3. We divide the numerator and denominator by x2 so that

3x 1
3x + 1 2
+ 2
lim = lim x 2 x
x→−∞ x2 x→−∞ x
x2
3 1
+ 2
= lim x x
x→−∞ 1
3 1
lim + lim 2
x→−∞ x x→−∞ x
=
lim 1
x→−∞
0+0
=
1
=0

4. We divide the numerator and denominator by x2 so that

4x2
2
4x x2
lim = lim
x→+∞ x2 + x x→+∞ x2 x
2
+ 2
x x
4
= lim
x→+∞ 1
1+
x
lim 4
x→+∞
=
1
lim 1 + lim
x→+∞ x→+∞ x
4
=
1+0
=4

Time to think!
When getting the limit of a rational function as x increases or decreases
without bound, what can you say about the limit if the degree of the nu-
merator is greater than the degree of the denominator? How about when
the degree of the numerator is less than the degree of the denominator?
1.4. LIMITS INVOLVING INFINITIES 29

Assessment 1.4
Concepts
Answer the following questions briefly.
1. What does lim f (x) = +∞ mean?
x→a

2. What does lim f (x) = −∞ mean?

x→a

3. What does lim f (x) = L mean?

x→+∞

4. What does lim f (x) = L mean?

x→−∞

Computations
Evaluate the following limits.

 
1
1. lim 2x − 2
x→0 x
x2 − 1
2. lim
x→1 (x − 1)3
 
1 1
3. lim −
x→0 x4 x2
x2 + x − 6
4. lim
x→2 (x − 2)3

1 − x1
5. lim
x→0 x
 
1
6. lim x2 − x −
x→∞ x+1
x3 + 1
7. lim
x→∞ 1 − x3

x2 + x − 6
8. lim
x→∞ x3 − 8
x2
9. lim
x→−∞ 1 − 14
x
 2 
x +1 x+1
10. lim − 2
x→−∞ x+1 x −1
30 CHAPTER 1. LIMITS AND CONTINUITY

Problem Solving
1. The annual debt of a certain company, founded on January 2000, is
D(t) = 5t2 + 163t + 2625 thousands of pesos where t is the year since
it was established. Its annual income, on the other hand is given by
I(t) = 29t2 + 255t + 3815 thousands of pesos. What was the debt-to-
income-ratio of the company at the first year of its operation? In the
long run, what is the expected debt-to-income-ratio of the company?
Express your answer in percentage (%).

2. At a certain time t ≥ 0, the population of one type of fish on a lake

810, 000 490, 000t
is while another type of fish has a population of .
90 + t 700 + 2t
As time increases, which of the two species will survive and which one
will go extinct?

3. A team of epidemiologists found out that the number of individuals

infected with a novel type of virus is

200(t + 1)
I(t) = ,
t2 + 20
t days after the imposition of a lockdown. How many were infected at
the day of lockdown? After 3 days? After 10 days? What will be the
number of infected individuals as time progresses?

4. After a feasibility study, it was determined that the cost to revenue

ratio of manufacturing x units of a product is given by

kx2 − x
P (x) =
14x2 + 100
where k > 0. Find the value of k so that the long-term ratio will be
at least 75% as production keeps on increasing.

5. A bank decided to offer an annual interest rate of

1.5x
I(x) = √ %
0.5x2 + 1
for every x thousand of pesos deposited in the bank. What is the
annual interest rate of the bank assuming that the depositor keeps on
increasing his or her money?
1.5. CONTINUITY OF FUNCTIONS 31

1.5 Continuity of Functions

In this section, we will examine functions for its continuity at a number and on an interval.

Informally, a continuous function is one whose graph can be drawn without lifting the “pen”
from the paper, one whose graph has no “holes or gaps”. To help us understand just what it
means for a function to be continuous, consider the activity below.

Activity 1.5.1
ˆ Take a look at the function f whose graph is given below.

ˆ Is f continuous at −3? Why?

ˆ Is f continuous at −2? Why? How do you relate this to the value of f

at −2?

ˆ Is f continuous at 2? Why? How do you relate this to the limit of f as

x approaches 2?

ˆ Is f continuous at 0? Why? How do you relate this to the value of f at

0 and to the limit of f as x approaches 0?

ˆ What should be satisfied by f for it to be continuous at −2? at 2? at 0?

Utilizing our observation from the previous activity, what properties will ensure that f does
not have a “hole or gap” at a number a, that is, f is continuous at a? The answer is summarized
below.

Continuity at a Number
A function f is continuous at a number a if the following are satisfied:
i. f (a) exists,

ii. lim f (x) exists, and

x→a

iii. lim f (x) = f (a).

x→a
32 CHAPTER 1. LIMITS AND CONTINUITY

If at least one of the three conditions is not satisfied then f is discontinuous at a.

The following are examples of continuous and discontinuous functions at some given points.

Example 1.5.1. Consider the function g whose graph is shown below.

1. Is g continuous at 1?

i. g(1) = 1
ii. lim g(x) = 1
x→1

iii. lim g(x) = g(1)

x→1

Therefore, g is continuous at 1.

2. Is g continuous at 0?
Since lim− g(x) = 5 and lim+ g(x) = +∞ then lim g(x) does not exist. Therefore, g is
x→0 x→0 x→0
not continuous at 0.

Example 1.5.2. Determine if the function m defined


2
x − 4, x ≤ −3

m(x) = 1 − x, −3 < x < 0

 2
x + 1, x > 0

is continuous at −3 and 0.

Solution

1. At x = −3, we have

i. m(−3) = (−3)2 − 4 = 5
1.5. CONTINUITY OF FUNCTIONS 33

ii. lim − m(x) = lim − (x2 − 4) = (−3)2 − 4 = 5

x→−3 x→−3
lim + m(x) = lim + (1 − x) = 1 − (−3) = 4
x→−3 x→−3
Since lim − m(x) 6= lim + m(x), then lim m(x) does not exist.
x→−3 x→−3 x→−3

Therefore, m is discontinuous at 3.

2. Since m(0) does not exist, m is discontinuous at 0.

We can verify the above scenarios using the graph of m below.

It is quite noticeable that the graph of m has a “gap” at −3 and a “hole” at 0.

Example 1.5.3. Determine if the function f defined by f (x) = x2 +3x−1 is continuous at −1.

Solution We have

i. f (−1) = (−1)2 + 3(−1) − 1 = −3

ii. lim (x2 + 3x − 1) = (−1)2 + 3(−1) − 1 = −3

x→−1

iii. lim (x2 + 3x − 1) = f (−1)

x→−1

Therefore, f is continuous at −1. We can verify the continuity of f at −1 by checking its graph
which is given below.
34 CHAPTER 1. LIMITS AND CONTINUITY

Observe that the graph of f is without “holes or gaps” at −1. In fact, the function is
continuous at any value of x.

9 − x2
Example 1.5.4. Determine if the function g defined by g(x) = is continuous at 3.
3−x
Solution Since g(3) does not exist, then g is discontinuous at 3. We can verify this using the
graph of g which is given below.

As it appears, the graph of g has a “hole” at 3. Therefore, g is discontinuous at 3. Further, g

is continuous at all points except at 3.

The last two examples may have already given us an intuition on the continuity of two
types of function, namely, polynomial and rational functions. In fact, this observation can be
summarized below.

Continuity of Polynomial and Rational Functions

ˆ A polynomial function is continuous at every number.

ˆ A rational function is continuous at every number in its domain.

What we have tackled so far is the continuity of some algebraic functions at some given
points. In the next discussions, we will study the continuity of some common transcendental
functions.

Consider the exponential function defined by h(x) = ex and its graph below.
1.5. CONTINUITY OF FUNCTIONS 35

As we can see from its graph, h is without “holes” or “gaps” at any point. Hence, we can say
that h is continuous anywhere in its domain.

This time we examine the continuity of the logarithmic functions defined by i(x) = ln x and
j(x) = log x. Recall that the graphs of these functions are as follows.

The graph of i(x) = ln x.

The graph of j(x) = log x.

Similar to our observation with the exponential function, the appearance of the graphs of i and
j suggest that they are both nowhere discontinuous, that is, their graphs are without “gaps”
or “holes” anywhere in their domain.

Consider the sine function defined by f (x) = sin x and its graph which is given below.

It is evident that f is seamless, no “gaps” or “holes”, all throughout its domain. Therefore, we
can say that f is continuous at all points in its domain, that is, the set of real numbers.

Now lets take a look at the cosine function defined by g(x) = cos x. We are familiar from
our previous math lessons that its graph is as follows.
36 CHAPTER 1. LIMITS AND CONTINUITY

Notice that as with the sine function, the cosine function also exhibits continuity at all points
in its domain, that is, at every real number.

As we may have observed, most common transcendental functions are continuous at every
number in their respective domains. We summarize these significant observations below.

Continuity of Transcendental Functions

For any a > 0,
1. the natural logarithmic function y = ln x is continuous at a.

2. the logarithmic function y = log x is continuous at a.

For any real number a,

1. the natural exponential function y = ex is continuous at a.

2. the sine function y = sin x is continuous at a.

3. the cosine function y = cos x is continuous at a.

The continuity of the above transcendental functions has a huge implication on the limits
of these functions. For instance, since f defined by f (x) = sin x is continuous at every number
a, then

lim sin x = lim f (x) = f (a) = sin(a).

x→a x→a

Essentially, the task of evaluating the limit of f (x) as x gets closer and closer to a in the
domain of f is tantamount to simply getting the function value at a. This holds true for the
other transcendental functions whose continuity we discussed previously.

A manner to combine continuous functions to get a new continuous function is by forming

their compositions. This is a consequence of the following fact.

Limit of Compositions
(L13) If lim g(x) exists and f is continuous at lim g(x), then
x→a x→a

lim f (g(x)) = f (lim g(x)).

x→a x→a

Knowing the above statement and the fact that the following transcendental functions are
continuous on their respective domains, we have the following set of rules on evaluating limits.
1.5. CONTINUITY OF FUNCTIONS 37

Rules on Evaluating Limits

Suppose lim f (x) exists. Then,
x→a  
(L14) lim ln f (x) = ln lim f (x) provided that lim f (x) > 0
x→a x→a x→a
 
(L15) lim log f (x) = log lim f (x) provided that lim f (x) > 0
x→a x→a x→a
 
lim f (x)
(L16) lim ef (x) = e x→a
x→a
 
(L17) lim sin f (x) = sin lim f (x)
x→a x→a
 
(L18) lim cos f (x) = cos lim f (x)
x→a x→a

We can apply the above rules together with the other rules discussed previously to evaluate
the following limits.

Example 1.5.5. Evaluate the following limits, if they exist.

 
1. lim ln(1 + sin x) 2. lim e(2x−5) π
x→0 x→3 3. lim cos
x→1 x+2
Solution
1. We use (L14) so that
lim ln(1 + sin x) = ln[lim (1 + sin x)]
x→0 x→0
= ln (1 + sin 0)
= ln 1
= 0.

2. We use (L16) so that

 
lim (2x − 5)
lim e(2x−5) = e x→3
x→3

= e(2(3)−5)
= e.

3. We use (L18) so that

   
π π
lim cos = cos lim
x→1 x+2 x→1 x + 2
π 
= cos
3
1
= .
2
38 CHAPTER 1. LIMITS AND CONTINUITY

Now, we focus our discussion on the continuity of a function on open and closed intervals.

Continuity on an Interval
A function f is continuous on
i. an open interval I if it is continuous at every number in I.

ii. a closed interval [a, b] if

a. it is continuous at every number in (a, b),

b. lim+ f (x) exists and is equal to f (a), and
x→a

c. lim− f (x) exists and is equal to f (b).

x→b

In the case of closed interval [a, b], if at least one of the conditions is not satisfied, then the
function is discontinuous on [a, b]. In essence, continuity on an interval means that the graph
of f is “one piece” throughout the interval.

We study the conditional function given below for its continuity on some open and closed
intervals. In here, we will understand better the connection of continuity at a point to continuity
on intervals.

Example 1.5.6. Determine if the function f defined by


2x + 3, x < −2

f (x) = x2 , −2 ≤ x ≤ 0

x − 2, x > 0


is continuous on the intervals (−2, 0), (−3, 1), (−1, +∞), [−2, 0] and [−2, 3].

Solution Before we proceed, note that to efficiently examine the continuity of f on any given
interval, it is vital to identify at which points it is discontinuous. Please verify that the only
points of discontinuity of f are at −2 and 0.

1. On (−2, 0), f is continuous on (−2, 0) since it is continuous at every number on (−2, 0).

2. On (−3, 1), f is discontinuous on (−3, 1) since (−3, 1) contains −2 and 0.

3. On (−1, +∞), f is discontinuous on (−1, +∞) since (−1, +∞) contains 0.

4. On [−2, 0],

a. f is continuous at every number in (−2, 0)

b. lim f (x) = lim + x2 = 4 = f (−2)
x→−2+ x→−2
1.5. CONTINUITY OF FUNCTIONS 39

c. lim− f (x) = lim− x2 = 0 = f (0)

x→0 x→0

Therefore, f is continuous on [−2, 0].

5. On [−2, 3], note that f is discontinuous on (−2, 3) since (−2, 3) contains 0. Thus, f is
discontinuous on [−2, 3].

In the next example, we will consider a rational function and study its continuity on given
intervals.

x−1
Example 1.5.7. Discuss the continuity of the function g defined by g(x) = on the open
x+2
interval (−2, 1) and on the closed interval [−2, 1].

Solution The rational function g is continuous at every number except at −2. Hence, g is
continuous on (−2, 1) but not on [−2, 1] since g(−2) does not exist. The graph of g is shown
below.

Continuity is one of the most significant concepts in calculus. This property greatly gives
an idea of how a function behaves and there are a number of applications that use functions
possessing this very nice property.
40 CHAPTER 1. LIMITS AND CONTINUITY

Assessment 1.5
Concepts
Answer the following questions briefly.
1. When is a function continuous at a point?

2. What are some features of a graph of a function that has points of

discontinuity?

3. At which points are polynomial functions continuous? What about

rational functions? sine and cosine functions? exponential and loga-
rithmic functions?

4. Explain the continuity of composite functions.

5. When is a function continuous on an open interval?

6. What are sufficient conditions for a function to be continuous on a

closed interval?

Computations

A. Identify the point/s of discontinuity of the following functions given

its graph.

1. the graph of f

2. the graph of g
1.5. CONTINUITY OF FUNCTIONS 41

3. the graph of h

4. the graph of i

B. Determine if each of the following functions is continuous at the spec-

ified value of x.

1. f (x) = 5x2 + 3x − 5 at x = 2
x2 + 1
2. g(x) = at x = 0
x
√
3. h(x) = 9 − x2 at x = 3

C. Identify all the values of x for which each of the given functions is not
continuous.

1. f (x) = x4 − 2x + 7
x+1
2. g(x) = 2
x −x
√
3. h(x) = 1 + 2x
(
Ax − 3 x<2
D. Find the value of the constant A so that m(x) =
3 − x + 2x2 x≥2
is continuous at every number.
42 CHAPTER 1. LIMITS AND CONTINUITY

E. Evaluate the following limits, if it exists.

1. lim sin(2 − 2x2 )

x→1

2. lim ex+2
x→2
ex
3. lim
x→0 3

4. lim ln x2 + 2


x→1
√ 
2 2
5. lim ln x −3
x→2

6. lim log (2x)

x→5
 
2x
7. lim cos
x→−π 3
x
8. lim sin
x→3π 18
cos (πx)
9. lim
x→2 sin (πx) + 1

F. Discuss the continuity of the following functions on the indicated in-

terval.
 
1
1. f (x) = x 1 + on (0, 1) and [0, 1]
x

2
x − 9, if x ≤ 3
√

2. h(x) = x − 3, if 3 < x ≤ 7 on (0, 3) and [7, 10]

x, if x > 7

Chapter 2

Differentiation of Functions of a Single

Variable

2.1 Derivative of a Function

In this section, we will understand the idea and the geometric interpretation of the derivative
and differentiability of a function. Also, we will discuss how to find the derivative of a function
using the definition and we will learn the relationship between differentiability and continuity.
Differentiation is a primary tool for studying rate of change such as velocity, acceleration,
production rates with respect to labor level or capital expenditure, the rate of growth of a
population, the infection rate of a susceptible population during an epidemic and many more.
A detailed discussion on applications of derivatives will be discussed in the next sections.

Activity 2.1.1
Consider the graph of the function f below.

1. What do you call the line joining points A and B, which is a line passing
through two points of a curve?

2. What is the slope of the line joining points A and B?

←→
To answer the next question, observe what happens to line AB as h becomes
smaller and smaller.

43
44 CHAPTER 2. DIFFERENTIATION OF FUNCTIONS OF A SINGLE VARIABLE

←→
3. As h approaches 0, in how many points will the line AB intersects the
graph of f ? What do we call this line?

The slope of the tangent line to the graph of f at the point (x0 , f (x0 )) is a geometric
interpretation of the derivative of a function f at a number x0 . The following is the formal
definition of the derivative of a function.

The Derivative of a Function

The derivative of the function f (x) with respect to x is the function f 0 (x)
given by
f (x + h) − f (x)
f 0 (x) = lim ,
h→0 h
read as f 0 (x) as “f prime of x”. The process of computing the derivative is
called differentiation, and we say that f (x) is differentiable at x = c if
f 0 (c) exists; that is, if the limit that defines f 0 (x) exists when x = c.

dy
Note that there are other notations for derivative, some of which are , D1 f , ẏ and y 0 .
dx
Now, let us use the definition to find the derivative of some functions. However, we will
limit our discussion to polynomial functions of degree at most two.
2.1. DERIVATIVE OF A FUNCTION 45

Example 2.1.1. Consider the function f (x) = 2. Find f 0 (x) using the definition.

Solution By definition,
f (x + h) − f (x)
f 0 (x) = lim
h→0 h
2−2
= lim
h→0 h
0
= lim
h→0 h
= lim 0
h→0
= 0.

If the derivative of a function f at a number x0 exists then this derivative is the slope of the
tangent line to the graph of f at the point (x0 , f (x0 )). We illustrate this in the next example.

Example 2.1.2. Determine the slope of the tangent line to the graph of f (x) = 1−2x2 at x = 2.

Solution By definition,
f (2 + h) − f (2)
f 0 (2) = lim
h→0 h
(1 − 2(2 + h)2 ) − (1 − 2(2)2 )
= lim
h→0 h
(1 − 2 [(2)2 + 2(2)h + h2 ]) − (−7)
= lim
h→0 h
(1 − 8 − 8h − 2h2 )) − (−7)
= lim
h→0 h
−8h − 2h2
= lim
h→0 h
= lim (−8 − 2h)
h→0
= −8.
The slope of the tangent line to the graph of f at x = 2 is the derivative of f at x = 2, which
is f 0 (2) = −8.

It is important to note that polynomial functions, such as in Examples 2.1.1 and 2.1.2, are
differentiable anywhere. Moreover, a rational function is differentiable at every number in its
domain.

We know that if the derivative of a function f at a number x0 exists, then this derivative
is the slope of the tangent line to the graph of f at the point (x0 , f (x0 )). Hence, if a function
f is differentiable at a number x0 , then the graph of f has a non-vertical tangent line at the
point (x0 , f (x0 )) and at all points as x approaches x0 . Therefore, geometrically, the graph of
a function which is differentiable at a given point has no break or cusps (pointed part) at that
given point.
46 CHAPTER 2. DIFFERENTIATION OF FUNCTIONS OF A SINGLE VARIABLE

Activity 2.1.2
Graph the following functions and use this to answer the guide questions.
ˆ f (x) = 1 − x2

ˆ g(x) = |x|
(
1 − x2 , if x < 0
ˆ h(x) =
|x|, if x ≥ 0.

Guide Questions:

1. Which of the given functions are continuous at x = 0?

2. Which of the given functions are differentiable at x = 0?

3. What are your observations about the relationship between continuity

and differentiability of functions?

In our activity, we can observe the following theorem about the relationship of continuity
and differentiability.

Continuity of a Differentiable Function

If the function f (x) is differentiable at x = c, then it is also continuous at
x = c.

Using the previous theorem, we can also conclude that if a function f is not continuous at
x = c then f is not differentiable at x = c.

(
x + 1, if x ≤ 1
Example 2.1.3. Consider the function f (x) = This function is not con-
1 − x, if x > 1.
tinuous at x = 1, since lim f (x) does not exist. As shown below, the one-sided limits are not
x→1
equal:
lim f (x) = lim− (x + 1) = 1 + 1 = 2
x→1− x→1
lim+ f (x) = lim+ (1 − x) = 1 − 1 = 0
x→1 x→1

f (1 + h) − f (1)
Now, observe that lim− exists:
h→0 h
f (1 + h) − f (1) [(1 + h) + 1] − 2
lim− = lim−
h→0 h h→0 h
h
= lim−
h→0 h
= lim− 1
h→0
= 1
2.1. DERIVATIVE OF A FUNCTION 47

f (1 + h) − f (1)
However, lim+ does not exist:
h→0 h

f (1 + h) − f (1) [1 − (1 + h)] − 2
lim+ = lim+
h→0 h h→0 h
−h − 2
= lim+
h→0
 h 
2
= lim+ −1 −
h→0 h
= −∞

f (1 + h) − f (1)
Hence, f 0 (1) = lim does not exist. Therefore, f is not differentiable at
h→0 h
x = 1. This example illustrates that if f is not continuous at x = c, then it is not differentiable
at x = c.

From our previous theorem, we already know that differentiability implies continuity. How-
ever, the converse of the theorem is not always true. If a function is continuous at x = c then
f is not necessarily differentiable at x = c.

(
4, if x ≤ 2
Example 2.1.4. Consider the function g(x) = We can easily verify that
x + 2, if x > 2.
this function is continuous at x = 2. We have

i. g(2) = 4

ii. lim− g(x) = lim− 4 = 4

x→2 x→2

lim g(x) = lim+ (x + 2) = 4

x→2+ x→2

lim g(x) = 4.
x→2

iii. g(2) = lim g(x)

x→2

g(2 + h) − g(2) g(2 + h) − g(2)

Take note that both lim− and lim+ exist:
h→0 h h→0 h

g(2 + h) − g(2) 4−4

lim− = lim−
h→0 h h→0 h
0
= lim−
h→0 h
= lim− 0
h→0
= 0
48 CHAPTER 2. DIFFERENTIATION OF FUNCTIONS OF A SINGLE VARIABLE

and
g(2 + h) − g(2) [(2 + h) + 2] − 4
lim+ = lim−
h→0 h h→0 h
h
= lim+
h→0 h
= lim+ 1
h→0
= 1

g(2 + h) − g(2) g(2 + h) − g(2) g(2 + h) − g(2)

Since lim− 6= lim+ , then g 0 (2) = lim does
h→0 h h→0 h h→0 h
not exist. Therefore, g is not differentiable at x = 2. Note that in this example, g is continuous
but not differentiable at x = 2.

Assessment 2.1
Concepts
Answer the following questions briefly.
1. What are the physical and geometric interpretations of derivatives?

2. What is the relationship of limits and derivatives?

3. Are differentiable functions continuous?

4. Are continuous functions differentiable?

5. If possible, give an example of the following:

a. A function which is differentiable and continuous.
b. A function which is not continuous and not differentiable.
c. A function which is continuous but not differentiable.

Computations

A. Find the derivative of the following functions using the definition.

1. f (x) = 4x + 1
2. g(x) = 3 − 2x
3. k(x) = x2 − x
4. i(x) = 1 − 3x2
√
5. j(x) = x
√
6. f (x) = 3 x
1
7. g(x) =
x
1
8. j(x) =
x+1
2.1. DERIVATIVE OF A FUNCTION 49

B. Determine the slope of the tangent line to the graph of the following
functions at the given point.

1. f (x) = 3 − 4x at x = 2
2. g(x) = x2 + 2x − 1 at x = −1
3. k(x) = 3x2 + x at x = 0
1
4. i(x) = at x = 1
2x − 1
1−x
5. j(x) = at x = −3
x+2
C. Determine if each of the following functions is differentiable at the
given point.
(
−2 if x ≤ −1
1. f (x) = at x = −1
3x + 1 if x > −1
(
2x + 5 if x ≤ −1
2. g(x) = at x = −1
1 − 2x if x > −1
(
−x2 if x ≤ 0
3. k(x) = at x = 0
x2 if x > 0
(
x2 if x < 1
4. i(x) = at x = 1
2x − 1 if x ≥ 1
(
−3x − 1 if x < 1
5. j(x) = at x = 1
x2 − 4 if x > 1

D. Determine all points at which each of the given function is differen-

tiable. Justify your answers.

1. f (x) = x3 − 2x + 3
2. g(x) = 3x8 − x + 1
1
3. h(x) =
x−1
x2
4. i(x) = 2
x −9
x+2
5. j(x) = 2
x +4
50 CHAPTER 2. DIFFERENTIATION OF FUNCTIONS OF A SINGLE VARIABLE

2.2 Basic Differentiation Rules

Finding the derivative of a function using the definition is somewhat tedious as what we have
seen in the previous section. The following rules will help us to find the derivative of various
types of functions easier.

Basic Differentiation Rules

(D1) The Constant Rule:
If f (x) = k, where k is any constant, then f 0 (x) = 0.

(D2) The Power Rule:

If f (x) = xn , where n is any real number, then f 0 (x) = nxn−1 .

Let f , g and h be differentiable functions of x.

(D3) The Constant Multiple Rule:

If f (x) = kg(x), where k is any constant, then f 0 (x) = kg 0 (x).

(D4) The Sum and Difference Rule:

If f (x) = g(x) ± h(x), then f 0 (x) = g 0 (x) ± h0 (x).

(D5) The Product Rule:

If f (x) = g(x) · h(x), then f 0 (x) = g(x) · h0 (x) + h(x) · g 0 (x).

(D6) The Quotient Rule:

g(x) h(x) · g 0 (x) − g(x) · h0 (x)
If f (x) = , then f 0 (x) = , provided that
h(x) [h(x)]2
h(x) 6= 0.

(D7) If f (x) = ex , then f 0 (x) = ex .

1
(D8) If f (x) = ln x, then f 0 (x) = .
x
1
(D9) If f (x) = log x, then f 0 (x) = .
x ln 10
(D10) If f (x) = sin x, then f 0 (x) = cos x.

(D11) If f (x) = cos x, then f 0 (x) = − sin x.

Note that rule (D4) can be extended for differentiation of a sum or difference of a finite
number functions, i.e. if f (x) = f1 (x)±f2 (x)±· · ·±fn (x), then f 0 (x) = f10 (x)±f20 (x)±· · ·±fn0 (x).
2.2. BASIC DIFFERENTIATION RULES 51

Example 2.2.1. Find the derivative of the following functions and state the basic differentia-
tion rules used.
√
1. f (x) = π 5. y = 5x + x − 7ex

1
2. g(x) =
x 6. y = (2x4 + 1)(cos x − 2x7 )
π
3. h(x) =
x
5 ln x − x2
4. y = 2x2 + 7. y =
x2 sin x
Solution

1. Note that f is a constant function. So, by (D1), f 0 (x) = 0.

2. Notice that we can rewrite the function as g(x) = x−1 . So,

g 0 (x) = (−1)x−1−1 (D2)

= −x−2
−1
= 2
x
 
d 1 −1
3. From the previous item, = 2 . We have
dx x x

 
0 d 1
h (x) = π (D3)
dx x
 
−1
=π
x2
−π
= 2
x

4. We can write y = 2x2 + 5x−2 . So,

dy d d
2x2 + 5x−2



= (D4)
dx dx dx
d d
2
x−2



=2 x +5 (D3)
dx dx
= 2(2)x2−1 + 5(−2)x−2−1 (D2)
10
= 4x − 3
x
52 CHAPTER 2. DIFFERENTIATION OF FUNCTIONS OF A SINGLE VARIABLE
√ 1
5. Note that x = x 2 . Thus,

dy d d  1 d
= (5x) + x2 − (7ex ) (D4)
dx dx dx dx
d d  1 d
= 5 (x) + x 2 − 7 (ex ) (D3)
dx dx dx
1−1 1 1 −1 x
= 5(1)x + x 2 − 7e (D2), (D7)
2
1 −1
= 5 + x 2 − 7ex
2
1
= 5 + √ − 7ex
2 x

6. Using (D5),

dy d d
= (2x4 + 1) (cos x − 2x7 ) + (cos x − 2x7 ) (2x4 + 1) (D5)
dx dx
  dx  
4 d d 7

7 d 4

d
= (2x + 1) (cos x) − 2x + (cos −2x ) 2x + (1) (D4)
dx dx dx dx
   
d d
= (2x4 + 1) − sin x − 2 x7 + (cos x − 2x7 ) 2 x4 + 0



(D1), (D3), (D11)
dx dx
4 7−1
+ (cos x − 2x ) 2(4)x4−1
7



= (2x + 1) − sin x − 2(7)x (D2)
= (2x4 + 1)(− sin x − 14x6 ) + (cos x − 2x7 )(8x3 )

7. Using (D6),

d d
d (sin x) (ln x − x2 ) − (ln x − x2 ) (sin x)
= dx dx (D6)
dx (sin x)2
 
d d 2 d
(sin x) (ln x) − (x ) − (ln x − x2 ) (sin x)
dx dx dx
= 2 (D4)
  sin x
1
(sin x) − (2)x2−1 − (ln x − x2 ) (cos x)
x
= 2 (D2), (D8), (D10)
  sin x
1
(sin x) − 2x − (ln x − x2 ) (cos x)
x
=
sin2 x
2.2. BASIC DIFFERENTIATION RULES 53

Time to Think!
√ 7
1. Suppose f 0 (x) = x2 , g 0 (x) = 2x and h0 (x) = − .
x

(a) If i(x) = 5f (x), what is i0 (x)?

(b) If j(x) = g(x) − 6x3 , what is j 0 (x)?
(c) If k(x) = 3f (x) + g(x) − 7h(x), what is k 0 (x)?
√
 
9 1
(5x − 12 x) 1 + 3
x
2. Find the derivative of t(x) = 3
.
3x − x
3. Verify the basic differentiation rules using the definition of the deriva-
tive of a function.

We now discuss one of the many applications of derivatives which is rate of change. The rate
of change of a quantity refers to how that (dependent) quantity changes as another (indepen-
dent) quantity changes. In other words, it is a change in one variable relative to a corresponding
change in another. Graphically, the rate of change is represented by the slope of a line. Recall
that if the derivative of a function f at a number x0 exists, then this derivative is the slope of
the tangent line to the graph of f at the point (x0 , f (x0 )). Hence, f 0 (x0 ) is the rate of change
of f at x0 .
One of the most common example of rate of change is speed. Average speed is equal to
the total distance divided by the total time travelled. Instantaneous speed, on the other hand,
refers to speed at a particular instance. We consider the following illustration.
Suppose your jeepney ride from Olivarez Plaza to UPLB Gate, which 1.6 km in total, took
30 minutes. What is the average speed of the jeepney? What is the speed of the jeepney when
you were 0.5 km from Olivarez Plaza? What is the speed of the jeepney 25 minutes after you
left Olivarez Plaza?
Notice that to compute for the average speed, we just need the total distance and time
travelled. Hence,

1.6
average speed = = 3.2 km/hr.
0.5

However, to determine the speed when you were 0.5 km from Olivarez Plaza or the speed 25
minutes after you left, which are both speed at a particular instance, we need the speedometer
reading.
Now, suppose that the function y = f (x) describes the distance y km travelled by the jeepney
when it has travelled x hours from Olivarez Plaza. Then, f 0 (x0 ) will give the instantaneous
speed of the jeepney when it has travelled x0 hours from Olivarez Plaza. With this, we do not
need the speedometer reading anymore.
To further understand derivatives as rates of change, consider the following activity.
54 CHAPTER 2. DIFFERENTIATION OF FUNCTIONS OF A SINGLE VARIABLE

Activity 2.2.1
Consider a square of side x in. If f (x) in2 is the area of the square, then
f (x) = x2 . Initially, suppose that the square has side of length 2.8 in. So,
the initial area is f (2.8) = 2.82 = 7.84 in2 .

Answer the following questions and summarize your answers in the table
below.

ˆ Suppose we add 0.1 in to the initial length of the side of the square.
What is now be the area? What is the rate of change in area?

ˆ Suppose we again add 0.09 in to the length of the side of the square.
What is now be the area? What is the rate of change in area?

ˆ Suppose we again add 0.009 in to the length of the side of the square.
What is now be the area? What is the rate of change in area?

ˆ Suppose we again add 0.0009 in to the length of the side of the square.
What is now be the area? What is the rate of change in area?

ˆ Suppose we again add 0.0001 in to the length of the side of the square.
What is now be the area? What is the rate of change in area?

change in x x Area Rate of Change

initial 2.8 7.84
0.1
0.09
0.009
0.0009
0.0001

ˆ What can you observe with the changes in x?

ˆ With this, what can you observe with the rates of change?

ˆ What is the rate of change in area at the instant that the side measures
3 in?

Notice that as the change in x gets closer and closer to 0, the rates of change approach 6.
In fact, in the activity, the average rate of change approaches 6, which is the derivative of f at
x = 3 since f 0 (x) = 2x and f 0 (3) = 6.
So now, if we want to know the rate of change in area at the instant that the side measures
4, we do not need to make a similar observation anymore as in the activity. This can be directly
computed using derivatives.
2.2. BASIC DIFFERENTIATION RULES 55

Instantaneous Rate of Change

If y = f (x), the instantaneous rate of change of y per unit change in x at x0
is given by f 0 (x0 ).

Note that if the rate of change is positive, then it means that the quantity that is being
measured is increasing at that instant. If the rate of change is negative, then it is decreasing
at that instant. In the case that the rate of change is zero, then it is constant at that instant.
To better understand this concept, we consider the following examples.

Example 2.2.2. Find the instantaneous rate of change of the area of a square when the side
measures 5 in.

Solution As in Activity 2.2.1, we have f 0 (5) = 2(5) = 10. Therefore, the area of the square is
increasing at a rate of 10 in2 per inch change in the length of the side when the length of the
side is 5 in.

Example 2.2.3. A sick person’s body temperature T (d) degrees Celsius d days after getting
sick is given by T (d) = −0.1d2 − 0.2d + 39, where 0 ≤ d ≤ 3. Find the rate of change of the
person’s body temperature when 0 < d < 3. What is the rate of change of the person’s body
temperature two days after getting sick?

Solution The rate of change of a sick person’s body temperature d days after getting sick is
T 0 (d) = −0.2d − 0.2 degrees Celcius per day. After two days, that is when d = 2, T 0 (2) = −0.6.
Hence, the person’s body temperature is decreasing at a rate of 0.6 degrees Celcius per day
after two days of being sick.

Example 2.2.4. The total cost in pesos of manufacturing x number of bags is given by
220
C(x) = 750 + + 2x2 . Find the rate of change in the total cost of production when 50
x
bags are produced.
220
Solution The rate of change in the total cost of production is C 0 (x) = − 2 + 4x. When
x
0 220 499780
50 bags are produced, that is when x = 50, C (50) = − 2 + 4(50) = ≈ 200. This
50 2500
means that the rate of change in the total cost of production when 50 bags are produced is
approximately PhP 200 per bag.
56 CHAPTER 2. DIFFERENTIATION OF FUNCTIONS OF A SINGLE VARIABLE

Example 2.2.5. When x number of computer sets are sold, the revenue is found to be
R(x) = (x + 1)(4x + 25) thousand pesos. What is the rate of change in revenue when 5
computer sets are sold?

Solution Note that R0 (x) = (x + 1)(4) + (4x + 25)(1). When x = 5, R0 (5) = (5 + 1)(4) +
(4(5) + 25)(1) = 69. Hence, the rate of change in the total revenue when 5 computer sets are
sold is PhP 69, 000 per computer set.

Assessment 2.2
Concepts
Answer the following questions briefly.
1. How do we compute for the derivative of a constant, sum, product,
quotient and power?

2. What is the geometric interpretation of the derivative of the function

f at x = a?

3. What is the physical interpretation of the derivative of the function f

at x = a?

Computations
Find the derivative of the following functions using the basic differentiation
rules.

1. f (x) = 1

2. f (x) = π 2

3. f (x) = eπ (e is the Euler’s constant)

√
4. f (x) = 5

5. f (x) = 4! (n! = n · (n − 1) · (n − 2) · . . . · 2 · 1, where n is a natural

number)
4x5 + π 2
6. g(x) =
e
7. g(x) = ex + x2 + π
√ √
8. g(x) = 5x + 5
1
9. g(x) = sin x − +3
x3
10. g(x) = 4 cos x + 3 ln x

11. h(x) = 4x2 ex

12. h(x) = (2x − cos x) (ex + 1)

√
13. h(x) = ( x + π) (sin x + ex )
2.2. BASIC DIFFERENTIATION RULES 57

 
1
14. h(x) = + sin x (cos x + 2x)
x4
√ √

15. h(x) = (ln x + 2 log x) cos x + 5x + 5
2x + cos x
16. y = √
ex − 2
sin x − x13 + 3
17. y = √
x+π
4x5 + π 2
18. y =
cos x + x14
ln x + 2 log x
19. y = √ √
5x + 5
4x2 ex
20. y =
ex + x2 + π
Problem Solving

1. Given a sphere of volume V and radius r, find the instantaneous rate

of change of V with respect to r when r = 5 meters.

2. Boyle’s law states that the pressure P of a given mass of an ideal gas
is inversely proportional to is volume V at a constant temperature, i.e.
k
P = , where k is a constant. Find the instantaneous rate of change
V
of P with respect to V when P = 10 pascals and V = 3 cubic meters.

3. A stone in dropped into a still lake and concentric circular ripples were
formed. Find the instantaneous rate of change of the area A of the
disturbed region with respect to the radius r when r is 10 centimeters.

4. After t hours, the total population count of a certain species of bacteria

is found to be B(t) = 6t3 + 450t + 200.

a. What is the initial count of the population?

b. What is the instantaneous rate of change of the population count
after 2 hours?
c. After how many hours is the rate of change of the population
zero?

5. Mang Inasar Siomai gains a total revenue T (in pesos) whenever he

sells Q packs of chicken siomai at a price P . If P = 450 − 5Q, then do
the following.

a. Find the total revenue function T in terms of Q.

b. Find the instantaneous rate of change of the total revenue if the
total number of packs sold is 50.
c. Solve for the number of packs sold such that the rate of change
of the total revenue is zero.
58 CHAPTER 2. DIFFERENTIATION OF FUNCTIONS OF A SINGLE VARIABLE

2.3 Higher-Order Derivatives

0
If f is a differentiable function, then its derivative f is also a function and has a derivative of
0 0 00 00
its own, denoted by (f ) = f . This new function f is called the second order derivative
of f because it is the derivative of the derivative of f .
In this section, we will evaluate higher-order derivatives.

The Second Order Derivative

Consider a differentiable function defined by y = f (x), then the second
order derivative of f with respect to x, denoted by
d2 y 00 00
2
, Dx2 (f (x)), y or f ,
dx 0 0
is the function derived by differentiating f , assuming f is differentiable.

In the given example, we will find and interpret the second order derivative of f .

00
Example 2.3.1. If f (x) = x3 + 3x2 − x + 3, find and interpret f .
0
Solution With our knowledge in differentiation, we know that f (x) = 3x2 + 6x − 1 and getting
0 00
the derivative of f results to the second order derivative f (x) = 6x + 6. Recalling what we
00
learned from Section 2.1, we can interpret f as the slope of the tangent line to the curve
0 0
y = f (x) at the point (x, f (x)). In other words, it is the rate of change of the slope of the
original curve y = f (x).

Generally, the second order derivative is the rate of change of a rate of change. Let us take
a look at the following example.

Example 2.3.2. An efficiency study of the morning shift at NIS electronic factory shows that
an average worker who arrives on the job at 9:00 AM will have produced

Q(t) = −t3 + 6t2 + 24t

after t hours.

a. Compute the worker’s rate of production at 12:00 noon.

b. At what rate is the worker’s rate of production changing with respect to time at 12:00
noon?

Solution
2.3. HIGHER-ORDER DERIVATIVES 59

a. The worker’s rate of production at any time t is the first derivative Q0 given by

Q0 (t) = −3t2 + 12t + 24.

Therefore, the rate of production at 12:00 noon, that is, after 3 hours is

Q0 (3) = −3(3)2 + 12(3) + 24 = 33

units per hour.

b. The rate of change of the rate of production is the second derivative Q00 given by

Q00 (t) = −6t + 12.

At 12:00 noon, this rate is

Q00 (3) = −6(3) + 12 = −6
units per hour per hour.
The minus sign indicates that the worker’s rate of production is decreasing, that is, the
worker is slowing down. The rate of this decrease in efficiency at 12:00 noon is 6 units
per hour per hour.

If the function s(t) gives the position of the object at time t with respect to a reference
point, then the rate of change of s(t) with respect to t is its velocity v(t) and the rate change
of velocity is its acceleration a(t). That is, v(t) = s0 (t) and a(t) = v 0 (t) = s00 (t)

We illustrate this concepts in the following example.

Example 2.3.3. Suppose s defined by s(t) = t2 + 2t + 6 is the position of a car moving along
a straight line at time t where t is in minutes.

a. Find the velocity and acceleration of the car.

b. Will the car ever stop?

c. When is the car at constant velocity?

Solution
ds
a. The velocity of the car is given by v(t) = = 2t + 2 while its acceleration is given by
dt
d2 s
a(t) = v 0 (t) = = 2, at any time t.
dt2
b. Basically, we are asked to find values/s of t when v(t) = 0. Notice that v = 0 when
t = −1. Since there is no such negative time, then the car is always moving.

c. We find value/s of t such that a(t) = 0. However, we can see from our previous compu-
tation that the acceleration is constant, which is 2, and will never be 0. Hence, the car
will not have a constant velocity at any time.
60 CHAPTER 2. DIFFERENTIATION OF FUNCTIONS OF A SINGLE VARIABLE

Another variation of velocity and acceleration problem is discussed in the next example.

Example 2.3.4. A soccer ball is tossed vertically in the air from the ground. Suppose its
position function s, in ft, is defined by s(t) = 9.8t − 4.9t2 where t is in seconds.

a. How high will the soccer ball go?

b. What is the acceleration of the ball at t = 2?

Solution

a. The highest height the ball can reach is measured from the moment just before it goes
down, that is, before it changes direction from going up to going down. Basically, it is on
its highest position when it is at rest, that is, when v(t) = 0. So,

ds
v(t) = = 9.8 − 9.8t which means v(t) = 0 when t = 1
dt

and its height after 1 second can be computed as

s(1) = 9.8(1) − 4.9(1)2 = 4.9.

Hence, the soccer ball can go as high as 4.9 ft above the ground.

b. The acceleration of the ball at any time t is given by a(t) = −9.8. Hence, a0 (2) = −9.8,
that is, the acceleration of the ball at t = 2 is −9.8.

We will investigate other applications of second derivatives in the next sections.

00 000
The differentiation process can be continued. If f is differentiable, then its derivative f
000
is the 3rd order derivative of f . If f is differentiable, then its derivative f (4) is the 4th order
derivative of f . In general, the nth order derivative of f is obtained from f by differentiating
n times.

The nth Order Derivative

The nth order derivative of the function f defined by y = f (x) where n is a
positive integer greater than one, denoted by
dn y
, Dxn (f (x)), y (n) or f (n) ,
dxn
is the derivative of the (n − 1)st order derivative of f , assuming f (n−1) is
differentiable.

In the next examples, we will exhibit evaluation of higher order derivatives.

2.3. HIGHER-ORDER DERIVATIVES 61

Example 2.3.5. Determine the indicated derivative.

1. y = x5 − 6x3 + 15x2 − 33; y (6) . 2. f (x) = ex ; f (4)

Solution

1. We have

y 0 = 5x4 − 18x2 + 30x

y 00 = 20x3 − 36x + 30
y 000 = 60x2 − 36
y (4) = 120x
y (5) = 120
y (6) = 0

In this example, notice that the 6th derivative is 0. In fact, for a polynomial function of
degree n, its (n + 1)th derivative is 0.

2. We have
0
f (x) = ex
00
f (x) = ex
000
f (x) = ex
f (4) (x) = ex

One nice property of the exponential function f (x) = ex is that its nth derivative is itself,
for any positive number n.

Example 2.3.6. Evaluate the successive derivatives at the given point.

d4 π
1. [ln(x)]; 2 2. Dx5 [sin(x)];
dx4 2

Solution
d 1 d 1
1. [ln(x)] = ⇒ at x = 2, [ln(x)] =
dx x dx 2

d2 −1 d2 −1 −1
2
[ln(x)] = 2 ⇒ at x = 2, 2
[ln(x)] = 2 =
dx x dx 2 4

d3 2 d3 2 2
3
[ln(x)] = 3 ⇒ at x = 2, 3
[ln(x)] = 3 =
dx x dx 2 8

d4 −6 d4 −6 −6
4
[ln(x)] = 4 ⇒ at x = 2, 4
[ln(x)] = 4 =
dx x dx 2 16
62 CHAPTER 2. DIFFERENTIATION OF FUNCTIONS OF A SINGLE VARIABLE

π π 
2. Dx [sin(x)] = cos(x) ⇒ at x = , Dx [sin(x)] = cos =0
2 2
2 π 2
π 
Dx [sin(x)] = − sin(x) ⇒ at x = , Dx [sin(x)] = − sin = −1
2 2
π π 
Dx3 [sin(x)] = − cos(x) ⇒ at x = , Dx3 [sin(x)] = − cos =0
2 2
4 π 4
π 
Dx [sin(x)] = sin(x) ⇒ at x = , Dx [sin(x)] = sin =1
2 2
π π 
Dx5 [sin(x)] = cos(x) ⇒ at x = , Dx5 [sin(x)] = cos =0
2 2

Time to Think
1. What is the general concept in getting the nth order derivative of a
function?

2. What is the geometric interpretation of the second order derivative of

a function at a given point?

Assessment 2.3
Concepts
How do we compute for the nth order derivative of a function?

Computations
A. Find the nth order derivative of the following functions.

1. f (x) = x4 + 3x − 2, n = 4, n = 5
2. g(x) = 2x7 − 5x − 24, n = 7, n = 8
3. h(x) = 3x3 − x2 − 4, n = 3, n = 4
1
4. f (x) = , n = 4
x
1
5. g(x) = 2 , n = 4
x
√
3
6. y = x , n = 3
7. y = log x, n = 4
8. y = cos x, n = 3
2.3. HIGHER-ORDER DERIVATIVES 63

B. Evaluate the following derivatives at the given point.

 
3 1
1. Dt ;2
6t3
√
 
2 1
2. Ds s+ ; 3
s
√
3. Dz6 [ z + 5z]; 4
4. Dx2 [2 sin x cos x]; π
5. Dx2 [ex ln x]; 1

Problem Solving

1. Suppose a bacterium moves along a straight line. After t minutes, the

distance of the bacterium from its starting point is given by D(t) =
tet − 200t + 6 micrometers.

a. Give an expression for the velocity of the bacterium at any time

t.
b. What is the acceleration of the bacterium after 5 minutes?

2. With the use of a rattan ball, two teams of kids are playing sipa in a
barangay open field. Now, a kid accidentally kicked the ball vertically.
Ignoring wind resistance, the height in feet of the ball after t seconds
is given by the function h(t) = −5t2 + 20t + 3.

a. At what initial velocity was the ball kicked?

b. When does the ball reach its maximum height?
c. How high does the ball go?

3. A curious student dropped a pebble from top of a building, and the

pebble’s distance (in meters) from the ground at t seconds is given by
the function h(t) = −20t2 + 80.

a. How tall is the building?

b. When does the pebble hit the ground?
c. What is the pebble’s velocity when it hits the ground?
d. Is the pebble accelerating or decelerating?

4. A policeman doing patrol is moving along a straight path according

to the function s(t) = t3 − 2t2 + t, where the police is s meters away
from his origin at t seconds.

a. To which direction is the police initially moving?

b. When does the police’ direction change from right to left?
c. When does the police’ direction change from left to right?
d. What time interval is the police moving to the left?
64 CHAPTER 2. DIFFERENTIATION OF FUNCTIONS OF A SINGLE VARIABLE

5. It was 7am when Faust Duquerte started going to school, which is a

kilometer walk from his house. Along the way, he noticed that he left
his lunchbox and has to go back. Suppose Faust’s distance from his
house since 7am is s(t) = 0.1(t3 − 12t2 + 36t), where t is in minutes
and s is in hundred meters.

a. How fast was Faust moving when he left his house?

b. How many minutes had passed before Faust turned around to get
his lunchbox?
c. What time did Faust arrive at his house to pick up his lunchbox?

6. A ball is thrown vertically upward, and its distance (in meters) from
the ground at t seconds is given by the function h(t) = −5t2 + 10t.

a. At what initial velocity was the ball thrown?

b. When does the ball reach its maximum height?
c. How high does the ball go?
d. What is the force of gravity acting on the ball? (Hint: Compute
acceleration.)

7. A rock is dropped from the top of a building, and its distance (in
feet) from the ground at t seconds is given by the function h(t) =
−16t2 + 1600.

a. How tall is the building?

b. When does the rock hit the ground?
c. What is the rock’s velocity when it hits the ground?
d. What is the force of gravity acting on the rock?

8. A particle is moving along a straight line according to the function

s(t) = t3 − 2t2 + t, where the particle is s units away from the origin
at t seconds.

a. To which direction is the particle initially moving?

b. When does the particle’s direction change from right to left?
c. When does the particle’s direction change from left to right?
d. What time interval is the particle moving to the left?

9. A car is driving along a straight highway. Suppose its distance travelled

3
in kilometers is indicated by the function is f (x) = − (x−3)
3
+ 70x − 9,
where x is in hours.

a. What is the function of the car’s velocity?

b. What is the maximum velocity that the car obtains?
c. How far has the car travelled by the time it reaches maximum
velocity?
2.4. CURVE SKETCHING 65

2.4 Curve Sketching

In this section, we will learn how to sketch the graph of functions of a single variable using
derivatives. To do that, we need the concepts of increasing and decreasing functions and
concavity.
Intuitively, a function f is increasing on an interval I if its graph is ”rising”, and it is
decreasing on I if the graph is ”falling”. For example, consider the graph below that describes
the effect of antibiotic on the growth of a certain bacteria.

The rise and fall on the graph indicates the increase and decrease, respectively, in the
number of bacteria present. We now give the formal definition of increasing and decreasing
functions.

Increasing and Decreasing Functions

Let f be a function defined on an interval I and let x1 , x2 ∈ I. Then,

(a) f is increasing on I if f (x1 ) < f (x2 ) whenever x1 < x2 , and

(b) f is decreasing on I if f (x1 ) > f (x2 ) whenever x1 < x2 .

66 CHAPTER 2. DIFFERENTIATION OF FUNCTIONS OF A SINGLE VARIABLE

Now, how do we determine whether a function is increasing or decreasing on a given interval

without computing for the function values at the points in the interval?

Activity 2.4.1
ˆ Consider the graph of the function f which is defined on the interval
(0, 3).

ˆ Draw tangent lines to the curve at any point in the interval (0, 1).

1. What can you say about the slope of the tangent lines?
2. Is f increasing or decreasing in this interval?

ˆ Draw tangent lines to the curve at any point in the interval (1, 2).

1. What can you say about the slope of the tangent lines?
2. Is f increasing or decreasing in this interval?

ˆ Draw tangent lines to the curve at any point in the interval (2, 3).

1. What can you say about the slope of the tangent lines?
2. Is f increasing or decreasing in this interval?

We learned in Section 2.1 that the derivative of the function f at x = a gives the slope of
the tangent line to the graph of f at the point (a, f (a)). Now, how do we use derivatives to
determine whether a function is increasing or decreasing on a given interval?

Theorem
If f 0 (x) > 0 for all x in a given interval I, then f is increasing on I.
If f 0 (x) < 0 for all x in I, then f is decreasing on I.
2.4. CURVE SKETCHING 67

Consider the following example.

Example 2.4.1. Consider the function f defined by f (x) = x2 . Since f 0 (x) = 2x, then
f 0 (x) < 0 if x < 0. Hence, f is decreasing on the interval (−∞, 0). Similarly, since f 0 (x) > 0 if
x > 0, then f is increasing on (0, +∞). We can verify this using the graph of f given below.

The number where a function possibly changes from increasing to decreasing or from de-
creasing to increasing is called a critical number of f . It is obtained when the first derivative
is zero or does not exist.

Critical Number
If c is a number in the domain of f such that f 0 (c) = 0 or f 0 (c) does not
exist, then c called a critical number of f .

Example 2.4.2. Find all critical numbers of the function f defined by f (x) = 2x3 − 9x2 + 2.
then, determine the intervals on which f is increasing or decreasing.

Solution First, we find the critical numbers of f by setting f 0 (x) to zero.

f (x) = 2x3 − 9x2 + 2
f 0 (x) = 6x2 − 18x = 0
6x(x − 3) = 0
x = 0 or x = 3
Note also that f 0 exists for all real numbers x. Hence, the only critical numbers of f are 0 and
3. These numbers divide the real number line into three intervals, namely (−∞, 0), (0, 3) and
(3, +∞). From each of these intervals, we choose the test numbers −1, 1 and 4, respectively,
and see that f 0 (−1) > 0, f 0 (1) < 0 and f 0 (4) > 0. Hence, f is increasing on the intervals
(−∞, 0) and (3, +∞) and decreasing on (0, 3). We summarize these results on the following
table.
68 CHAPTER 2. DIFFERENTIATION OF FUNCTIONS OF A SINGLE VARIABLE

t f0 Conclusion
(−∞, 0) −1 + f is increasing
(0, 3) 1 − f is decreasing
(3, +∞) 4 + f is increasing

Time to Think!
1. How many critical numbers can a quadratic polynomial function have?

2. How many critical numbers can a cubic polynomial function have?

3. In general, if n is a positive integer and f is a polynomial function of

degree n, how many critical numbers can f have?

We now proceed with the next activity.

Activity 2.4.2
ˆ Consider the graph of a function f in the figure below.

ˆ What can you say about f (1) with respect to the function values in
(0, 2)?

ˆ What can you say about f (3) with respect to the function values in
(2, 4)?

ˆ What can you say about f (4) with respect to the function values in
(3, 5)?
2.4. CURVE SKETCHING 69

We say that f (3) is a relative maximum value of f , and f (1) and f (4) are relative minimum
values of f .

Relative Extrema
A function f has a relative maximum at c if f (c) ≥ f (x), for all x in some
open interval containing c. We say that f (c) is a relative maximum value of
f.
A function f has a relative minimum at c if f (c) ≤ f (x), for all x in some
open interval containing c. We say that f (c) is a relative minimum value of
f.
Collectively, we refer to the relative maximum and relative minimum values
as relative extrema.

The question now is how do we determine the possible points where a relative extremum
occurs.

The First Derivative Test

Suppose c is a critical number of a function f . Then, the number f (c) is a

(a) relative maximum value if f 0 (x) changes sign from positive to negative
at c,

(b) relative minimum value if f 0 (x) changes sign from negative to positive
at c, and

(c) not a relative extremum if f 0 (x) does not change sign.

Example 2.4.3. Consider again the function f defined by f (x) = x2 whose graph is given in
Example 2.4.1. Using the graph, we can observe that a relative minimum occurs at 0. Also,
as discussed in Example 2.4.1, f 0 changes sign from negative to positive at 0. So, by the First
Derivative Test, a relative minimum indeed occurs at 0.

The above example shows us that with Calculus, we do not need the graph to determine
where a relative extremum occurs.

Example 2.4.4. Find the relative extrema of the function f in Example 2.4.2.

Solution Since f 0 changes sign from positive to negative at x = 0, then a relative maximum
occurs at x = 0. The relative maximum value is f (0) = 2. On the other hand, f 0 changes sign
from negative to positive at x = 3. Hence, a relative minimum occurs at x = 3 and the relative
minimum value is f (3) = −25. So far, we have the following:
70 CHAPTER 2. DIFFERENTIATION OF FUNCTIONS OF A SINGLE VARIABLE

f (x) f 0 (x) Conclusion

(−∞, 0) + f is increasing
x=0 2 0 a relative maximum occurs
(0, 3) − f is decreasing
x=3 −25 0 a relative minimum occurs
(3, +∞) + f is increasing

Time to Think!
1
Why does the function f (x) = have no relative extrema?
x

The first derivative of a function gives us an idea of how the function behaves, i.e, if a
function is increasing or decreasing on a given interval. However, this is not enough to sketch
its graph. We need more information that will be provided by the second derivative. First, we
define concavity and point of inflection.

Concavity
If the graph of a function f lies above all of its tangent lines on an interval
I, then the graph is concave upward on I.

If the graph of a function f lies below all of its tangent lines on an interval
I, then the graph is concave upward on I.

The following figure shows the relationship between increasing and decreasing function and
concavity.
2.4. CURVE SKETCHING 71

We can determine the concavity of the graph of a function using its second derivative.

Theorem
If f 00 (x) > 0 for all x in an interval I, then the graph of f is concave upward
on I.

If f 00 (x) < 0 for all x in an interval I, then the graph of f is concave

downward on I.

This theorem also tells us that there is a possible change in concavity at the values of x
such that f 00 (x) = 0. Such point is called a point of inflection.

Point of Inflection
If f is continuous at the number c and the graph of f changes its concavity
at c, then (c, f (c)) is called a point of inflection of the graph of f .

Aside from the concavity and points of inflection of the graph of a function, the second
derivative can also be used to determine the occurence of a relative extrema of the function.
72 CHAPTER 2. DIFFERENTIATION OF FUNCTIONS OF A SINGLE VARIABLE

The Second Derivative Test

Suppose c is a critical number of f at which f 0 (c) = 0, and f 00 exists for all
values of x in the interval I containing c.

(a) If f 00 (c) < 0, then f has a relative maximum value at c.

(b) If f 00 (c) > 0, then f has a relative minimum value at c.

Example 2.4.5. Consider the function f in Example 2.4.2. Find the possible points of inflec-
tion and determine on which intervals the graph is concave upward or downward. Also, verify
the relative extrema using the second derivative test.

Solution The possible points of inflection are the values of x for which f 00 (x) = 0.

f (x) = 2x3 − 9x2 + 2

f 0 (x) = 6x2 − 18x

f 00 (x) = 12x − 18 = 0
3
x=
2
Since there is onlyone possible
 point
 of inflection,
 we divide the real number line into two
3 3
intervals, namely −∞, and , +∞ . We choose a test number from each of these
2 2
intervals, say 1 and 2, respectively. Notice that f00 (1) = −6 00
 < 0 and f (2) = 6 > 0. 
Hence, the

3 3
graph of f is concave downward on the interval −∞, and concave upward on , +∞ .
2 2
3
Since there is a change in concavity, a point of inflection occurs at x = . We incorporate these
2
in the results obtained in Example 2.4.3. We have the following summary:
f (x) f 0 (x) f 00 (x) Conclusion
(−∞, 0) + − f is increasing and the graph is concave downward
x = 0 2 0 − a relative maximum occurs
3
0, − − f is decreasing and the graph is concave downward
2  
3 23 3 23
x= − − 0 a POI occurs at ,−
 2 2 2 2
3
,3 − + f is decreasing and the graph is concave upward
2
x=3 −25 0 + a relative minimum occurs
(3, +∞) + + f is increasing and the graph is concave upward

Notice also that f 0 (0) = 0 and f 00 (0) < 0. By the Second Derivative Test, a relative maximum
value occurs at x = 0. Similarly, a relative minimum value occurs at x = 3 since f 0 (3) = 0 and
f 00 (3) > 0.
With the results above, we can now sketch the graph of f .
2.4. CURVE SKETCHING 73

We now summarize the steps on how to sketch the graph of a function.

Curve Sketching
1. Determine the critical numbers and possible points of inflection of the
function.

2. Compute for the function values at these numbers.

3. Divide the real number line into intervals.

4. Determine the sign of the first and second derivatives on these intervals.

5. Form the conclusions.

6. Sketch the graph of the function.

74 CHAPTER 2. DIFFERENTIATION OF FUNCTIONS OF A SINGLE VARIABLE

1
Example 2.4.6. Sketch the graph of the function f defined by f (x) = x4 − x3 + x2 .
4
Solution We first find the critical numbers and possible points of inflection of f .

f 0 (x) = x3 − 3x2 + 2x = 0

x(x2 − 3x + 2) = 0

x(x − 1)(x − 2) = 0

x = 0, x = 1 or x = 2

f 00 (x) = 3x2 − 6x + 2 = 0
√
3
x=1±
3
√
3
The critical numbers are 0, 1 and 2, and the possible points of inflection occur at 1 − and
√ 3
3
1+ . We divide the real number line at these numbers and set up the sign table. We have
3
the following:

f (x) f 0 (x) f 00 (x) Conclusion

(−∞, 0) − + f is decreasing and the graph is concave upward
x=0 ! 0 0 + a relative minimum occurs
√
3
0, 1 − + + f is increasing and the graph is concave upward
3
√ √ !
3 1 3 1
x=1− + 0 a POI occurs at 1 − ,
3 9 3 9
√ !
3
1− ,1 + − f is increasing and the graph is concave downward
3
1
x=1 0 − a relative maximum occurs
√ ! 4
3
1, 1 + − − f is decreasing and the graph is concave downward
3
√ √ !
3 1 3 1
x=1+ − 0 a POI occurs at 1 + ,
3 9 3 9
√ !
3
1+ ,2 − + f is decreasing and the graph is concave upward
3
x=2 0 0 + a relative minimum occurs
(2, +∞) + + f is increasing and the graph is concave upward

The graph is shown in the figure below.

2.4. CURVE SKETCHING 75

Assessment 2.4
Concepts
Answer the following questions briefly.
1. How do we determine if a function is increasing or decreasing on an
interval I?

2. How do we determine the critical numbers of a given function?

3. How do we use the First Derivative Test to find the relative extrema
of a function?

4. How do we use the Second Derivative Test to find the relative extrema
of a function?

Computations
Sketch the graph of the given functions. Show all your computations for the
function’s derivatives, critical numbers and points of inflection. Summarize
your results in a table consisting of the relevant intervals and their corre-
sponding conclusions on the function.

1. f (x) = −x2 − 4x

2. g(x) = x3 − x + 1

3. h(x) = x1/3
1
4. p(x) = x

5. q(x) = sin x, x ∈ [0, 2π]

6. r(x) = ln x
76 CHAPTER 2. DIFFERENTIATION OF FUNCTIONS OF A SINGLE VARIABLE

2.5 Optimization
A company produces and sells 500 units of earphones per month at a price of PhP 150. By
reducing the price by PhP 10, the company found out that they can sell 550 units per month.
At what price will the company attain maximum revenue?

This is an example of an optimization problem that can occur in business and economics.
Optimization is a technique in finding the maximum or minimum values of a function. In this
section, we will learn how to solve such problems using derivatives.

Consider again the function f whose graph is given in Activity 2.4.2. We said that f (3)
is a relative maximum value and f (1) and f (4) are relative minimum values of f . What if,
instead of the whole domain of f , we just consider one interval, say [0, 4]? Notice that on this
interval, f (3) and f (1) are the largest and smallest function values, respectively. We call them
the absolute extrema of f on the interval [0, 4].

Absolute Extrema
A function f has an absolute maximum at c on the interval I if
f (c) ≥ f (x), for all x in I. We say that f (c) is the absolute maximum value
of f on I.

A function f has an absolute minimum at c on the interval I if

f (c) ≤ f (x), for all x in I. We say that f (c) is the absolute minimum value
of f on I.

Collectively, we refer to the absolute maximum and absolute minimum values

as absolute extrema.

Note that absolute extrema and relative extrema are different. An absolute maximum (or
minimum) occurs at c provided that f (c) is the largest (or smallest) value of f on the domain.
On the other hand, a relative maximum (or minimum) occur at c if f (c) is the largest (or
smallest) value on some interval that contains c. This means that there may be function values
larger (or smaller) than f (c) on other intervals.
2.5. OPTIMIZATION 77

Example 2.5.1. Consider the function f whose graph is given below.

If we look at the graph of f , we see that a relative maximum occurs at 3 and a relative
minimum occurs at 1. Also, −1 is a relative minimum value since it is the smallest function
value.
If we talk about absolute extrema, we see that there is no absolute maximum value since
f (x) increases without bound as x approaches −1 from the right. On the other hand, we
see that −1 is the absolute minimum value since there are no other function values less than
−1.

In solving optimization problems, our goal is to find the absolute maximum or minimum
value of the function that describes the situation. In the following discussions, we will see that
continuity of functions is a sufficient property which is helpful in finding its absolute extrema on
a given interval. Here, we consider a closed interval, say [a, b], where a function f is continuous.

Extreme Value Theorem

If a function f is continuous on the closed interval [a, b], then f has an
absolute maximum value and an absolute minimum value on [a, b].

The Extreme Value Theorem assures us that if f is continuous on [a, b], then there are
absolute extreme values of f on [a, b]. We summarize the steps in finding these values below.

Finding Absolute Extrema on a Closed Interval

Suppose f is a continuous function.

1. Determine the values of x in the interval for which f 0 (x) = 0.

2. Compare function values at these points and at the endpoints of the

closed interval. The largest among these values is the absolute maxi-
mum value, while the smallest is the absolute minimum value.
78 CHAPTER 2. DIFFERENTIATION OF FUNCTIONS OF A SINGLE VARIABLE

Example 2.5.2. Determine the absolute extrema of the function f defined by f (x) = x2 −2x+1
on the closed interval [0, 2].

Solution Notice that f is a polynomial function, so it is continuous on any interval and so, on
[0, 3]. By the Extreme Value Theorem, an absolute extrema occurs on this interval. First, we
find the values of x that will make f 0 (x) = 0.
f 0 (x) = 2x − 2 = 0
2(x − 1) = 0
x=1
Note that x = 1 is in the interval [0, 3]. We compute for the function values at this point
and at the endpoints of the interval.

f (1) = 0 f (0) = 1 f (3) = 4

The smallest and largest function values are 0 and 4, respetively. Hence, the absolute
minimum value is 0 which occurs at 1 and the absolute maximum value is 4 which occurs at
3.

Example 2.5.3. Determine the absolute extrema of the function g defined by

1 4 3
g(x) = x4 − x3 + x2
4 3 2
on the closed interval [−1, 2].

Solution Since g is a polynomial function, then it is continuous on the interval [−1, 2]. Thus,
we can use the Extreme Value Theorem. We first find the values of x that will make g 0 (x) = 0.
g 0 (x) = x3 − 4x2 + 3x = 0
x(x2 − 4x + 3) = 0
x(x − 1)(x − 3) = 0
x = 0, x = 1 or x = 3
We only consider x = 0 and x = 1 since x = 3 is not in the interval [−1, 2]. Now, we
compute the function values at these points and at the endpoints.
5 37 2
g(0) = 0 g(1) = g(−1) = g(2) = −
12 12 3
37 2
The largest function value is and the smallest function value is − . Hence, the absolute
12 3
37 2
maximum value is which occurs at −1 and the absolute minimum value is − which occurs
12 3
at 2.
5
In this example, note that 0 and are also relative extrema of g. However, we are interested
12
with the absolute extrema only.
2.5. OPTIMIZATION 79

Example 2.5.4. A farmer has 2400 ft of fencing material and wants to fence off a rectangular
field that borders a river. He needs no fence along the river. What are the dimensions of the
field that will give the maximum area?

Solution First, we need a function that describes the area A of the rectangular field. Let x be
the length of the side perpendicular to the river and y be the length of the side parallel to the
river.

Since the fencing material is 2400 ft, then 2x + y = 2400. So, y = 2400 − 2x. Also, the area is
given by A = xy. Substituting y, we have A(x) = x(2400 − 2x) = 2400x − 2x2 . Moreover, x
should be at most 1200 ft for the fence to enclose the rectangular field. Hence, x ∈ [0, 1200].

Notice that A is a polynomial function and so it is continuous on [0, 1200]. Hence, we can
use the Extreme Value Theorem. We first find the values of x that will make A0 (x) = 0.

A0 (x) = 2400 − 4x = 0
4(600 − x) = 0
x = 600

Note that x = 600 is in the interval [0, 1200]. We compute the function values at x = 600 and
at the endpoints, x = 0 and x = 1200.

A(600) = 720000 A(0) = 0 A(1200) = 0

Hence, the absolute maximum value of A on [0, 1200] is 720000 and it occurs when x = 600.
Also, when x = 600, y = 1200.
Therefore, the dimension of the field that has the largest area is 600 by 1200 ft.

Example 2.5.5. A company found out that the sales of their product is dependent on the
amount spent on advertising. If x thousand pesos are spent, the company sells S number
of units, where S(x) = −x3 + 15x2 + 432x + 100. Also, the company must not spend more
than PhP 27, 000. How much should be spent on advertising to attain the maximum sales level?

Solution Note that the company should spend a maximum of PhP 27000. So, x ∈ [0, 27]. Since
S is a polynomial function, it is continuous on this interval and so we can use the Extreme
Value Theorem. We first find the values of x that will make S 0 (x) = 0.

S 0 (x) = −3x2 + 30x + 432 = 0

−3(x2 − 10x − 144) = 0
−3(x + 8)(x − 18) = 0
x = −8 or x = 18
80 CHAPTER 2. DIFFERENTIATION OF FUNCTIONS OF A SINGLE VARIABLE

We disregard x = −8 since it is not in the interval [0, 27]. We compute the function values
at x = 18 and at the endpoints, x = 0 and x = 27.
S(18) = 6904 S(0) = 100 S(27) = 3016
Hence, the maximum number of units that can be sold is 6904 and this will be attained
when the company spends PhP 18000 on advertising.

In the previous example, what if the company does not have any limit on the amount spent
on advertising, i.e. x ∈ [0, +∞)? How do we find the relative extrema in this case?

Time to Think!
Theorem Let f be a function that is continuous on an open interval I
containing c. If f (c) is a relative extremum of f and c is the only number in
I for which f has a relative extremum, then f (c) is the absolute extremum
of f on I.

Consider the function f defined by f (x) = 2x3 − 9x2 + 2 on (0, 5).

Determine the absolute extremum of f on the given interval, if there is any,
by answering the following questions:

1. What is/are the critical numbers of f in the interval?

2. By the Second Derivative Test, what is/are the relative ex-

tremum/extrema of f on the interval?

3. How many relative extrema does f have on the interval?

4. Using the preceding theorem, what is the absolute extremum of f on

the interval?

Assessment 2.5
Concepts
Answer the following questions briefly.
1. What is the difference between a relative minimum value and an ab-
solute minimum value of a function?

2. What is the difference between a relative maximum value and an ab-

solute maximum value of a function?

3. How is continuity related to the existence of absolute extreme values

of a function on an interval?

4. Suppose a function defined on an open interval has two or more relative

extrema on that open interval. Are these extrema also absolute?
2.5. OPTIMIZATION 81

Computations
Find the absolute extrema
 π of  the following functions on the given intervals.
π
1. f (x) = sin x on − 2 , 2

2. g(x) = x3 − 6x2 + 9x + 2 on [−6, 4]

3. h(x) = 64 − 3x + x2 on [−6, 4]

4. j(x) = x2 − 6x + 11 on [0, 6]

Problem Solving

1. Find two nonnegative numbers whose sum is 22 and whose product is

as large as possible.

2. A rectangular plot has to be constructed from 44 meters of fencing

material. Determine the dimensions of the plot with the largest area.

3. In a certain company, the number of products produced in thousand

units per day is given by f (x) = −x2 + 4x if x hundred laborers are
present that day. Determine the number of laborers present that yields
the maximum output if at most 400 laborers can be present per day.

4. According to the Handbook of Chemistry and Physics, a mass of water

that occupies one liter at 0◦ C occupies a volume (in liters) of

V = −aT 3 + bT 2 − cT + 1

at T ◦ C where 0 ≤ T ≤ 30 and where the coefficients are

a = 6.79 × 10−8 , b = 8.51 × 10−6 , c = 6.42 × 10−5 .

Find the temperature at which the density of water is the greatest.

(Hint: Maximizing the density is equivalent to minimizing the volume.
Why?) http://www.math.ubc.ca/ keshet/openbook.pdf
82 CHAPTER 2. DIFFERENTIATION OF FUNCTIONS OF A SINGLE VARIABLE

2.6 The Chain Rule

We start our discussion with the following brief activity.

Activity 2.6.1
Write the following as composite functions.

1. h(x) = (2x + 5)11

2. g(x) = sin (x2 )

 
1
3. f (x) = ln
x

Suppose you want to differentiate the given functions in Activity 2.6, what will be your
guess? As we have recognized, the functions we want the derivatives of are compositions. In
this section we will learn how to differentiate composite functions.

In Section 2.2, we discussed basic differentiation rules which include product rule which
is used when differentiating a product and quotient rule which is used when differentiating a
quotient. This time, we will introduce a rule in getting the derivative of a composition which
we call Chain Rule.

The Chain Rule

If y = f (u) and u = g(x) are both differentiable functions, then
dy dy du
= · .
dx du dx
In diagram, we have,

y −→ u −→ x.
dy du
du dx

Note that in the formula, the dus appear to cancel in the numerator and denominator of
the two “fractions”. This is useful in remembering the formula.

We will apply the Chain Rule in the following examples.

2.6. THE CHAIN RULE 83

dy
Example 2.6.1. Find if y = h(x) = (2x + 5)11 .
dx
Solution We let y = u11 and u = 2x + 5. Then
dy dy du
= · = 11u10 · (2) = (2) · 11(2x + 5)10 = 22(2x + 5)10 .
dx du dx

Example 2.6.2. Find the derivative of y = g(x) = sin (x2 ).

Solution We let y = sin u and u = x2 so that

dy dy du
= · = cos u · (2x) = cos (x2 ) · (2x) = 2x cos (x2 ).
dx du dx

 
1 dy
Example 2.6.3. If y = ln , find .
x dx
1
Solution Let y = ln u and u = . Then,
x
dy dy du 1 −1 1 1 1 1
= · = ·− 2 = 1 ·− 2 =x·− 2 =− .
dx du dx u x x
x x x

There are also instances where we need to use the product or quotient rule for differentiation
along with the Chain Rule just like in the example that follows.

 98
3x
Example 2.6.4. Evaluate Dx .
2 − 4x2
Solution Let
 98
3x 3x
y= and u = so that y = u98 .
2 − 4x2 2 − 4x2
Then,
dy dy du
= ·
dx du dx
3(2 − 4x2 ) − 3x(−8x)
= 98u97 ·
(2 − 4x2 )2
97
3(2 − 4x2 ) + 24x2

3x
= 98 ·
2 − 4x2 (2 − 4x2 )2
84 CHAPTER 2. DIFFERENTIATION OF FUNCTIONS OF A SINGLE VARIABLE

Remember that in using the Chain Rule, we work from outside to the inside. We differentiate
the “outside” function and multiply by the derivative of the “inside” function. We elaborate
this better in the following examples where we encounter longer chain of functions.

Example 2.6.5. Find the derivative of the given functions.

3)
1. f (x) = ln(5x + 9)11 2. y = ecos(sin x

Solution
1. Applying the Chain Rule, we have
1 d
f 0 (x) = · (5x + 9)11
(5x + 9)11 dx
1 d
= · 11(5x + 9)10 · (5x + 9)
(5x + 9)11 dx
1
= · 11(5x + 9)10 · (5).
(5x + 9)11

2. By the Chain Rule, we get

dy 3 d
= ecos(sin x ) · [cos(sin x3 )]
dx dx
3 d
= ecos(sin x ) · − sin(sin x3 ) · (sin x3 )
dx
cos(sin x3 ) d
= e · − sin(sin x ) cos x3 · (x3 )
3
dx
cos(sin x3 )
= e · − sin(sin x ) cos x · (3x2 ).
3 3

Time to Think
1. How do you determine the derivative of a composite function?

2. Explain the Chain Rule.

We now study another application of derivatives. Suppose air is being pumped into a balloon
which is spherical in shape. Note that the volume V of the balloon is a function of its radius r.
Suppose that after each second, r increases by 1 cm. Consequently, V will also increase. Since
r increases as time t passes by, then r is a function of t. Since V is a function of r, then V is
also a function of t. By Chain Rule,
dV dV dr
= ,
dt dr dt
2.6. THE CHAIN RULE 85

dV dr
where and are the instantaneous rates of change of V and r, respectively, with respect
dt dt
to time. In this particular example, we see that the rate of change of V is related to the rate
of change of r. These are called related rates. We summarize below the steps in solving
problems involving related rates.

Solving Problems Involving Related Rates

(i) Identify at least two quantities that change over time and assign vari-
ables to them. Determine the given rate/s.

(ii) Identify what is asked for in the problem.

(iii) Write an equation that gives the relation of the variables. Obtain the
derivative with respect to time.

(iv) Solve for what is asked by substituting the given values.

(v) Form a conclusion.

Example 2.6.6. A bacterial cell is spherical in shape. If its radius is increasing at the rate of
0.02 µm per day, find the rate of increase of the volume at the time the radius is 1.6 µm.

Solution
(i) Let V and r be the volume and radius of bacterial cell, respectively. Since the radius is
dr
increasing at the rate of 0.02 µm per day, = 0.02.
dt
dV
(ii) We need to find when r = 1.6.
dt
4
(iii) Since the bacterial cell is spherical in shape, V = πr3 . By Chain Rule,
3
dV dV dr dr
= = 4πr2 .
dt dr dt dt

(iv) Substituting what is given, we have

dV
= 4π(1.6)2 (0.02) = 0.2048π.
dt

(v) Therefore, the volume of the bacterial cell is increasing at the rate of 0.2048π µm3 per
day.
86 CHAPTER 2. DIFFERENTIATION OF FUNCTIONS OF A SINGLE VARIABLE

Example 2.6.7. If p pesos is the price of a certain commodity, the demand x is found to be
3524 − p2
x=
17
units. How fast is the demand changing when the price is 17 pesos and is decreasing at a rate
of 50 centavos per day?

Solution
dp 1
(i) Since the price is decreasing at the rate of 50 centavos per day, =− .
dt 2
dx
(ii) We need to find when p = 17.
dt
(iii) By Chain Rule,
dx −2p dp
= .
dt 17 dt
(iv) Substituting what is given, we have
 
dx −2(17) 1
= − = 1.
dt 17 2
(v) Therefore, the demand for the commodity is increasing at a rate of 1 unit per day.

Assessment 2.6
Concepts
Answer the following questions briefly.
1. How do we compute for the derivative of a function composition?

2. What are related rates?

3. Give an example of related rates.

4. How do we solve problems involving related rates?

Computations
Evaluate the following.
 √ 
1. Dx (3x2 + sin x)( 3 x4 + 1)
" 3 #
2x2 + 7x6
2. Dx
x3 − 9

3. Dx [cos(9x5 + 2)]

4. Dx sin3 (x3 + 2x−1 )

 

5. Dx [(cos 6x)(7x8 )]
hp i
6. Dx 3 15
sin (x )
2.6. THE CHAIN RULE 87

" √
3
!#
x2
7. Dx sin
5x + 1
hp i
8. Dx 3
sin(x3 ) + cos(x−2 )
"r #
4 cos3 x
9. Dx
sin2 x

3x5
  
10. Dx tan (Hint: What is tan x in terms of sin x and cos x?)
5
 
1
11. Dx cos3 (3x − 15)
3
√ 
12. Dx sin x − 19x
 √

13. Dx sin x 3x
" √3
!#
3x2 + 1
14. Dx cos
2x − 3
h p i
15. Dx (x3 + 2x−1 + 5) 3 sin(x2 )
Problem Solving

1. A circular oil spill in the Laguna Lake spreads in such a way that its
radius is increasing at the rate of 20 ft/hr. How fast is the area of the
oil spill changing when the diameter is 400 feet?

2. The supply manager of Mcbee, a prestigious restaurant chain, is willing

to supply s hundred pieces of chicken, given by the equation

5p2 − 2s2 = 3000,

where each piece is worth p pesos. How fast is the supply changing
when the price is 40 pesos per unit and is increasing at the rate of 50
cents per month?

3. To improve the blood flow to the heart of a patient, a balloon is used to

open a blockage in a heart artery. If a tiny spherical balloon is inserted
into his clogged artery and is inflated at the rate of 0.006π mm3 /min,
how fast is the radius of the balloon changing when the radius is 0.1
mm?

4. A cylindrical water tank has inner radius of 3 meters and height of 4

meters. Water drips from the tank at an unknown rate but it has been
observed that the height of the water inside decreases at a rate of 0.1
m/minute. At what rate is water leaking from the tank?

5. Camille is flying a kite and plays out a string at 2 cm per second. The
kite moves horizontally at an altitude of 5 m. If there is no sag in the
string, at what rate is the kite moving when 13 m of string has been
played out?
88 CHAPTER 2. DIFFERENTIATION OF FUNCTIONS OF A SINGLE VARIABLE
Chapter 3

Integration of Functions of a Single

Variable

3.1 Antidifferentiation and the Indefinite Integral

A publisher estimates that the total cost of producing their new book increases at the rate of
3x2 − 24x + 41 pesos per book when x books are printed. Given that the cost of printing 12
books is 4,500 pesos, what is the cost of printing 34 books?

One way to answer this problem is to come up with a general formula for the cost c(x)
for producing x units of the commodity. This means that we need to find a function c whose
derivative is given by
c0 (x) = 3x2 − 24x + 41.
In this scenario, the derivative of a function is given but the function itself is unknown. To
find this function, we need to reverse the process of differentiation. We call this reverse process
as antidifferentiation.

In this section, we will discuss the method of antidifferentiation and use it to solve problems
involving rates of change. We start the discussion with the following activity.

Activity 3.1.1
ˆ Consider the three functions F , G, and H given by

F (x) = x3 − 2x2

G(x) = x3 − 2x2 + 2
and
H(x) = x3 − 2x2 − 10

ˆ Find the derivatives of F , G, and H.

ˆ What can you say about their derivatives?

ˆ Define two more functions with the same derivative.

ˆ What is the general form of the functions with the same derivative?

89
90 CHAPTER 3. INTEGRATION OF FUNCTIONS OF A SINGLE VARIABLE

Actually, there are infinitely many functions whose derivative is equal to f where

f (x) = 3x2 − 4x.

We call these functions antiderivatives of f .

Antiderivative
A function F is an antiderivative of f if and only if

F 0 (x) = f (x)

for every value of x in the domain of f .

The next example shows how to verify if a function is an antiderivative of a given function.

Example 3.1.1. To verify if F given by

1
F (x) = x4 + 3x3 − x2 + x + 10
2
is an antiderivative of f which is defined by

f (x) = 4x3 + 9x2 − x + 1,

we need to show that the derivative of F is f . So, by applying the rules of differentiation we
have
 
0 d 4 d 3 d 1 2 d d
F (x) = (x ) + (3x ) − x + (x) + (10)
dx dx dx 2 dx dx
d 4 d 1 d 2 d d
= (x ) + 3 (x3 ) − (x ) + (x) + (10)
dx dx 2 dx dx dx
1
= 4x3 + 3 · 3x2 − · 2x + 1 + 0
2
3 2
= 4x + 9x − x + 1
= f (x)

Therefore, F is an antiderivative of f .

We can also use the same method to verify that the functions G and H given by
1
G(x) = x4 + 3x3 − x2 + x
2
3.1. ANTIDIFFERENTIATION AND THE INDEFINITE INTEGRAL 91

and
1
H(x) = x4 + 3x3 − x2 + x + 1
2
are also antiderivatives of f .

Observe that G and H can be obtained by adding constants to F (x). Actually, all antideriva-
tives of f can be obtained in the same manner; that is, the general form of all antiderivatives
of f is
F (x) + C
where C is any real number. We call this the indefinite integral of f .

Indefinite Integral
Let F be an antiderivative of a continuous function f . Then the family of
all antiderivatives of f is called the indefinite integral of f written as
Z
f (x)dx = F (x) + C

where C takes any real value. We call the process of finding the indefinite
integral as antidifferentiation or (indefinite) integration.

Z Z
In the equation f (x)dx = F (x) + C, we call as the integral symbol, f (x) as the
integrand, C as the constant of integration, and dx denotes that x is the variable of
integration. We read the equation as “The (indefinite) integral of f (x) with respect to x is
F (x) plus C ”.

Example 3.1.2. To determine if

Z
1
e2x dx = e2x + C,
2
we need to find out if  
d 1 2x
e + C = e2x .
dx 2
By applying the rules of differentiation we have
   
d 1 2x d 1 2x d
e +C = e + (C)
dx 2 dx 2 dx
1 d 2x d
= · (e ) + (C)
2 dx dx
1 2x d
= e · (2x) + 0
2 dx
1 2x
= e ·2
2
= e2x .
Hence, the given equation holds.
92 CHAPTER 3. INTEGRATION OF FUNCTIONS OF A SINGLE VARIABLE

Our next activity will lead us to rules that will aid us in finding the indefinite integral of a
given function.

Activity 3.1.2
ˆ For each item, find an antiderivative of f ; that is, find a function whose
derivative is f .

1. f (x) = k where k is any constant

2. f (x) = x
3. f (x) = x2
4. f (x) = x3
5. f (x) = xn where n 6= −1
6. f (x) = ex
1
7. f (x) =
x
8. f (x) = sin x
9. f (x) = cos x

ˆ Then base on your answers, write the indefinite integral for each item by
completing the following.
Z
1. kdx = where k is any constant
Z
2. xn dx = where n 6= −1
Z
3. ex dx =
Z
1
4. dx =
x
Z
5. sin xdx =
Z
6. cos xdx =

We use our first two results to find the indefinite integrals in the next example.

Example 3.1.3. Find the following indefinite integrals.

√
Z Z Z
1. 5dx 2. x11 dx 3. 3
xdx
3.1. ANTIDIFFERENTIATION AND THE INDEFINITE INTEGRAL 93

Solution
Z
1. 5dx = 5x + C

x11+1 x12
Z
11
2. x dx = +C = +C
11 + 1 12
√
3. Since we can write 3 x as x1/3 , we have
√
Z Z
3
xdx = x1/3 dx

x1/3+1
= +C
1/3 + 1
x4/3
= +C
4/3
3x4/3
= + C.
4

Now, we present all of our results from Activity 3.1.2 together with other results analogous
to some rules of differentiation.

Basic Integration Rules

(II1) Z
The Constant Rule:
kdx = kx + C, where k is any constant

(II2) Z
The Power Rule:
xn+1
xn dx = + C where n 6= −1
n+1
Z
(II3) ex dx = ex + C
Z
1
(II4) dx = ln |x| + C
x
Z
(II5) sin xdx = − cos x + C
Z
(II6) cos xdx = sin x + C
94 CHAPTER 3. INTEGRATION OF FUNCTIONS OF A SINGLE VARIABLE

(II7) Z
The Constant Multiple
Z Rule:
kf (x)dx = k f (x)dx

(II8) Z
The Sum and Difference
Z Rule: Z
[f (x) ± g(x)] dx = f (x)dx ± g(x)dx

Similar to differentiation, the sum and difference rule can be applied to antidifferentiation
of sum of any finite number of functions.

Example 3.1.4. Find the following indefinite integrals.

Z Z  
x 2 3
1. (e + cos x − sin x) dx 2. + dx
x x3

Solution

1. We have
Z Z Z Z
x x
(e + cos x − sin x)dx = e dx + cos xdx − sin xdx (II8)

= (ex + C1 ) + (sin x + C2 ) − ((− cos x) + C3 ) (II3), (II6), (II5)

= ex + sin x + cos x + C.

We note here that C1 + C2 + C3 = C; that is, a sum of constants is also a constant.

3
2. Since 3
can be written as 3x−3 , we have
x
Z   Z  
2 3 2 −3
+ dx = + 3x dx
x x3 x
Z Z
2
= dx + 3x−3 dx (II8)
x
Z Z
1
=2 dx + 3 x−3 dx (II7)
x
x−3+1
= 2 ln |x| + 3 · +C (II4), (II2)
−3 + 1
3x−2
= 2 ln |x| − +C
2
3
= 2 ln |x| − 2 + C.
2x
3.1. ANTIDIFFERENTIATION AND THE INDEFINITE INTEGRAL 95

There are instances when we need to perform operations before applying the rules of inte-
gration.

Example 3.1.5. Find the following indefinite integrals.

√
Z Z 3
x +1
1. (x2 − 4) xdx 2. dx
x

Solution
1. We first perform multiplication in the integrand.
√
Z Z
2
(x − 4) xdx = (x2 − 4)x1/2 dx
Z
= (x5/2 − 4x1/2 )dx

Then, we apply the rules of integration.

√
Z Z Z
(x − 4) xdx = x dx − 4x1/2 dx
2 5/2
(II8)
Z Z
= x dx − 4 x1/2 dx
5/2
(II7)

x5/2+1 x1/2+1
= −4· +C (II2)
5/2 + 1 1/2 + 1
x7/2 4x3/2
= − +C
7/2 3/2
2x7/2 8x3/2
= − +C
7 3
2. We first perform division in the integrand.
Z 3 Z  
x +1 2 1
dx = x + dx
x x
Z Z
2 1
= x dx + dx (II8)
x
x2+1
= + ln |x| + C (II2), (II4)
2+1
x3
= + ln |x| + C
3

However, the methods used in Example 3.1.5 may not be practical in finding other integrals
such as Z
(2x − 1)21 dx.

Expanding the integrand in this case requires a very long computation. Instead of doing this,
we will determine the integral by using substitution in the next example.
96 CHAPTER 3. INTEGRATION OF FUNCTIONS OF A SINGLE VARIABLE
Z
Example 3.1.6. To find (2x − 1)21 dx, we let u = 2x − 1. This means that du = 2dx and
du
dividing both sides of the equation by 2, we have = dx. Hence,
2
Z Z
21 du
(2x − 1) dx = u21 ·
2
Z
1
= u21 du
2
1 u21+1
= · +C
2 21 + 1
1 u22
= · +C
2 22
u22
= +C
44
(2x − 1)22
= + C.
44

Integration by Substitution
Z
To find an integral of the form f (g(x))g 0 (x)dx,

1. Use the substitution u = g(x).

2. Express the integral in terms of u; that is, with du = g 0 (x)dx,

Z Z
0
f (g(x))g (x)dx = f (u)du.

3. Find the indefinite integral of f with respect to u.

4. Express the indefinite integral in terms of x by using the initial sub-

stitution.

Z
3 +x2
Example 3.1.7. To find (3x2 + 2x)ex dx, we let u = x3 + x2 . This means that du =
(3x2 + 2x)dx. Hence,
Z Z
2 x3 +x2
(3x + 2x)e dx = eu du
= eu + C
3 2
= ex +x + C.
3.1. ANTIDIFFERENTIATION AND THE INDEFINITE INTEGRAL 97
Z
Example 3.1.8. To find x3 cos x4 dx, we let u = x4 . This means that du = 4x3 dx and
du
dividing both sides of the equation by 4, we have = x3 dx. Hence,
4
Z Z
du
x3 cos x4 dx = cos u ·
4
Z
1
= cos udu
4
1
= sin u + C
4
1
= sin x4 + C.
4

Now that we are familiar with the basic integration rules and integration by substitution,
let us solve some problems involving rates of change.

Example 3.1.9. A publisher estimates that the total cost of producing their new book in-
creases at the rate of 3x2 − 24x + 41 pesos per book when x books are printed. Given that the
cost of printing 12 books is 4,500 pesos, what is the cost of printing 34 books?

Solution Let c(x) be the cost in pesos of producing x books. Since, the rate of change in the
total cost is given by the derivative of c,

c0 (x) = 3x2 − 24x + 41.

Then we integrate both sides of the equation so that

Z
c(x) = (3x2 − 24x + 41)dx
Z Z Z
2
= 3x dx − 24xdx + 41dx
Z Z Z
2
= 3 x dx − 24 xdx + 41 dx
x2+1 x1+1
= 3· − 24 · + 41x + C
2+1 1+1
= x3 − 12x2 + 41x + C.

Now, it is given that the cost of producing 12 books is 4,500; that is, c(12) = 4, 500. So, we
have

(12)3 − 12(12)2 + 41(12) + C = 4, 500

492 + C = 4, 500
C = 4, 500 − 492
C = 4, 008,
98 CHAPTER 3. INTEGRATION OF FUNCTIONS OF A SINGLE VARIABLE

which means that

c(x) = x3 − 12x2 + 41x + 4, 008.
and
c(34) = (34)3 − 12(34)2 + 41(34) + 4, 008
= 30, 834.

Therefore, the cost of producing 34 books is 30,834 Php.

Example 3.1.10. The population of a certain bird species is growing at a rate given by
0.49e−0.027t
where t is the number of years since the records started to be kept. What will be the population
of the species after 10 years if it is 500 initially?

Solution Let p(t) be the population of the species t years after records began to be kept. Then
p0 (t) = 0.49e−0.027t .
Then we integrate both sides of the equation so that
Z
p(t) = 0.49e−0.027t dt
Z
= 0.49 e−0.027t dt.

du
Now, let u = −0.027t so that du = −0.027dt or = dt. This means that
−0.027
Z
du
p(t) = 0.49 eu ·
−0.027
Z
0.49
= eu du
−0.027
490 u
= − e +C
27
490 −0.027t
= − e +C
27

Since the initial population is 500, that is, p(0) = 500,

490 −0.027(0)
− e + C = 500
27
490
− + C = 500
27
490
C = 500 +
27
13, 990
C = .
27
3.1. ANTIDIFFERENTIATION AND THE INDEFINITE INTEGRAL 99

So,
490 −0.027t 13, 990
p(t) = − e +
27 27
and
490 −0.027(10) 13, 990
p(10) = − e +
27 27
≈ 504.3

Hence, the population will be 504 after 10 years.

Example 3.1.11. Suppose that the slope of the line tangent to the graph of a function f at
the point (x, f (x)) is x(x2 + 1)10 . Find f (x) given that the graph of f passes through the origin.

Solution Since f 0 (x) gives the slope of the line tangent to the graph of f at (x, f (x)), we have
f 0 (x) = x(x2 + 1)10 .
So by integrating both sides of the equation, we have
Z
f (x) = x(x2 + 1)10 dx.

du
Let u = x2 + 1 so that du = 2xdx or = xdx. This means that
2
Z
du
f (x) = u10 ·
2
Z
1
= u10 du
2
1 u10+1
= · +C
2 10 + 1
u11
= +C
22
(x2 + 1)11
= + C.
22

Now, since the graph passes through the origin, we say that f (0) = 0. Thus,

(02 + 1)11
+C = 0
22
1
+C = 0
22
1
C = −
22

Therefore,
(x2 + 1)11 1
f (x) = − .
22 22
100 CHAPTER 3. INTEGRATION OF FUNCTIONS OF A SINGLE VARIABLE

Assessment 3.1
Concepts
Answer the following questions briefly.
1. When is a function F an antiderivative of a function f ?

2. Enumerate basic integration rules.

3. How do we get the indefinite integral of a function given one of its

antiderivatives?

4. Explain the process of integration by substitution.

Computations

A. Determine if F is an antiderivative of f . If not, redefine f so that F

is an antiderivative of f .

1. F (x) = 2x3 − x2 + 3x − 5, f (x) = 6x2 + 2x + 3

2. F (x) = x5 + x4 − x2 + 8, f (x) = 5x4 + 4x3 − 2x
3. F (x) = x ln x − x, f (x) = ln x
4. F (x) = ex + 4, f (x) = ex
5. F (x) = x sin x, f (x) = cos x
1 − x2 −x2 − 1
6. F (x) = , f (x) =
x x2
√ −1
7. F (x) = 1 − 3x, f (x) = √
2 1 − 3x
8. F (x) = cos 4x + x, f (x) = − sin 4x + 1

B. Find the following by applying the basic integration rules. State the
rules used.
Z
1. (3x5 + 4x3 − x)dx
Z
2. (x4 + 2x3 − x2 + 3x − 8)dx
Z 3
x + 3x2 − 1
3. dx
x
Z 2
x + 2x − 4
4. √ dx
x
√

Z
5. 3 sin x + ex − 3 x dx
Z
6. cos x (tan x − sec x + 2) dx
3.1. ANTIDIFFERENTIATION AND THE INDEFINITE INTEGRAL 101

C. Integrate the following using substitution.

Z
1. 4x2 (2x3 + 1)100 dx
Z
2. ex sin ex dx
Z √ 3
ln x
3. dx
x
Z
x
4. √3
dx
x2 + 5
Z
5. cos(2x) sin(2x)dx

Problem Solving

1. Suppose that the slope of the line tangent to the graph of a function
f at the point (x, f (x)) is x2 − 3x. Find f (x) given that the graph of
f intersects the y-axis at the point (0, 1).

2. Suppose that the slope of the line tangent to the graph of a function
g at the point (x, g(x)) is cos x. Find g(x) given that the graph of g
passes through the point (π, 2).

3. For each of the following items, find f (x) such that the slope of the
line tangent to the graph of f at the point (x, f (x)) is G(x) and that
the graph of f passes through the point P .
√
a. G(x) = −2x cos(2 − x2 ); P ( 2, 0)
ln x
b. G(x) = √ ; P (1, 0.5)
4 x
4. A ball is rolling along a straight line from wall A to wall B. The distance
of the walls is 8 feet.The velocity of the ball is given by v(t) = 4 cos t
in feet per minute. Initially, the ball is 4 feet away from wall A. Where
is the ball in t minutes?

5. The acceleration of a train, moving along a straight rail road, is given

by a(t) = −2t + 5 in kilometers per hours squared, where t is the hours
spent after leaving the station and t ∈ [0, 8]. Its initial velocity is 24
kilometers per hour. What is its velocity at time t?

6. A water tank started leaking at t = 0 with a rate of r(t) = 100e−0.02t

liters per minute. How much water leaks during the first hour and a
half?

7. Tritium is a radioactive isotope of hydrogen. It decays at a rate of

ln 4
−2 ln(4) · e− 25 t

at any given time t. What is the amount of tritium remaining from

the original 50 mg sample after ten years?
102 CHAPTER 3. INTEGRATION OF FUNCTIONS OF A SINGLE VARIABLE

8. A computer peripherals factory produces keyboards at a weekly rate

of  
10
100 1 − .
(t + 10)2
How many keyboards are produced on the third and fourth week of
production?

9. The marginal cost of making x pieces of pie is

c0 (x) = 200 − 1.6x + 0.009x2 .

If making 10 pies costs 1800 pesos, what is the cost of making 100
pies?
3.2. INTEGRATION BY PARTS 103

3.2 Integration by Parts

In the previous section, we have learned how to evaluate integrals of some functions using
substitution.
Z However, this method is sometimes not applicable. Say for instance we want to
evaluate x cos xdx. If we let u = cos x, we cannot express x in terms of u. The same will
happen if we we let u = x.

We now introduce another method to evaluate integrals which is the Integration by Parts
(IBP). This method is useful when the integrand is a product of two functions.

Suppose f and g are differentiable functions of x. Then, by the Product Rule,

d
[f (x)g(x)] = f (x)g 0 (x) + g(x)f 0 (x).
dx
From this, we have
d
f (x)g 0 (x) = [f (x)g(x)] − g(x)f 0 (x).
dx
Integrating both sides, we get
Z Z Z
0 d
f (x)g (x)dx = [f (x)g(x)]dx − g(x)f 0 (x)dx.
dx

The first term in the right-hand side is simply f (x)g(x) and so

Z Z
f (x)g (x)dx = f (x)g(x) − g(x)f 0 (x)dx.
0

Let u = f (x) and v = g(x). Then, du = f 0 (x)dx and dv = g 0 (x)dx. Rewriting the equation
above in terms of u and v, we arrive at the IBP formula.

Integration by Parts
Z Z
udv = uv − vdu.

To use this formula, we need to identify u and dv fromZthe given. By a suitable

Z choice for
u and dv, it may be easier to evaluate the second integral, vdu, than the first, udv. If the
second integral becomes more complicated than the first after substitution, it means that the
choices for u and dv are wrong and so a new set of choices must be tried.

Z
Example 3.2.1. Evaluate x cos xdx.

Solution Let u = x and dv = cos xdx. Then, du = dx and v = sin x. So,

104 CHAPTER 3. INTEGRATION OF FUNCTIONS OF A SINGLE VARIABLE

Z Z
x cos xdx = udv
Z
= uv − vdu
Z
= x sin x − sin xdx
= x sin x − (− cos x) + C
= x sin x + cos x + C.
Z
Notice that after using IBP, we were left with sin xdx which is simplier to evaluate com-
pared to the given.

Now, let us try to have a different set of choices for u and dv. Let u = cos x and dv = xdx.
x2
Then, du = − sin xdx and v = . Thus,
2
Z Z
x cos xdx = udv
Z
= uv − vdu
 2 Z 2
x x
= cos x − (− sin x)dx
2 2
x2
Z 2
x
= cos x + sin xdx.
2 2
See here that the integral becomes more complicated than the given. Hence, we have the
wrong choices for u and dv.

Z
Example 3.2.2. Evaluate x ln xdx.

1 x2
Solution Let u = ln x and dv = xdx. Then, du = dx and v = . So,
x 2
Z Z
x ln xdx = udv
Z
= uv − vdu
 2 Z 2  
x x 1
= ln x − dx
2 2 x
 2 Z
x 1
= ln x − xdx
2 2
 2
1 x2
 
x
= ln x − +C
2 2 2
x2 ln x x2
= − + C.
2 4
3.2. INTEGRATION BY PARTS 105
Z
2
Example 3.2.3. Evaluate x3 ex dx.
dw
Solution We use substitution first. Let w = x2 . So, dw = 2xdx and = xdx. Thus,
2
Z Z Z Z
3 x2 2 x2 w dw 1
x e dx = x e xdx = we = wew dw.
2 2
w w
Let u = w and dv = e dw. Then, du = dw and v = e . Hence,
Z Z
3 x2 1
x e dx = wew dw
2
Z
1
= udv
2
 Z 
1
= uv − vdu
2
 Z 
1 w w
= we − e dw
2
1 1
= (wew ) − (ew ) + C
2 2
2 x2 x2
xe e
= − + C.
2 2

Z
Example 3.2.4. Evaluate x2 ex dx.

Solution Let u = x2 and dv = ex dx. Then, du = 2xdx and v = ex . We have

Z Z
2 x
x e dx = udv
Z
= uv − vdu
Z
= x e − ex (2x)dx
2 x

Z
= x e − 2 xex dx
2 x

Z
Notice that in xex dx, we have another product of two functions. With this, we perform
another IBP. Let ū = x and dv̄ = ex dx. Then, dū = dx and v̄ = ex . So,
Z Z
2 x 2 x
x e dx = x e − 2 ūdv̄
 Z 
2 x
= x e − 2 ūv̄ − v̄dū
 Z 
2 x x x
= x e − 2 xe − e dx

= x2 ex − 2 (xex − ex ) + C
= x2 ex − 2xex + 2ex + C.
106 CHAPTER 3. INTEGRATION OF FUNCTIONS OF A SINGLE VARIABLE

Integration by Parts is just one of the many integration techniques there are. Other tech-
niques are free for your own exploration.

Assessment 3.2
Concepts
Answer the following questions briefly.
1. How do you know that you made the correct choice for u and dv?

2. How do you know that you made the incorrect choice for u and dv?

Computations
Evaluate the following indefinite integrals.
Z
1. x2 sin xdx
Z
2. 4xex dx
Z
3. x2 e2x dx
Z
4. 2x cos (2x)dx
Z
5. x ln (x2 )dx
Z
6. x3 sin (x2 )dx
3.3. THE DEFINITE INTEGRAL 107

3.3 The Definite Integral

In this section, we define what definite integrals are and evaluate them using antiderivatives.

To introduce the topic, we start with an activity. Our goal is to approximate the area of
the region bounded above by the graph of f given by f (x) = x2 + 1 and bounded below by the
x-axis from x = 0 to x = 2.

14
For later comparison, we note that the exact area of of the region is A = or 4.66.
3

Activity 3.3.1
ˆ Consider the region given above. Approximate its area using the area of
two rectangles.

◦ Find the total area of the rectangular regions. Indicate the compu-
tations in the table below.

Subinterval Point Height of the Width of the Area of the

(xi ) Rectangle (f (xi )) Rectangle (∆x) Rectangle
[0, 1] x1 =
[1, 2] x2 =
Total Area: (f (x1 )∆x + f (x2 )∆x)
108 CHAPTER 3. INTEGRATION OF FUNCTIONS OF A SINGLE VARIABLE

◦ In the first column, we subdivide [0, 2] into two subintervals of equal

length: [0, 1] and [1, 2]. Each has length ∆x = 1.

◦ In the second column choose a number within the indicated interval,

e.g. x1 = 0.5 in [0, 1] and x2 = 1.5 in [1, 2].

◦ In the third column, find the height of each rectangle given by the
value of f at your chosen numbers.

◦ In the fourth column, indicate the width of each rectangle.

◦ In the fifth column, find the area of each rectangle.

◦ Finally, in the last row, find the total area of the reactangles. Is this
sum equal to the actual area of the region? Why?

ˆ Approximate the area of the region using the area of three rectangles

◦ Find the total area of the rectangular regions. Indicate the computa-
tions in the table below.
Subinterval Point Height of the Width of the Area of the
(xi ) Rectangle (f (xi )) Rectangle (∆x) Rectangle
[0, 0.67] x1 =
[0.67, 1.34] x2 =
[1.34, 2] x3 =
Total Area: (f (x1 )∆x + f (x2 )∆x + f (x3 )∆x)

◦ In the first column, we subdivide [0, 2] into three subintervals of equal

length: [0, 0.67], [0.67, 1.34] and [1.34, 2]. Each has length ∆x = 0.67.

◦ In the second column choose a number within the indicated interval,

e.g. x1 = 0.5 in [0, 0.67], x2 = 1 in [0.67, 1.34] and x3 = 1.5 in [1.34, 2].

◦ In the third column, find the height of each rectangle given by the
value of f at your chosen numbers.

◦ In the fourth column, indicate the width of each rectangle.

3.3. THE DEFINITE INTEGRAL 109

◦ In the fifth column, find the area of each rectangle.

◦ Finally, in the last row, find the total area of the reactangles. Is this
sum equal to the actual area of the region? Why?

ˆ Use the same process to approximate using 4 and 5 rectangles.

Subinterval Point Height of the Width of the Area of the

(xi ) Rectangle (f (xi )) Rectangle (∆x) Rectangle
[0, 0.5] x1 =
[0.5, 1] x2 =
[1, 1.5] x3 =
[1.5, 2] x4 =
Total Area: (f (x1 )∆x + f (x2 )∆x + f (x3 )∆x + f (x4 )∆x)

Subinterval Point Height of the Width of the Area of the

(xi ) Rectangle (f (xi )) Rectangle (∆x) Rectangle
[0, 0.4] x1 =
[0.4, 0.8] x2 =
[0.8, 1.2] x3 =
[1.2, 1.6] x4 =
[1.6, 2] x5 =
Total Area:

ˆ In general, write a formula for the total area of rectangles if we subdivide

[0, 2] into n subintervals of equal length ∆x,

ˆ What happens to the total area as n increases?

Based on your observation in Activity 3.2.1, we say that as n increases without bound, the
sum approaches the actual area A = 4.66. In limits,

A = lim [f (x1 ) + f (x2 ) + · · · + f (xn )]∆x.

n→∞

We call this limit a definite integral.

Definite Integral
Let f be continuous on [a, b]. Subdivide the interval [a, b] into n subintervals
of equal length ∆x. If xi is any number from the ith subinterval Z for i = b
1, 2, . . . , n. Then, the definite integral of f on [a, b], denoted by f (x)dx,
a
is given by
Z b
f (x)dx = lim [f (x1 ) + f (x2 ) + · · · + f (xn )]∆x,
a n→∞

if this limit exists.

110 CHAPTER 3. INTEGRATION OF FUNCTIONS OF A SINGLE VARIABLE
Z b
In f (x)dx, a is the lower limit of integration and b is the upper limit of integration.
a
We read it as “The (definite) integral of f (x) with respect to x from a to b”.

Activity 3.3.1 somehow gave us a glimpse of how evaluation of definite integrals using limits
is cumbersome. Fortunately, we can evaluate them using antiderivatives.

Evaluating Definite Integrals

If a function f is continuous on [a, b], then
Z b
f (x)dx = F (b) − F (a)
a

where F is an antiderivative of f on [a, b].

From this point, we use the notation

b
F (x) = F (b) − F (a).

a

Example 3.3.1. To evaluate

Z 2
(x2 + 1)dx,
0

we first find an antiderivative of the integrand. So that

2
2
x3
Z
2

(x + 1)dx = + x
0 3 0
 3   3 
2 0
= +2 − +0
3 3
14
=
3
= 4.66.
3.3. THE DEFINITE INTEGRAL 111

Example 3.3.2. We use the integration rule for sine and cosine function so that

Z π/2 π/2
(cos x − sin x)dx = sin x − (− cos x)

0 0
π/2
= sin x + cos x

0
 π π
= sin + cos − (sin 0 + cos 0)
2 2
= (1 + 0) − (0 + 1)
= 0.

To simplify our evaluations, we consider the following rules for definite integrals.

Rules for Evaluating Definite Integrals

Let f and g be continuous functions on [a, b]. Then

(DI1) The Constant Multiple Rule:

Z b Z b
kf (x)dx = k f (x)dx, where k is any constant
a a

(DI2) The Sum Rule:

Z b Z b Z b
[f (x) + g(x)] dx = f (x)dx + g(x)dx
a a a
Z a
(DI3) f (x)dx = 0
a
Z a Z b
(DI4) f (x)dx = − f (x)dx
b a

(DI5) The Subdivision Rule:

Z b Z c Z b
f (x)dx = f (x)dx + f (x)dx, where c is between a and b
a a c

The following examples use some rules for definite integrals.

112 CHAPTER 3. INTEGRATION OF FUNCTIONS OF A SINGLE VARIABLE
Z 1
Example 3.3.3. For the integral |x| dx, we use (DI5) so that
−1
Z 1 Z 0 Z 1
|x| dx = |x| dx + |x| dx.
−1 −1 0

Now, recall that (

x x≥0
|x| = .
−x x < 0
This means that |x| = −x if −1 ≤ x < 0 and |x| = x if 0 ≤ x ≤ 1. So

Z 1 Z 0 Z 1
|x| dx = (−x)dx + xdx
−1 −1 0
Z 0 Z 1
= − xdx + xdx
−1 0
0 1
x2  x2 
= −  + 
2 2 0
 2−1
(−1)2
  2
02

0 1
= − − + −
2 2 2 2
= 1.

We can also use integration by substitution together with these rules.

Example 3.3.4. To evaluate Z 0 √

x 4 − x2 dx,
−2
2
we let u = 4 − x so that du = −2xdx or −du/2 = dx. Moreover, the lower limit of integration
x = −2 will be replaced by u = 4 − (−2)2 = 0 and the upper limit of integration x = 0 will be
replaced by u = 4 − 02 = 4 so that
Z 0 √ Z 4
√
 
du
x 4 − x2 dx = u· − .
−2 0 2
By (DI1), we have
Z 0 √ 1 4 1/2
Z
2
x 4 − x dx = − u du
−2 2 0
4
1 2u3/2 
= − ·
2 3 0
1 2(4)3/2 2(0)3/2
 
= − −
2 3 3
8
= − .
3
3.3. THE DEFINITE INTEGRAL 113

Note that in the case of the previous example, there is no need to substitute for the original
variable x since the upper and lower limits of integration are already in terms of the variable
u.

Z 4
Example 3.3.5. Evaluate x ln xdx.
e

Solution Since the integrand is a product of two functions, we use integration by parts. Let
1 x2
u = ln x and dv = xdx. Then, du = dx and v = . So,
x 2

4  4 Z 4 2  
x2 
Z 
x 1
x ln xdx = ln x  − dx
e 2  e 2 x
 2 e
1 4
  2  Z
4 e
= ln 4 − ln e − xdx
2 2 2 e
  4
e2 1 x2 
 
= 8 ln 4 − −
2 2 2 

e
e2
  2
e2
 
4
= 8 ln 4 − − −
2 4 4
2
e
= 8 ln 4 − − 4
4
≈ 5.2431.

As discussed in Activity 3.3.1, definite integrals can be used to compute the area of plane
regions. We discuss this application in Section 3.4.

Assessment 3.3
Concepts
Answer the following questions briefly.
1. How do you compute definite integrals using antiderivatives?

2. How do you compute definite integrals if substitution is involved?

3. What is the relationship between the definite integral and the area of
a plane region?
114 CHAPTER 3. INTEGRATION OF FUNCTIONS OF A SINGLE VARIABLE

Computations
A. Evaluate the following definite integrals.
Z 1
1. (x + 1)(x + 2)(x + 4)dx
0
3
27x3 − 125
Z
2. dx
0 3x − 5
Z 64  √ 
2x x+x
3. √
3
− dx
1 x2 2x
Z 1 2x
e − e4x
4. dx
−1 e2x
Z −π/6


5. 1 − 2 sin x cot x + 3 cos x dx
−π/4

B. Use substitution rule to evaluate the following definite integrals.

Z 0 √
1. (10x4 − x) x2 − 4x5 dx
−1
Z1
2. (x2 + x5 )3 (2x + 5x4 )dx
−1
Z0
3. sin 2x sin(cos 2x)dx
−π/8
Z π/3
2
4. esin x
cos x sin xdx
π/4
Z 3π/4
5. cot x ln(sin x)dx
π/2

C. Use IBP to evaluate the following definite integrals.

Z 1
1. 2xex dx
0
Z π
2. x sin xdx
0
Z e
3. x ln xdx
1
Z 1
2
4. x3 ex dx
−1
3.4. AREA OF A PLANE REGION 115

3.4 Area of a Plane Region

In Section 3.3, we saw how the solution of finding the area of a plane region gave rise to the
concept of definite integrals. In this section, we will use definite integrals to solve problems of
finding the area of plane regions.
We recall that the area of the region bounded above by the graph of f and below by the
x-axis from x = a to x = b.

Z b
is given by AR = f (x)dx. We state this result below.
a

Area Under a Curve

If f is continuous on the closed interval [a, b] and f (x) ≥ 0 in the interval,
then the area of the region R bounded by the graph of f , the x-axis and the
lines x = a and x = b is given by
Z b
AR = f (x)dx.
a

We illustrate this with the example below.

Example 3.4.1. To find the area of the following region,

116 CHAPTER 3. INTEGRATION OF FUNCTIONS OF A SINGLE VARIABLE

we have 4
4 √ 4
2x3/2  2(4)3/2 2(1)3/2
Z Z
1/2 14
AR = xdx = x dx = = − = .
1 1 3 1  3 3 3

Now, let us consider a different case in the activity below.

Activity 3.4.1
ˆ Consider the regions R1 and R2

ˆ What is the area of R2 ?

ˆ What is the area of the union of R1 and R2 ?

ˆ What is the area of R1 ?

We can generalize your computation in Activity 3.4.1 for regions between two curves.
3.4. AREA OF A PLANE REGION 117

Area Between Curves

If f and g are continuous functions on the interval [a, b] and g(x) ≤ f (x) for
all values of x in the interval, then the area of the region R bounded above
by the graph of f , below by the graph of g, and the lines x = a and x = b
is given by Z b
AR = [f (x) − g(x)] dx.
a

In Z b
AR = [f (x) − g(x)] dx,
a
we can think of the integrand f (x) − g(x) as the height of a vertical strip inside R drawn from
the upper boundary down to the lower boundary. See figure below.

√
Example 3.4.2. To find the area of the region R enclosed by the graph of y = x and the
lines given by y = 2, x = 0, and x = 2,

we have
2
2  √
√
2x3/2  2(2)3/2 2(0)3/2
Z   
4 2
AR = 2 − x dx = 2x − = 2(2) − − 2(0) − =4− .
0 3 0 3 3 3
118 CHAPTER 3. INTEGRATION OF FUNCTIONS OF A SINGLE VARIABLE
√
Example 3.4.3. To find the area of the region R enclosed by the graphs of y = x2 and y = x,

we have
1
1 
√ 2x3/2 x3  2(1)3/2 13 2(0)3/2 03
Z   
2 1
AR = ( x − x )dx = −  = − − − = .
0 3 3 0 3 3 3 3 3

Note that the method used above is also applicable for cases in which the region is not lying
entirely above the x-axis.

Example 3.4.4. To find the area of the region R enclosed by the graphs of y = 2 − x2 and
y = x,

we have,
Z 1
(2 − x2 ) − x dx
 
AR =
−2
1
x3 x2 
= 2x − − 
3 2 −2
3
(1)2 (−2)3 (−2)2
   
(1)
= 2(1) − − − 2(−2) − −
3 2 3 2
9
= .
2
3.4. AREA OF A PLANE REGION 119

Example 3.4.5. To find the area of the region R bounded by the graphs of y = sin x and
y = cos x from x = 0 to x = π/2,

we subdivide the region into two parts, R1 and R2 .

Since sin x ≤ cos x when 0 ≤ x ≤ π/4, i.e. the upper boundary is y = cos x and the lower
boundary is y = sin x, the area of R1 is

Z π/4
AR1 = (cos x − sin x) dx
0
π/4
= sin x + cos x

0
h π πi
= sin + cos − [sin 0 + cos 0]
√ 4 4
= 2 − 1.

But when π/4 ≤ x ≤ π/2, cos x ≤ sin x, i.e. i.e. the upper boundary is y = sin x and the
120 CHAPTER 3. INTEGRATION OF FUNCTIONS OF A SINGLE VARIABLE

lower boundary is y = cos x. So the area of R2 is

Z π/2
AR2 = (sin x − cos x) dx
π/4
π/2
= − cos x − sin x

π/4
h π πi h π πi
= − cos − sin − − cos − sin
√2 2 4 4
= −1 + 2.

Hence, the area of the region R is

√   √  √
AR = AR1 + AR2 = 2 − 1 + −1 + 2 = 2 2 − 2.

Example 3.4.6.
√ Set-up the integral that will give the area of the region R enclosed by the
graphs of y = x, y = x − 2 and the x-axis.

Solution Note that we need to divide the region into two subregions as shown below because
there are different lower boundaries to the left and to the right of x = 2.

So, Z 2 √

Z 4 √

AR = x − 0 dx + x − (x − 2) dx
0 2

Is there a way to compute for the area of the region in previous example without dividing
it? Notice that if we use horizontal strips instead of vertical strips, the boundary on both ends
of the strip will not change. See figure below.
3.4. AREA OF A PLANE REGION 121

In this case, instead of x, we use y as the variable of integration. We compute for the area
of plane region using the rule provided below.

Area Between Curves

If f and g are continuous functions on the interval [c, d] and g(y) ≤ f (y) for
all values of y in the interval, then the area of the region R bounded on the
right by the graph of x = f (y), on the left by x = g(y), and the lines y = c
and y = d is given by
Z d
AR = [f (y) − g(y)] dy.
c

Again, we can think of the integrand f (y) − g(y) as the length of the horizontal strip inside
R drawn from the left boundary to the right boundary. See figure below.

Example 3.4.7. Set-up the integral that will give the area of the region R in the previous
example using horizontal strips.

Solution First, we need to write the boundaries in terms of y. We have

√
y = x ⇔ x = y2
and
y = x − 2 ⇔ x = y + 2.
122 CHAPTER 3. INTEGRATION OF FUNCTIONS OF A SINGLE VARIABLE

Hence, Z 2
(y + 2) − y 2 dy.
 
AR =
0

Verify using the rules on evaluating definite integrals that the values of the integrals in the
last two examples are equal.

Example 3.4.8. To find the area of the region bounded by x = ey , the line x = e, and the
x-axis,

we have,
Z 1
(e − ey )dy = ey − ey |10
0
= e − e1 − 0 − e0
   

= 1.

Assessment 3.4
Concepts
Answer the following questions briefly.
1. How do you compute area under curves using definite integrals?

2. How do you compute area between curves using definite integrals?

3. When is there a need to subdivide a region to set-up the definite inte-

gral that will give its area?
3.4. AREA OF A PLANE REGION 123

Computations
Set-up the definite integral that will give the area of the region specified
below. √
1. region bounded by the curves of f (x) = 2x − 1, x = 1, x = 2, and
the x-axis using x as the variable of integration

2x
2. region bounded by the curves f (x) = , x = 2, x = 4, and the
x−1
x-axis using x as the variable of integration

 π
3. region bounded by the curves f (x) = sin x + + 4, x = 0, x = π,
2
and the x-axis using x as the variable of integration
124 CHAPTER 3. INTEGRATION OF FUNCTIONS OF A SINGLE VARIABLE

4. region bounded by the curves f (x) = log45 x + 1, x = 1, x = 5, and the

x-axis using x as the variable of integration

5. region bounded by the curves f (x) = ex + sin x2 , x = −1.5, x = 1, and

the x-axis using x as the variable of integration

6. region enclosed by the curves of f (x) = sin2 x and g(x) = cos2 x using
x as the variable of integration
3.4. AREA OF A PLANE REGION 125

√ π
7. region bounded by the curves g(y) = Arccos y − , y = 0, y = 1, and
2
the y-axis (a) using x as the variable of integration and (b) using y as
the variable of integration

2
 π √ π
f (x) = cos x + ⇔ g(y) = Arccos y −
2 2

2−y 5
8. region bounded by the curves g(y) = , y = , y = 2, and the
y−1 4
y-axis (a) using x as the variable of integration and (b) using y as the
variable of integration
x+2 2−y
f (x) = ⇔ g(y) =
x+1 y−1

√
9. region bounded by the curves g(y) = 3 2y + 2, y = −4, y = 4, and the
y-axis (a) using x as the variable of integration and (b) using y as the
variable of integration

(x − 2)3 p
f (x) = ⇔ g(y) = 3 2y + 2
2
126 CHAPTER 3. INTEGRATION OF FUNCTIONS OF A SINGLE VARIABLE

10. region bounded by the curves g(y) = log2 (y + 1), y = 1, y = 3, and

the y-axis (a) using x as the variable of integration and (b) using y as
the variable of integration

f (x) = 2x − 1 ⇔ g(y) = log2 (y + 1)

y+1 1
11. region bounded by the curves g(y) = 2− 5 + , y = −1, y = 4, and
2
the y-axis (a) using x as the variable of integration and (b) using y as
the variable of integration
 
1 y+1 1
f (x) = −1 − 5 log2 x − ⇔ g(y) = 2− 5 +
2 2

x
12. region bounded by the curves of f (x) = x−1 , x = 3, x = 5, and y = −1
(a) using x as the variable of integration and (b) using y as the variable
of integration
x y
f (x) = ⇔ g(y) =
x−1 y−1
3.4. AREA OF A PLANE REGION 127

√
13. region bounded by the curves of f (x) = 4 − 2x, g(x) = − 4 − x2 , and
the y-axis (a) using x as the variable of integration and (b) using y as
the variable of integration
4−y
f (x) = 4 − 2x ⇔ h(y) =
2
√ p
g(x) = − 4 − x2 ⇔ j(y) = 4 − y 2

√
14. region enclosed by the curves of f (x) = 2 − x, g(x) = x, and the
x-axis (a) using x as the variable of integration and (b) using y as the
variable of integration
√
f (x) = 2 − x ⇔ h(y) = 2 − y 2

g(x) = x ⇔ j(y) = y

x2 y2
15. region bounded by the curves − = 1, y = 3, and y = −3 (a)
9 3
using x as the variable of integration and (b) using y as the variable
of integration
128 CHAPTER 3. INTEGRATION OF FUNCTIONS OF A SINGLE VARIABLE
Chapter 4

Calculus of Several Variables

4.1 Functions of Several Variables

So far, we have discussed functions with a single input (or independent variable). In real life,
however, we deal with things that have more than one input. For example, rice yield is a
factor of the quality of the seed, the amount of rainfall, the amount of sunlight, the quality of
fertilizer, and many other things. Another example, that is perhaps more personal to us, is
our own happiness: it can be a function of how much money we have, our number of friends,
our grades in the courses we are taking, etc. Thus, the study of functions of multiple variables
is essential in the modern world. In this chapter, we will learn the basic about functions of
multiple variables, and extend the calculus we have learned for functions of a single variable
from previous chapters.

The Three-Dimensional Space

The set of all ordered triples is called as the three-dimensional space,
denoted by R3 . Each ordered triple (x, y, z) is called a point in the three-
dimensional space.

We can think of the three-dimensional coordinate space as a corner of a room. The floor is
the xy-plane, the wall in our front/back is the xz-plane, while the wall on our left/right is the
yz-plane.

129
130 CHAPTER 4. CALCULUS OF SEVERAL VARIABLES

We can locate points on the three-dimensional space by locating points on the xy-plane
first, then adding the “height” with z.

Example 4.1.1. Locate point (2, 3, 1) on the three-dimensional space.

Solution First, we locate the point (2, 3) on the xy-plane.

Next, we add the height 1.

Example 4.1.2. Locate point (−3, 3, −2) on the three-dimensional space.

Solution We have
4.1. FUNCTIONS OF SEVERAL VARIABLES 131

In both examples, the black lines are only “guide lines”. Once you are familiar of how
to locate points in the three-dimensional space, you can omit these lines. Now that we have
familiarized ourselves with the three-dimensional space, we can now go to functions of several
variables.

Activity 4.1.1
Imagine a lake surrounded by three towns. According to studies, the lake
has high Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD), which is attributed to bad
wastewater treatment of each town. The activites in each town have been
identified as agricultural (swine rearing), commercial (factory operation),
and domestic (residential houses). It is found that the BOD level can
be modeled by f (x, y, z) = 0.1x + 0.7y + 0.2z, where x is the number of
factories in all three towns, y is the number of swines reared in all towns,
and z is the number of residential houses in all towns.

ˆ What is BOD level in the lake if there are 5 factories, 1,500 swines and
900 houses in all three towns?

ˆ How about if there are no factories, no houses, but 10,000 swines?

Consider the function given in the activity above. We have noticed that the function f has
three independent variables, namely x, y and z. Clearly, each combination of x, y and z will
only yield a single value for f (x, y, z).

Furthermore, considering only the function, without connotating it to the BOD level, we
can say that that there is no combination of values of x, y and z that will make the function
undefined. However, the values of x, y and z must be nonnegative implying that the domain
of the function is the set of all ordered triple (x, y, z) such that x, y and z are all nonnegative.

Functions of Several Variables

A function f of several variables x1 , x2 , ..., xn is a rule that assigns
ordered n-tuple (x1 , x2 , ..., xn ) exactly one real number, denoted by
f (x1 , x2 , ..., xn ).

We call the set of all permissible ordered n-tuples (x1 , x2 , ..., xn ) the domain
of f , denoted by Df . The set of all resulting values f (x1 , x2 , ..., xn ) is called
the range of f , denoted by Rf .
132 CHAPTER 4. CALCULUS OF SEVERAL VARIABLES

For our purposes, we will only deal with functions of two or three variables. Again, functions
of four or more variables are free for your exploration.

Example 4.1.3. Consider the function defined by g(x, y) = 100x2 + 25y 2 .

1. The value of g(0, 0) is 0. We simply substitute 0 to x and y, so that g(0, 0) = 100(02 ) +

25(02 ) = 0.

2. The value of g(0, −1) is 25. Again, this is computed by substituting 0 to x and −1 to y,
gaining g(0, −1) = 100(02 ) + 25(−1)2 = 25(1) = 25.

3. Since there are no values for x and y that will make g undefined, then Dg = R2 .

x2 − y 2
Example 4.1.4. Consider the function defined by f (x, y) = .
x3 + y 3

1−1 0
1. f (1, 1) = = =0
1+1 2
1−0
2. f (1, 0) = =1
1+0
0−4 4 1
3. f (0, 2) = =− =−
0+8 8 2
4.1. FUNCTIONS OF SEVERAL VARIABLES 133

4. f (0, 0) is undefined since the denominator is 0

5. Since f is a rational function and cannot have 0 as the denominator, then

Df = {(x, y)|x3 + y 3 6= 0}.

Example 4.1.5. Consider the function defined by h(x, y) = log(x − y).

1. h(2, 1) = log(2 − 1) = log(1) = 0

2. h(−1, −11) = log(−1 + 11) = log(10) = 1

3. h(0, 1) is undefined since this will make the argument negative.

4. h(0, 0) is undefined since this will make the argument zero.

5. Since the argument of a logarithmic function should be greater than 0, then

Dh = {(x, y)|x − y > 0} = {(x, y)|x > y}.

Example 4.1.6. Consider the function defined by s(x, y, z) = sin(x + y + 2z).

1. s(0, 0, 0) = sin(0 + 0 + 0) = sin(0) = 0
 π
2. s π, 2π, = sin (π + 2π + π) = sin (4π) = 0
2
 π   π   
9π  π  √2
3. s 2π, , 0 = sin 2π + + 0 = sin = sin =
4 4 4 4 2
4. Since there are no values for x, y and z that will make s undefined then Ds = R3 .
134 CHAPTER 4. CALCULUS OF SEVERAL VARIABLES

Example 4.1.7. Consider the function defined by t(x, y, z) = ex+yz .

1. t(0, 0, 0) = e0+0 = 1

2. t(2, 4, 3) = e2+4·3 = e2+12 = e14 ≈ 1, 202, 604.284

3. t(0, 2, 2) = e0+2·2 = e4 ≈ 54.598

4. Since there are no values for x, y and z that will make t undefined then Dt = R3 .

Sometimes, we find things easier if we can visualize them. For example, we can look at the
behavior of the function better if we can see the graph: we can easily determine if the function
is increasing or decreasing, etc. The good news is that we can also graph functions of two
variables.

Graph of Functions of Two Variables

The graph of the function f of two variables is the set of all points (x, y, z)
for which (x, y) ∈ Df and z = f (x, y). The graph of the function f represents
a plane, cylinder or surface in R3 .

Example 4.1.8. Below is the graph of the function defined by f (x, y) = 2.

Example 4.1.9. Below is the graph of the function defined by f (x, y) = 2x + y − 3.

4.1. FUNCTIONS OF SEVERAL VARIABLES 135

The graphs of Examples 4.1.8 and 4.1.9 are called planes.

Example 4.1.10. Below is the graph of the function defined by f (x, y) = ln x.

Example 4.1.11. Below is the graph of the function defined by f (x, y) = sin x.

The graphs of Examples 4.1.10 and 4.1.11 are called cylinders.

136 CHAPTER 4. CALCULUS OF SEVERAL VARIABLES

Example 4.1.12. Below is the graph of the function defined by f (x, y) = x2 + y 2 .

Example 4.1.13. Below is the graph of the function defined by f (x, y) = x2 − y 2 .

The graphs of Examples 4.1.12 and 4.1.13 are called surfaces.

We can also extend the concept of continuity and differentiability for functions of several
variables. Refer to “The Calculus 7” pages 971-984 for the discussion on continuity and pages
999-1008 for discussion on differentiability. From hereon, we will refer to functions that are
continuous and differentiable as nice functions.

Time to think!
Based on your own experience or perception, give an object or a situation
which you can represent as a function of several variables.
4.1. FUNCTIONS OF SEVERAL VARIABLES 137

Assessment 4.1
Concepts
Answer the following questions briefly.
1. How do we plot points in the three dimaensional space?

2. How to we evaluate functions of several variables?

Computations

A. Plot the following points in the three dimensional space.

1. (0, 0, 7)
2. (2, −5, 0)
3. (−3, 2, −1)
 
5 5 5
4. , ,−
2 2 2
 
1 1
5. 1, ,
3 2
B. Evaluate each of the following functions at the given point. Also, find
the domain of the functions.
π π 
1. f (x, y) = cos(2x + y); ,
3 6
2
2. g(x, y) = log(xy) − ey ; (8, −4)
p
3. h(x, y, z) = 36 − x2 − y 2 − 9z 2 ; (2, −3, 1)
4. i(x, y, z) = ln |xz − y 2 + 1|; (7, −2, 5)
2x
5. j(x, y, z) = 2 ; (−6, 0, 3)
z − 3y
3z 2 sin x π π 
6. k(x, y, z) = ; , ,4
5 cos 2y 2 3
Problem Solving

1. Consider a pastry shop owner selling cakes, cupcakes and brownies.

She sells each cake for Php 250, each cupcake for PhP 55, and each
piece of brownies for PhP 25. She has found √that her daily revenue is
given by the function defined by h(x, y, z) = 250x + 55y + 25z.

a. What is her revenue if she sold

i. 5 cakes, 30 cupcakes and 60 pieces of brownies?
ii. no cakes, 100 cupcakes and no brownies?
iii. 10 cakes, 60 cupcakes and 15 pieces of brownies?
b. Are there values for x, y and z that will make the revenue function
undefined? What is the domain of the function?
138 CHAPTER 4. CALCULUS OF SEVERAL VARIABLES

2. A closed rectangular box is to be made of three kinds of materials.

The material for the top and bottom costs 12 PhP per square foot,
the material for the front and back costs 15 PhP per square foot, and
the material for the other two sides costs 18 PhP per square foot.

a. Find a mathematical model expressing the total cost of the ma-

terial as a function of the dimensions of the box.
b. What should be the height of the box if the cost of the material
is 990 PhP, the length is 3 feet and the width is 8 feet?

3. A newbie seller wishes to sell her gardening pots online with three
sizes: small, medium, and large. The cost of manufacturing a small
pot is 20 PhP, 35 PhP for a medium pot, and 50 PhP for a large pot.
Her capital for the cost of manufacturing the pots is 2000 Php.

a. Find a mathematical model expressing the cost of manufacturing

the three sizes of pots, x for small pots, y for medium pots, and
z for large pots, as a function of three variables.
b. Suppose C = f (x, y, z) is the cost function. Find f (30, 20, 10)
and explain.
c. What is the domain of the cost function?

4. A non-profit organization is selling customized shirts and tote bags to

raise funds for donation. They bought 1000 shirts for 80 PhP each,
and 500 bags for 40 PhP each. After a week, they were able to sell 527
shirts for 180 PhP each, and 222 bags for 100 PhP each. They have
found that their profit is given by the function defined by F (x, y) =
180x + 100y − 100, 000.

a. How much does the organization earn/lose after a week?

b. If they can sell 800 shirts and 375 bags, how much is their profit?
c. Determine the domain of the profit function.

5. A group of psychologists claimed that they have determined a new

model in calculating the intelligence quotient (IQ) of a human be-
ing. Based on several studies, they have found that human in-
telligence can be assessed using
 the
 function defined by g(x, y) =
7π
20 log (4x2 − 5y + 3) − 20 cos , where x and y correspond to a
y
person’s mental age and chronological age, respectively.

a. Find g(30, 25) and interpret it.

b. Find g(10, 18) and interpret it.
c. What is the domain of the function?
4.2. PARTIAL DIFFERENTIATION 139

4.2 Partial Differentiation

Going back to Activity 4.1.1, what will happen to the BOD level if there is an increase in the
number of factories, but the current number of swines and residential houses stay the same?
In this instance, we may recall using derivatives to find the change in the dependent variable
resulting from the change in the independent variable. However, since we are dealing with
several variables here now, we use what is known as partial differentiation. In partial differ-
entiation, we get the derivative of the function with respect to the variable of interest holding
the other variables constant.

Partial Differentiation
Suppose z = f (x, y) is a differentiable function of x, and y.
∂z
The partial derivative of f with respect to x, denoted by or fx ,
∂x
is the function derived by differentiating f with respect to x, holding y
constant.
∂z
The partial derivative of f with respect to y, denoted by or fy ,
∂y
is the function derived by differentiating f with respect to y, holding x
constant.

Similar to the geometric interpretation of the derivative of a single variable function, the
∂z
partial derivative is the slope of the tangent line to the curve z = f (x, y) at point (x0 , y0 ) in
∂x
the x direction. In the following illustration, we can see that the red dot is the partial derivative
fx at point (x0 , y0 ).

Time to think!
∂z
What do you think is the geometric interpretation of ?
∂y
140 CHAPTER 4. CALCULUS OF SEVERAL VARIABLES

Unfortunately, we only have geometric interpretation for partial derivatives of functions of

two variables.

Example 4.2.1. Consider the function defined by z = f (x, y) = x2 + y 3 + y. Find fx and fy

at point (0, 0).

Solution We have
∂z
= 2x + 0 = 2x
∂x
and
∂z
= 0 + 3y 2 + 1 = 3y 2 + 1.
∂y
So that

∂z 
= 2(0) = 0
∂x 

(0,0)

and 
∂z 
= 3(0)2 + 1 = 1.
∂y 

(0,0)

x+y
Example 4.2.2. Consider the function defined by g(x, y) = . Find gx and gy .
x−y
Solution We have
((x − y) · 1) − ((x + y) · 1)
gx (x, y) =
(x − y)2
x−y−x−y
=
(x − y)2
−2y
=
(x − y)2

and
((x − y) · 1) − ((x + y) · (−1))
gy (x, y) =
(x − y)2
x−y+x+y
=
(x − y)2
2x
= .
(x − y)2
4.2. PARTIAL DIFFERENTIATION 141

The partial derivatives of functions of three variables follow from the rules we used in the
∂w
previous two examples. So, if w = f (x, y, z) then we get the partial derivative by differen-
∂z
tiating with respect to z, holding the other variables constant.

2− 1
Example 4.2.3. Consider the function defined by w = j(x, y, z) = e2x+y z . Find all the
partial derivatives of w.

Solution We have
∂w 2 1 2 1
= e2x+y − z (2 + 0 − 0) = 2e2x+y − z ,
∂x
∂w 2 1 2 1
= e2x+y − z (0 + 2y − 0) = 2ye2x+y − z
∂y
and 2 1
e2x+y − z
 
∂w 2 1 1
= e2x+y − z 0+0+ 2 = .
∂z z z2

Example 4.2.4. Consider the function defined by k(x, y, z) = ln(xyz). Find all the partial
derivatives of k.

Solution We have
1 1
kx (x, y, z) = · yz = ,
xyz x
1 1
ky (x, y, z) = · xz =
xyz y
and
1 1
kz (x, y, z) = · xy = .
xyz z

 y
Example 4.2.5. Consider the function defined by w = l(x, y, z) = cos 2x + . Then
z
∂w  y  y
= − sin 2x + (2 + 0) = −2 sin 2x + ,
∂x z z
 − sin 2x + y
 

∂w  y  1 z
= − sin 2x + 0+ =
∂y z z z
and  y
∂w  y   y  y sin 2x +
= − sin 2x + 0− 2 = z .
∂z z z z2
142 CHAPTER 4. CALCULUS OF SEVERAL VARIABLES

A natural question that comes to our mind is if we can still get partial derivatives of a
partial derivative, similar to what we have done in Chapter 2. The answer is yes! The process
is the same as getting the partial derivative of a function: differentiating the function with
respect to the variable of interest and holding the other variables constant.

Second-order Partial Differentiation

Consider z = f (x, y) and assume that fx and fy are differentiable functions
of x and y.

The second-order partial derivative of f with respect to x, denoted

∂ 2z
by 2 or fxx (x, y), is the function derived by differentiating fx with respect
∂x
to x holding the other variable constant.

Similarly, the second-order partial derivative of f with respect to

∂ 2z
y, denoted by or fyy (x, y), is the function derived by differentiating fy
∂y 2
with respect to y holding the other variable constant.

∂ 2z
The mixed partial derivative or fxy (x, y) is the partial derivative
∂y∂x
∂ 2f
of fx with respect to y; and or fyx (x, y) is the partial derivative of fy
∂x∂y
with respect to x.

∂ 2f
Note that when we use the notation , we start differentiating with respect to the
∂y∂x
“inner” variable which is x and then differentiate with respect to “outer” variable which is y.
However, when we use the notation fxy , we first differentiate with respect to the first variable
which is x then differentiate with respect to the second variable which is y. A better way to
∂ 2f
remember this is that we work from right to left whenever we are using the notation and
∂y∂x
left to right whenever we are using the notation fxy . This way will be useful when we work
with higher-order partial derivatives in the next examples.

Time to think!
ˆ How do we write the third-order partial derivatives of a function of
three variables?
∂f
ˆ Consider the function in Activity 4.1.1, what does it mean if < 0?
∂x
∂ 2f
How about if < 0?
∂x2
4.2. PARTIAL DIFFERENTIATION 143

Example 4.2.6. Again, consider a function defined by f (x, y) = x2 + y. Previously, we have

found that fx = 2x and fy = 1. Find fxy and fyx .

Solution We have
fxy (x, y) = 0
and
fyx (x, y) = 0.

x
Example 4.2.7. Consider a function defined by f (x, y) = x3 y + . First, we get the first-order
y
partial derivatives:
1
fx (x, y) = 3x2 y +
y
and
x
fy (x, y) = x3 − .
y2
Now, we get fxy and fyx :
1
fxy (x, y) = 3x2 −
y2
and
1
fyx (x, y) = 3x2 − .
y2

Notice that the mixed partial derivatives in the previous two examples are equal. This is
not an accident. It turns out that for virtually all functions, the mixed partial derivatives will
be equal.

2 1
Example 4.2.8. Recall the function defined by w = j(x, y, z) = e2x+y − z . Again, getting the
partial derivative with respect to x of all the first-partial derivatives, we have

∂ 2w 2 1 2 1

2
= 2e2x+y − z (2 + 0 + 0) = 4e2x+y − z ,
∂x
∂ 2w 2 1 2 1
= 2ye2x+y − z (2 + 0 + 0) = 4ye2x+y − z
∂x∂y
and 2 1 2− 1
∂ 2w e2x+y − z 2e2x+y z
= (2 + 0 + 0) = .
∂x∂z z2 z2
144 CHAPTER 4. CALCULUS OF SEVERAL VARIABLES

2 1
Example 4.2.9. Again, using the function defined by w = j(x, y, z) = e2x+y − z , the third-
order partial derivatives with respect to y of the second-order partial derivatives in the previous
example are
∂ 3w 2 1 2 1

2
= 4e2x+y − z (2y) = 8ye2x+y − z ,
∂y∂x
3
∂ w 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1
= 4ye2x+y − z (2y) + 4e2x+y − z = 8y 2 e2x+y − z + 4e2x+y − z
∂y∂x∂y
and 2 1 2 1
∂ 3w 2e2x+y − z 4ye2x+y − z
= (2y) = .
∂y∂x∂z z2 z2

2
Example 4.2.10. Consider the function f (x, y, z) = cos(xy) + eyz . We have the following:

fx (x, y, z) = − sin(xy) · y + 0 = −y sin(xy)

2 2
fy (x, y, z) = − sin(xy) · x + eyz · z 2 = −x sin(xy) + z 2 eyz
2 2
fz (x, y, z) = 0 + eyz · 2yz = 2yzeyz
fxy (x, y, z) = − [y (cos(xy) · x) + sin(xy) · 1] = − sin(xy) − xy cos(xy)
h  2  2
i 2 2
fyz (x, y, z) = 0 + z 2 eyz 2yz + eyz (2z) = 2zeyz + 2yz 3 eyz
fxyx (x, y, z) = − cos(xy) · y − y [x(− sin(xy)y) + cos(xy)] = −2y cos(xy) + xy 2 sin(xy)
fxyz (x, y, z) = 0
h i h i
yz 2 yz 2 3 yz 2 2 yz 2 2 
= 2eyz 5yz 2 + 2y 2 z 4 + 1

fyzz (x, y, z) = 2 ze (2yz) + e + 2y z e (2yz) + 3z e

Recall that in Section 2.6, we used derivatives to solve problems involving the rate of change
of one quantity that is related to the rate of change of another quantity. Now, what if a quantity
is dependent on two other independent quantites? Say, for example, a factory’s yearly output
is dependent on the capital investment and labor force. In this case, the rate of change of the
output will be affected by the rates of change of the capital investment and the labor force.

Total Derivative
Suppose z is a function of x and y, and both are differentiable functions of
t. Then, z is also a function of t and
dz ∂z dx ∂z dy
= + .
dt ∂x dt ∂y dt
dz
The ordinary derivative is called the total derivative of z with respect
dt
to t.
4.2. PARTIAL DIFFERENTIATION 145

We can use the diagram below to better remember the formula for the total derivative. If
z is a function of x and y, and both are differentiable functions of t, we have

dz
Example 4.2.11. If z = x2 + 2y, x = 2 sin t and y = e2−t , find .
dt
Solution By the definition of total derivative,

dz ∂z dx ∂z dy
= +
dt ∂x dt ∂y dt
= 2x (2 cos t) + 2 e2−t (−1)

= 2(2 sin t)(2 cos t) + 2 e2−t (−1)

= 8 sin t cos t − 2e2−t .

The total derivative of z is the rate of change of z with respect to t. It is used to solve
problems in which the rate of change of one quantity is affected by the rates of change of two
quantities. In solving such problems, we follow the steps discussed in Section 2.6.

Example 4.2.12. Water is leaking from an inverted cone-shaped tank in such a way that the
height of the water level is decreasing at a rate of 0.028 in per second and the radius at the
top is decreasing at a rate of 0.01 in per second. The height of the tank is 14 ft and the base
radius is 5 ft. Find the rate at which the amount of water is decreasing when the height is 7 ft.

Solution

(i) Let V , h and r be the volume, height and radius of the tank, respectively. Since the height
dh
of the water level is decreasing at a rate of 0.028 in per second, = −0.028. Since the
dt
dr
radius at the top is decreasing at a rate of 0.01 in per second, = −0.01. Note that
dt
h 14
since the height of the tank is 14 ft and the base radius is 5 ft, we have = . So,
r 5
5h 5(7) 5
r= . Consequently, if h = 7 ft, then r = = ft. Now, we need to convert h and
14 14 2
5
r to inches. So, h = 7(12) = 84 in and r = (12) = 30 in. Since the tank is cone-shaped,
2
1 2
V = πr h. Note that V is a function of h and r, which are both functions of t. Hence,
3
V is also a function of t.
146 CHAPTER 4. CALCULUS OF SEVERAL VARIABLES

dV
(ii) We need to find when h = 84 in and r = 30 in.
dt
(iii) By the definition of total derivative,

dV ∂V dh ∂V dr
= +
dt ∂h dt ∂r dt
1 2 dh 2 dr
= πr + πrh
3 dt 3 dt

(iv) Substituting what is given, we have

dV 1 2
= π(30)2 (−0.028) + π(30)(84)(−0.01) = −25.2π.
dt 3 3

(v) Therefore, water is decreasing at a rate of 25.2π in3 per second.

Example 4.2.13. The demand for a certain product is D(x, y) = 210 − 9x2 + 18xy units
per month, where x is the price of the product and y is the average price of the competing
products. The manufacturer found out that t months from now, the price of the product will
be x(t) = 11 + 0.8t PhP while the average price of the competing products is y(t) = 13 + 0.1t2 .
At what rate will the demand for the product be changing with respect to time next month?

Solution

(i) Note that D is a function of x and y, which are both functions of t. Hence, D is also a
function of t.
dD
(ii) We need to find when t = 1.
dt
(iii) By the definition of total derivative,

dD ∂D dx ∂D dy
= +
dt ∂x dt ∂y dt
= (−18x + 18y) (0.8) + (18x) (0.2t)
= −18(11 + 0.8t) + 18(13 + 0.1t2 ) (0.8) + (18(11 + 0.8t)) (0.2t)

= 4.32t2 + 28.08t + 28.8

(iv) When t = 1,

dD
= 4.32(1)2 + 28.08(1) + 28.8 = 61.2
dt

(v) Therefore, the demand will increase at a rate of 61 units per month next month.
4.2. PARTIAL DIFFERENTIATION 147

We can also compute for the total derivative of functions of three or more variables.

Total Derivative
If w = f (x, y, z) and x, y and z are differentiable functions of t, then w is
a function of t and the total derivatve of w with respect to t, denoted by
dw
, is given by
dt
dw ∂w dx ∂w dy ∂w dz
= + + .
dt ∂x dt ∂y dt ∂z dt

In diagram, we have

dw
Example 4.2.14. If w = x2 + y 2 + z 2 , x = et , y = ln(2t) and y = cos(t3 ), find .
dt
Solution By the definition of total derivative,

dw ∂w dx ∂w dy ∂w dz
= + +
dt ∂x dt ∂y dt ∂z dt
 
t 1
(2) + 2z − sin(t3 )(3t2 )



= 2x e + 2y
2t
 
t t 1
(2) + 2 cos(t3 ) − sin(t3 )(3t2 )



= 2(e ) e + 2 (ln(2t))
2t
2 ln(2t)
= 2e2t + − 6t2 cos(t3 ) sin(t3 ).
t
148 CHAPTER 4. CALCULUS OF SEVERAL VARIABLES

Assessment 4.2
Concepts
Answer the following questions briefly.
1. How do we compute for the partial derivative of a function of two
variables?

2. What is the geometric interpretation of the partial derivative of a func-

tion at a point?

3. What is the physical interpretation of the partial derivative of a func-

tion at a point?

Computations
∂f ∂f ∂f
A. For each item, find , , and , if they exist.
∂x ∂y ∂z
2 √
1. f (x, y, z) = 3
+ 5 y − 2z 3 − 10
x
2. f (x, y) = ln(x2 − y 2 )
2 2
p
3. f (x, y, z) = ex +y − x2 + 2yz
x
4. f (x, y) = sin(xy) +
x+y
x2 + 1
5. f (x, y, z) = − (z + 3)2
y
B. Consider the function defined by f (x, y, z) = cos(xy) + e−yz . Find the
following:

1. fx (x, y, z), fy (x, y, z), fz (x, y, z)

2. fxx (x, y, z), fxy (x, y, z), fxz (x, y, z)
3. fyx (x, y, z), fyy (x, y, z), fyz (x, y, z)
4. fzx (x, y, z), fzy (x, y, z), fzz (x, y, z)
5. fxyz (x, y, z), fyzx (x, y, z), fzxy (x, y, z)

C. For each item, find dw/dt.

1. w = 3x2 − 5y 2 where x = log 4t, y = e2t

2. w = sin(4x + 2) + 7 cos(3xy) where x = t2 , y = ln t
x+y
3. w = where x = 3t, y = et , z = sin(3t)
y−z
√ 2
4. w = 9x2 − 4z 2 − where x = ln(t3 ), y = e5t , z = 7t
y
y
5. w = x2 ln   + 4 cos(yz 2 − 1) where x = log 2t, y = t5 , z =
 
x
cos(t + 1)
4.2. PARTIAL DIFFERENTIATION 149

Problem Solving
1. The height of a rectangle is increasing at a rate of 12 centimeters
per hour and the width of the rectangle is decreasing at a rate of 8
centimeters per hour. At a certain instant, the height is 5 centimeters
and the width is 9 centimeters. What is the rate of change of the area
of the rectangle at that instant?

2. Two cars are driving towards an intersection from perpendicular di-

rections. The first car’s velocity is 5 meters per second and the second
car’s velocity is 13 meters per second. At a certain instant, the first car
is 17 meters from the intersection and the second car is 8 meters from
the intersection. What is the rate of change of the distance between
the cars at that instant?

3. The voltage, V (in volts), across a circuit is given by Ohm’s law:

V = IR,

where I is the current (in amperes) flowing through the circuit and
R is the resistance (in ohms). Suppose that the current is 3 amperes
and is increasing at 10−2 ampere/s and the resistance is 2 ohms and
is increasing at 0.4 ohm/s. Estimate the rate at which the voltage is
changing.

4. A student has a class at 7:00 AM and it is currently 30 minutes before

7:00 AM. She immediately went to the bathroom and turned the faucet
to fill the circular cylindrical basin with water. The circular cylindrical
basin is 12 inches in diameter, and its height is 20 inches. The basin
is expanding in such a way that even if it is cylindrical, its radius is
increasing at a rate of 0.1 inch per minute. After 2 minutes, she noticed
that the basin is only 15 th full of water. If it fills up at a rate of 1.5
cubic inches per minute, how fast is the surface of the water changing
when the basin is only 15 th full of water.

5. A side of a triangle with length x is decreasing at a rate of 10 cm per

second, and another side with length y is decreasing at a rate of 15 cm
per second. Suppose θ is the angle between the two sides of the triangle
π
that is increasing at a rate of 20 per second. Find the rate of change
of the area of the triangle when x = 100 cm, y = 150 cm, and θ = π4 .

6. A manufacturer of a certain commodity has found that its monthly

production function P in thousand pesos
 πx can
 be modeled by the func-
xy 3
tion defined by P (x, y) = 225e sin , where x is the number of
8
hours for labor (in hundreds), and y is the capital amount (in thou-
sand pesos). The labor force is decreasing at a rate of 20 hours per
month, and the capital is increasing at a rate of 10,000 PhP per month.
Find the rate of change of producing the commodity when x = 10 and
y = 50.
150 CHAPTER 4. CALCULUS OF SEVERAL VARIABLES

4.3 Extrema of Functions of Two Variables

In Section 4.1, we have learned the concept of functions of several variables and also considered
some real world applications of this type of functions. In this section, we extend the concept
of extrema of functions of a single variable to functions of two variables. In particular, we will
solve optimization problems involving functions of two variables.

Activity 4.3.1
ˆ Consider the graph of a function f of two variables x and y.

ˆ What can you say about point P with respect to the other points on
the surface that are around P ?

ˆ What can you say about point Q with respect to the other points on
the surface that are around Q?

We say that at (x1 , y1 ) occurs a relative maximum value of f and at (x2 , y2 ) occurs a relative
minimum value of f .

Relative Extrema
A function f of two variables x and y is said to have a relative maximum
value at the point (x0 , y0 ) if for all (x, y) around (x0 , y0 ), f (x0 , y0 ) ≥ f (x, y).

Similarly, f is said to have a relative minimum value at the point (x0 , y0 )

if for all (x, y) around (x0 , y0 ), f (x0 , y0 ) ≤ f (x, y).

Collectively, we refer to the relative maximum and relative minimum values

as relative extrema.

In Activity 4.3.1, we were able to determine the relative extrema of the function f by
studying its graph. Now, how do we find the relative extrema of a function without looking at
its graph?
4.3. EXTREMA OF FUNCTIONS OF TWO VARIABLES 151

Finding Relative Extrema

Let f and its first and second partial derivatives be continuous around the
point (x0 , y0 ). Suppose further that fx (x0 , y0 ) = fy (x0 , y0 ) = 0.

Define
D(x0 , y0 ) = fxx (x0 , y0 ) · fyy (x0 , y0 ) − [fxy (x0 , y0 )]2 .
(a) If D(x0 , y0 ) > 0 and fxx (x0 , y0 ) < 0, then f has a relative maximum
value at (x0 , y0 ).

(b) If D(x0 , y0 ) > 0 and fxx (x0 , y0 ) > 0, then f has a relative minimum
value at (x0 , y0 ).

(c) If D(x0 , y0 ) < 0, then f has no relative extremum at (x0 , y0 ).

(d) If D(x0 , y0 ) = 0, then the test is inconclusive.

This is also known as the Second Partial Derivative Test. It is used to find the points
where a function of two variables obtains its relative extrema. We first set the first partial
derivatives of f to zero and obtain the values of x and y. Then, we find the values of D at each
of these points to determine the type of relative extrema that occurs at the particular point.

Example 4.3.1. Find the relative extrema of the function f defined by f (x, y) = sin x + sin y
on 0 < x < 2π and 0 < y < 2π.

Solution First, we find the partial derivatives of f .

fx (x, y) = cos x fy (x, y) = cos y
fxx (x, y) = − sin x fxy (x, y) = 0 fyy (x, y) = − sin y
Note that f and its partial derivatives are continuous everywhere. Next, we find the points
where the first partial derivatives of f are zero.
fx (x, y) = cos x = 0 fy (x, y) = cos y = 0
π 3π π 3π
x= or x = y= or y =
2 2 2 2
 π π   π 3π   3π π 
Thus, the possible points were a relative extremum occurs are , , , , ,
  2 2 2 2 2 2
3π 3π
and , .
2 2
Then, we compute for D and conclude. We summarize the results in the table below.
(x,
π π
y) fxx (x, y) fyy fxy (x, y) D(x, y) Conclusion
, −1 −1 0 1 f has a relative maximum
2 2
π 3π
, −1 1 0 −1 f has no relative extremum
2 2 
3π π
, 1 −1 0 −1 f has no relative extremum
 2 2
3π 3π
, 1 1 0 1 f has a relative minimum
2 2
152 CHAPTER 4. CALCULUS OF SEVERAL VARIABLES

Therefore, f has a relative maximum value of

π π  π π
f , = sin + sin = 1 + 1 = 2
2 2 2 2
π π 
at , and a relative minimum value of
2 2
 
3π 3π 3π 3π
f , = sin + sin = −1 − 1 = −2
2 2 2 2
 
3π 3π
at , . We can verify this using the graph of f below.
2 2

Example 4.3.2. A certain factory provides products to the community and income to its
workers, but the advantage may be offset by the chemical waste the factory produces. Suppose
that the social desirability of this factory is given by the function S(x, y) = −x2 + 6xy − 2y 3 ,
where x measures the social advantage and y measures the ecological disadvantage. What value
of x and y will maximize the social desirability of the factory?

Solution To solve this problem, we find the values of x and y where S obtains its relative
maximum value. The partial derivatives of S are

Sx (x, y) = −2x + 6y Sy (x, y) = 6x − 6y 2

Sxx (x, y) = −2 Sxy (x, y) = 6 Syy (x, y) = −12y

Notice that these functions are continuous everywhere. Next, we find the points where the first
partial derivatives of S are zero.

Sx (x, y) = −2x + 6y = 0 Sy (x, y) = 6x − 6y 2 = 0

x = 3y x = y2
4.3. EXTREMA OF FUNCTIONS OF TWO VARIABLES 153

We solve the system of equations obtained.

(
x = 3y
x = y2

y 2 = 3y
y 2 − 3y = 0
y(y − 3) = 0
y = 0 or y = 3
x = 0 or x = 9
Thus, the possible points were a relative extremum occurs are (0, 0) and (9, 3). We compute
for D at these points and summarize the results in the table below.
(x, y) Sxx (x, y) Syy Sxy (x, y) D(x, y) Conclusion
(0, 0) −2 0 6 −36 S has no relative extremum
(9, 3) −2 −36 6 36 S has a relative maximum
Therefore, the social desirability of the factory is at its maximum when x = 9 and y = 3.

We also extend the notion of absolute extrema to functions of two variables.

Absolute Extrema
A function f has an absolute maximum at (x0 , y0 ) on a region R if
f (x0 , y0 )) ≥ f (x, y), for all (x, y) in R. We say that f (x0 , y0 ) is the absolute
maximum value of f on R.

A function f has an absolute minimum at (x0 , y0 ) on a region R if

f (x0 , y0 )) ≤ f (x, y), for all (x, y) in R. We say that f (x0 , y0 ) is the absolute
minimum value of f on R.

Collectively, we refer to the absolute maximum and absolute minimum values

as absolute extrema.

Recall that in Section 2.5, we learned that if a function is continuous on a closed interval,
then the function has an absolute maximum value and an absolute minimum value on that
interval. The absolute extremum is either a relative extremum or the function value at the
endpoints of the interval. This idea can be extended in the case of functions of two variables.
But, instead of a closed interval, we consider a closed and bounded region. A region is
closed if it contains its boundaries and is bounded if it finite.

Extreme Value Theorem

Let R be a closed and bounded region in the xy-plane and let f be a con-
tinuous function on R. Then, f has an absolute maximum value and an
absolute minimum value on R.
154 CHAPTER 4. CALCULUS OF SEVERAL VARIABLES

The theorem above guarantees that if the function is continuous on the closed and bounded
region, an absolute extremum occurs. Either this is a relative extrema or occurs at the boundary
of the closed and bounded region. Below are the steps in finding the absolute extrema of a
function on a closed and bounded region.

Finding Absolute Extrema

1. Determine the points inside the region that will make partial deriva-
tives of the function zero.

2. Find the function values along the boundaries and determine the points
that will make partial derivatives of these functions zero.

3. Determine the corner points.

4. Compare function values at the points obtain in Steps 1-3.

5. The highest among these values is the absolute maximum value, while
the smallest is the absolute minimum value.

Example 4.3.3. Find the absolute extrema of the function g defined by g(x, y) = 2x2 − 4x +
y 2 − 4y + 1 on the triangular plate bounded by the lines y = 0, x = 0 and y = 2 − x.

Solution Let R be the region bounded by the lines y = 0, x = 0 and y = 2 − x.

We set the partial derivatives of g to zero.

gx (x, y) = 4x − 4 = 0 gy (x, y) = 2y − 4 = 0
x=1 y=2

Notice, however, that (1, 2) is not in the interior of R so we will not consider this point.

Along the boundary y = 0, we have g(x, 0) = 2x2 − 4x + 1. We set the partial derivative of
this to zero.
gx (x, 0) = 4x − 4 = 0
4.3. EXTREMA OF FUNCTIONS OF TWO VARIABLES 155

x=1
Hence, a possible absolute extremum occurs at the point (1, 0). We do the same for the other
boundaries of R. Along x = 0, g(0, y) = y 2 − 4y + 1.

gy (0, y) = 2y − 4 = 0

y=2
Another absolute extremum possibly occurs at (0, 2). Lastly, along y = 2 − x, g(x, 2 − x) =
2x2 − 4x + (2 − x)2 − 4(2 − x) + 1 = 3x2 − 4x − 3.

gx (x, 2 − 1) = 6x − 4 = 0
2
x=
3
4
y=
3
 
2 4
So, an absolute extremum possibly occurs at , . In addition, we consider the corner
3 3
points (0, 0), (0, 2) and (2, 0). We now compute for the function values at all the points that
we have obtained.
 
2 4 13
g , =−
3 3 3
g(1, 0) = −1
g(0, 0) = 1
g(0, 2) = −3 g(2, 0) = 1

Hence, g has an absolute

 maximum value of 1 at (0, 0) and (2, 0) and an absolute minimum
13 2 4
value of − at , on R. The graph below shows these absolute extrema of g.
3 3 3
156 CHAPTER 4. CALCULUS OF SEVERAL VARIABLES

Assessment 4.3
Concepts
Answer the following questions briefly.
1. How do we find the relative extrema of a function of two variables?

2. What is the difference between a relative minimum value and an ab-

solute minimum value of a function of two variables?

3. What is the difference between a relative maximum value and an ab-

solute maximum value of a function of two variables?

4. What are the sufficient conditions for existence of the absolute extreme
values a function of two variables in a region R?

Computations

A. Find the critical points of the following functions and classify each as
a relative maximum, relative minimum or neither.

1. f (x, y) = 3x3 − 3y 2 − x + y
2. g(x, y) = −2x2 + xy − y 2 + 4x + y
3. h(x, y) = xey − 3x2 − 2y + 8
2 +(y−5)2
4. j(x, y) = e(x−1)
5. i(x, y) = cos x + cos y, 0 ≤ x < 2π and 0 ≤ y < 2π

B. Find the absolute extrema of the function defined on the region R

described below.

1. f (x, y) = (x − 1)2 + (y − 2)2 where R is a region on the first

quadrant bounded by y = 2, y = 2x, and y-axis.
2. g(x, y) = x2 − y 2 + 2xy where R is the triangular region with
boundaries x-axis, y = x, and x = 1.
3. l(x, y) = sin x + y 2 where R is the rectangle, 0 ≤ x ≤ π2 and
0 ≤ y ≤ π2 .
p
4. m(x, y) = x3 + y 3 where R is the region bounded by y = −x +
2, x-axis and y-axis.
3 2)
5. b(x, y) = e−(x +y where R is the region bounded by 0 ≤ x ≤ 1
and 0 ≤ y ≤ 1.

Problem Solving

1. RWB, a South Korean entertainment company, will produce two ver-

sions (pink and purple) of the album for the comeback of the Korean
girl group Mamoomoo. The company found out that the profit ob-
tained by producing x units of version pink and y units of version
purple is approximated by the model

P (x, y) = −2x2 − y 2 + 160, 000x + 100, 000y + 150, 000.

Find the production level that will maximize the company’s profit.
4.3. EXTREMA OF FUNCTIONS OF TWO VARIABLES 157

2. A factory will produce small closed boxes, each of which must have a
volume of 100 cm3 . The material costs P5/cm2 for the base, P3/cm2
for the top, and P2/cm2 for the sides. Determine the dimensions of
the box that will minimize the production cost.

3. If K units of capital, L units of labor, and A units of advertisement

are utilized, a company can produce KLA units of good. Capital,
labor, and advertisement cost P400/unit, P100/unit, and P300/unit,
respectively. A total of P1200 is available to purchase capital,labor,
and advertisement. Determine the amount of capital, labor, and ad-
vertisement that will maximize the quantity of the manufactured good.

4. Moon corp will produce two new cell phone models: X and Y with sug-
gested prices P20,000/unit and P25,000/unit, respectively. However,
price of each model is affected by the sales for both. It is estimated
that for each model, the price goes down by P0.02 for each unit sold.
Moreover, price for model X drops by P0.01 for each unit of model Y
that is sold and the price of model Y drops by P0.01 for each unit of
model X that is sold. The cost of producing X is P15,000/unit and
P17,000/unit for Y. The company trusts that if these assumptions are
incorporated, all units will be sold. How many of each model should
the company produce to maximize the profit?

5. The research team of Shope Inc. has developed a model that de-
termines the profit P of the company when x thousand of mugs are
produced and y hours of radio advertisement is purchased per month.
The company’s profit is described by

P (x, y) = −x2 − 2xy − 5y 2 + 50x + 90y.

Determine the number of coffee mugs and advertisement hours per

month that will maximize the profit.
158 CHAPTER 4. CALCULUS OF SEVERAL VARIABLES

4.4 Lagrange Multipliers

In this section, we will solve constrained optimization problems using the method of Lagrange
Multipliers.
The method of Lagrange multipliers is a technique used to optimize a function subject
to a constraint on the variables. For instance, you are constrained within a weekly fixed budget
of 1500 pesos and may wish to decide how to divide this between food allowance and leisure
expense to maximize the amount of happiness in a week. If x denotes the amount allocated to
food, y the amount allotted to leisure and f (x, y) the overall happiness in a week, you would like
to maximize the happiness function f subject to the budgetary constraint that x + y = 1500.
Geometrically, to optimize a function of two variables subject to a constraint, we consider
the function itself as a surface in three dimensional space and the constraint as the curve in
the xy-plane. If we wish to find the maximum and the minimum of the function given the
constraint, we look for the highest and lowest points, respectively, on the curve that lies on the
surface and directly above the constraint. See illustration below.

In the previous section, we dealt with constrained optimization problems using the strategy
of solving the constraint equation for one variable. We will use, in this section, a more versatile
technique called the method of Lagrange multipliers, developed by an Italian mathematician
Joseph Louis Lagrange.

The Method of Lagrange Multipliers

1. Formulate: Optimize f (x, y), subject to g(x, y) = k, assuming that
this extreme value exists.

2. Compute the partial derivatives fx , fy , gx and gy , and find all numbers

a, b and λ satisfying the Lagrange equations:

fx (a, b) = λgx (a, b)

fy (a, b) = λgy (a, b)
g(a, b) = k

3. Evaluate f at all resulting values (a, b).

4. Interpret: The largest of these values is the maximum value of f and

the smallest is the minimum value of f .
4.4. LAGRANGE MULTIPLIERS 159

We illustrate this method in the following examples.

Example 4.4.1. Find the maximum value of f (x, y) = xy, subject to the constraint x + y = 1.

Solution We want to maximize f (x, y) = xy subject to the constraint g(x, y) = x + y − 1. We

first compute for the partial derivatives and set up the Lagrange equations as follows
 
fx (x, y) = λgx (x, y)
 y = λ
 (1)
fy (x, y) = λgy (x, y) ⇒ x = λ (2)
 
g(x, y) = k x + y = 1 (3)
 

Then we solve this system of equations. Substituting (1),(2) to (3), we have

λ+λ=1
1
⇒λ=
2
1
⇒x=y=
2
 
1 1
Evaluating f at , , we have
2 2
 
1 1 1 1 1
f , = · = .
2 2 2 2 4

Since there is only one value for (x, y), we choose a test point that satisfies the constraint, say
(1, 0), and evaluate f at this point. We have

f (1, 0) = 1(0) = 0.
 
1 1
Note that f , > f (1, 0). Hence, the maximum value of f (x, y) = xy subject to the
2 2
constraint x + y = 1 is  
1 1 1
f , = .
2 2 4
We can verify this in the given graph below.
160 CHAPTER 4. CALCULUS OF SEVERAL VARIABLES

Example 4.4.2. Find the minimum and maximum values of f (x, y) = xy, subject to the con-
straint x2 + y 2 = 8.

Solution We want to maximize f (x, y) = xy subject to the constraint g(x, y) = x2 + y 2 − 8.

We first compute for the partial derivatives and set up the Lagrange equations given by
 

 f x (x, y) = λgx (x, y) y = 2λx
 (1)
fy (x, y) = λgy (x, y) ⇒ x = 2λy (2)
 
 2 2
g(x, y) = k x + y = 8 (3)


From (1) and (2),

y x
= 2λ and = 2λ,
x y
respectively.
y x
⇒ =
x y
⇒ y 2 = x2 (4)
Substituting (4) to (3),
x2 + x2 = 8.
⇒ x2 = 4
⇒ x = ±2
If x = 2, using (4), we have y = ±2. Similarly, if x = −2, using (4), we have y = ±2. We have
four points: (2, 2), (2, −2), (−2, 2) and (−2, −2). Evaluating f at these points, we have the
following:
f (2, 2) = 2(2) = 4
f (2, −2) = 2(−2) = −4
f (−2, 2) = −2(2) = −4
f (−2, −2) = −2(−2) = 4
Hence, the minimum value of f (x, y) = xy subject to the constraint x2 + y 2 = 8 is −4 and it
occurs at (2, −2) and (−2, 2). On the other hand, the maximum value is 4 and it occurs at
(2, 2) and (−2, −2). We verify this in the graph below.
4.4. LAGRANGE MULTIPLIERS 161

Example 4.4.3. Find the point closest to the origin on the line 2x + y − 5 = 0.

Solution Since we are minimizing distance,

p we use the formula for the distance of any point
(x, y) to the origin which is given by x2 + y 2 . To simplify computations, we remove the
squareroot and take f (x, y) = x2 + y 2 as the function to be minimized. Since the point should
be on the line 2x + y − 5 = 0, our constraint is g(x, y) = 2x + y − 5. The Lagrange equations
are as follows:
 
fx (x, y) = λgx (x, y)
 2x = 2λ
 (1)
fy (x, y) = λgy (x, y) ⇒ 2y = λ (2)
 
g(x, y) = k 2x + y − 5 = 0 (3)
 

From (2),
λ
⇒y= (4).
2
Substituting (1) and (4) to (3),
λ
2λ + − 5 = 0.
2
⇒λ=2
⇒ x = 2 and y = 1
Evaluating f at (2, 1), we have
f (2, 1) = 22 + 12 = 5.
We choose a test point that satisfies the constraint, say (0, 5), and evaluate f at this point. We
have
f (0, 5) = 02 + 52 = 25.
Note that f (2, 1) < f (0, 5). Hence, the point closest to the origin is (2, 1). We verify this using
the following graph.
162 CHAPTER 4. CALCULUS OF SEVERAL VARIABLES

Economists define utility function U (x, y) as the measure of the total satisfaction or hap-
piness a consumer receives from having x units of one particular commodity and y units of
another. Example 5.4.1 exhibits how many units of each commodity the consumer should
purchase to maximize utility while sticking within a fixed budget.

Example 4.4.4. You just received your very first salary from your first job amounting to
60,000 pesos and you plan to spend all of it to buy pairs of designer pants costing 2,000 pesos
each and shoes that cost 3,000 pesos each. Suppose the utility that you get from buying x units
of pants and y units of shoes is given by the Cobb-Douglas utility function U (x, y) = 10x0.6 y 0.4 .
How many units of each good should you purchase to maximize utility?

Solution First, we want to maximize U (x, y) = 10x0.6 y 0.4 subject to the budgetary constraint
2000x + 3000y = 60000.
Second, we compute for the partial derivatives and set-up the Lagrange equations as follows:
6x−0.4 y 0.4 = 2000λ (1)
4x0.6 y −0.6 = 3000λ (2)
2000x + 3000y = 60000 (3)
From (1) and (2), we get
6x−0.4 y 0.4 4x0.6 y −0.6
= =λ
2000 3000
9x−0.4 y 0.4 = 4x0.6 y −0.6
4
9y = 4x y= x (4)
9
Substituting (4) to (3) yields
 
4
2000x + 3000 x = 60000
9
 
4
2x + 3 x = 60
9
18x + 12x = 540
30x = 540
x = 18 (5)
4
Finally, substituting (5) to (4), we get y = (18) = 8. Since it is assumed that the maximum
9
value exists and that there is exactly one pair of points along the curve that satisfies the
Lagrange equations, then the constrained maximum occurs at (18, 8). This can also be verified
by choosing a test point and comparing the function value to f (18, 8) like what was done in
the previous examples. Hence, we conclude that to maximize utility, you should buy 18 pairs
of designer pants and only 8 pairs of shoes.

The Langrangian Method can be extended to solve constrained optimization problems of

more than two variables. We leave this to your own discovery.
4.4. LAGRANGE MULTIPLIERS 163

Assessment 4.4
Concepts
Explain how the Lagrangian Method is used to solve a constrained optimiza-
tion problem.

Computations
Use the method of Lagrange multiplier to solve for the indicated extremum.
Assume that the extremum exists.
1. Find the maximum value of f (x, y) = xy subject to the constraint
x + y = 1.

2. Find the minimum value of f (x, y) = 3x + y + 10, where x > 0 and

y > 0, subject to the constraint xy = 3.

3. Find the maximum and minimum value of f (x, y) = x − y subject to

the constraint x2 + y 2 = 1.
x2
4. Find the maximum value of f (x, y) = 3y 2 − 2
, where y 6= 0, subject
to the constraint x + y 2 = 4.

5. Find the minimum value of f (x, y) = x2 + y 2 subject to the constraint

x − 2y = 9.

Problem Solving

1. Find three numbers whose sum is 15 and the sum of whose squares is
as small as possible.

2. Find the point on the line x + y = 2 that is closest to the point (1, −2).
(Hint: To simplify computations, minimize the square of the distance.)

3. Benshoppe, a shoe company, produces two types of shoes, sneakers

and heels. The total cost of producing x sneakers and y heels is

C(x, y) = 6x2 + 10y 2 + 2xy + 32x + 84y

per month. If the company manufactures exactly 120 units per month,
find x and y so as to minimize the cost.

4. Danielle wants to create her own rectangular gift box and decorate
it with ribbons on the edges of the box. If each edge requires only
one section of ribbon and she has 48 cm of pink ribbon, what are the
dimensions of the largest box she can create?

5. Find the dimensions of a closed right cylindrical can of smallest surface

area whose volume is 16π cm3 .
164 CHAPTER 4. CALCULUS OF SEVERAL VARIABLES

4.5 Multiple Integration

We have learned in the previous sections that we can find derivatives of functions of two or
more variables. A natural question now is can we also solve for the integral of such functions?

Activity 4.5.1
Again, consider the function defined by f (x, y) = x + 4y, and given the
bounds 0 ≤ x ≤ 2 and 2 ≤ y ≤ 4,
ˆ Evaluate the integral of
Z 2
F (x, y) = f (x, y) dx
0

assuming y constant

ˆ Evaluate the integral of

Z 4
F (x, y) dy
2

assuming x constant

In the activity above, the process that we used is called iterated integral or double
integral, and it can be written in a single expression as
Z 4Z 2
(x + 4y) dx dy
2 0
We must remember that we get the innermost integral first then continue working outwards.
We should also be cautious that we only substitute the bounds to the variable of interest, and
assume the other variable constant.

Z 3 Z 2
Example 4.5.1. Evaluate (x + y) dxdy.
1 0

Solution We have
Z 3 Z 2 Z 3 Z 2 
(x + y) dxdy = (x + y) dx dy
1 0 1 0
3 2
x2
Z 

= + xy  dy
1 2 0
Z 3
= [(2 + 2y) − (0 + 0)] dy
1
Z 3
= (2 + 2y) dy
1

3
= 2y + y 2 1
= (6 + 9) − (2 + 1)
= 12.
4.5. MULTIPLE INTEGRATION 165

Let us formalize the process of getting integral over rectangular region below.

Double Integral over Rectangular Region

The double integral ZZ
f (x, y) dA
R
over the rectangular region R : a ≤ x ≤ b, c ≤ y ≤ d is given by
ZZ Z b Z d  Z d Z b 
f (x, y) dA = f (x, y) dy dx = f (x, y) dx dy
R a c c a

We note here that any double integral has a unique value regardless of the order of integra-
tion used.

ZZ
x2 + y 2 dA where R : 0 ≤ x ≤ 3, 0 ≤ y ≤ 2.


Example 4.5.2. Evaluate
R

Solution We have
ZZ Z 3 Z 2
2 2
x2 + y 2 dydx



x +y dA =
R 0 0
Z 3 2
2 y 3 
= x y+ dx
0 3 0
Z 3 
23 03
  
2 2
= x (2) + − x (0) + dx
0 3 3
Z 3 
2 8
= 2x + dx
0 3
 3 3
2x 8x 
= +
3 3  0
= 26.
166 CHAPTER 4. CALCULUS OF SEVERAL VARIABLES
ZZ
1
Example 4.5.3. Evaluate dA where R : 2 ≤ x ≤ 4, 1 ≤ y ≤ 5 using dxdy.
R x
Solution We have
ZZ Z 5 Z 4
1 1
dA = dxdy
R x x
Z1 5 2

= ln x|42 dy
Z1 5
= (ln 4 − ln 2) dy
1
= (ln 2 − ln 4) y|51
= (ln 4 − ln 2) (5 − 1)
≈ 2.7726.

ZZ
y
Example 4.5.4. Evaluate ex+ 2 dA where R : −1 ≤ x ≤ 1, −2 ≤ y ≤ 2 using dxdy.
R

Solution We have
ZZ Z 2 Z 1
x+ y2 y
e dA = ex+ 2 dxdy
R −2 −1
Z 2 1
x+ y2 

= e  dy
−2 −1
Z 2 h i
y y
= e1+ 2 − e−1+ 2 dy
−2
2
1+ y2 −1+ y2 

= 2e − 2e 
−2
 2 
1+ −2 2 −2
= 2 e 1+ 2
− e 2 − e−1+ 2 + e−1+ 2
2 e2 − e0 − e0 + e−2


=
2 e2 − 1 − 1 + e−2


=
≈ 11.04878.

ZZ
x+y
Example 4.5.5. Evaluate dA where R : 5 ≤ x ≤ 6, 7 ≤ y ≤ 8 using dydx.
R x
4.5. MULTIPLE INTEGRATION 167

Solution We have
ZZ Z 6 Z 8
x+y x+y
dA = dydx
R x 5 7 x
Z 6Z 8
y
= 1+ dydx
5 7 x
Z 6 8
2
y 
= y +  dx
5 2x 
7
Z 6 
82 72
  
= 8+ − 7+ dx
5 2x 2x
Z 6 
15
= 1+ dx
5 2x
6
15 
= x+ ln x

2 
5
   
15 15
= 6+ ln 6 − 5 + ln 5
2 2
15
= 1 + (ln 6 − ln 5)
2
≈ 2.3674.

ZZ  y π π
Example 4.5.6. Evaluate sin x − dA where R : 0 ≤ x ≤ π, ≤ y ≤ using dxdy.
R 2 4 2
Solution We have
π
ZZ Z Z π
 y 2
 y
sin x − dA = sin x − dxdy
R 2 π
4
0 2
Z π π
2
 y  
= − cos x −  dy
π
2
2 
0
Z π h 
2 y   y i
= − cos π − − cos − dy
π
4
2 2
π
 y  y2
= 2 sin π − − 2 sin − 

2 2 π
4
π
h  y  y i 2

= 2 sin π − − sin −

2 2 π

4

h  π  π i h  π  π i
= 2 sin π − − sin − − 2 sin π − − sin −
  4 4
 π     8  8
3π 7π π
= 2 sin − sin − − 2 sin − sin −
4 4 8 8
≈ 1.2977.
168 CHAPTER 4. CALCULUS OF SEVERAL VARIABLES

We can also get integral over regions that are not rectangular.

Time to think!
How do you get the bounds for non-rectangular regions? For example, how
do you get the bounds for x and y for the region enclosed by y = x2 and
y = x as shown below:

Let us now formalize how to get integrals over non-rectangular regions.

Double Integral over Non-rectangular Region

If R can be described by the inequalities a ≤ x ≤ b and f (x) ≤ y ≤ g(x),
then ZZ Z b Z g(x)
f (x, y) dA = f (x, y) dy dx.
R a f (x)
4.5. MULTIPLE INTEGRATION 169

If R can be described by the inequalities a ≤ y ≤ b and f (y) ≤ x ≤ g(y),

then ZZ Z b Z g(y)
f (x, y) dA = f (x, y) dx dy.
R a f (y)

Note that if we choose dydx as the order of integration, we will use vertical strips. If we
choose dxdy, we will use horizontal strips. This will be helpful in determining the upper and
lower bounds of the integrals. Also, always remember that the outer integral must always have
numerical bounds, while the inner intergral can have bounds that is a function of the other
variable.

ZZ
Example 4.5.7. Evaluate xydA where R is the region bounded by the graphs of y = x
R
and y = x2 using dydx.

Solution If we are to use dydx as the order of integration, we will use vertical strips.

First, we need to determine the bounds for y. Remember that for vertical strips, the lower
bound (for y) is the function bounding the region below, while the upper bound is the function
170 CHAPTER 4. CALCULUS OF SEVERAL VARIABLES

bounding the region above. Thus, the upper bound for y is x, while the lower bound is x2 .

Next, we need the lower and upper bounds for x. Remember that these should be numeri-
cal bounds; the lower bound is the left corner point, while the upper bound is the right corner
point. To find these bounds, we must solve for the points of intersections of y = x2 and y = x.
They are (0, 0) and (1, 1). Thus, the upper bound for x is 1, while the lower bound is 0.

Therefore, ZZ Z 1 Z x
xydA = xydydx
R 0 x2
.
Evaluating this, we have
ZZ Z 1 Z x
xydA = xydydx
R 0 x2
Z 1 2 x
xy 
= dx
0 2  x2
Z 1 3
x5

x
= − dx
0 2 2
 4 1
x x6 
= −
8 12 0
 4
16

1
= − − (0 − 0)
8 12
1
= .
24

Example 4.5.8. Evaluate the double integral in the previous example using dxdy as the order
of integration.

Solution With dxdy as the order of integration, we have horizontal strips.

We need to determine the bounds for x. Again, recall that for horizontal strips, the lower
bound (for x) is the function bounding the region on the left, while the upper bound is the
√
function bounding the region on the right. Thus, the upper bound for x is y, while the lower
4.5. MULTIPLE INTEGRATION 171

bound is y.

Next, we need the lower and upper bounds for y. Recall that the lower bound for y is the
bottom corner point, while the upper bound is the top corner point. Thus, the upper bound
for y is 1, while the lower bound is 0.

Therefore, √
ZZ Z 1 Z y
xydA = xydxdy
R 0 y
.
Evaluating this, we have
√
ZZ Z 1 Z y
xydA = xydxdy
R 0 y
1
√y
x2 y 
Z
= dy
0 2 y
Z 1 2
y3

y
= − dy
0 2 2
 3 1
y y 4 
= −
6 8 0
 3
14

1
= − − (0 − 0)
6 8
1
= .
24

Sometimes, it is easier to solve the integral if the order of integration is reversed. Before we
go into this, let us practice reversing the order of integration in the following examples.

Example 4.5.9. Rewrite the double integral

Z 1Z y
dx dy
0 0
by reversing the order of integration.

Solution The first thing we must do is to graph the region of integration. We have to graph
x = 0 and x = y, and then locate point y = 0 and y = 1.
172 CHAPTER 4. CALCULUS OF SEVERAL VARIABLES

We can see from the illustration above that the points of intersection are (0, 0) and (1, 1).

Now, we determine the bounds for y and x. The upper bound for y is 1, while the lower
bound is x: the upper bound for x is 1, while the lower bound is 0.

Thus, the integral with reversed order of integration is

Z 1Z 1
dy dx.
0 x

Example 4.5.10. Rewrite the double integral

Z 1Z y
dx dy
0 y2

by reversing the order of integration.

Solution First, graphing the region of integration, we have

We can see from the illustration above that the points of intersection are (0, 0) and (1, 1).
√
The upper bound for y is x, while the lower bound is x: the upper bound for x is 1, while
the lower bound is 0.

Thus, the integral with reversed order of integration is

Z 1 Z √x
dy dx.
0 x

Now, let us look at the next example to illustrate that some integrals can be solved easier
if we reverse the order of integration.
4.5. MULTIPLE INTEGRATION 173

Example 4.5.11. Solve for

Z 4 Z 2
2
ex dx dy.
y
0 2

Z
2
Solution Note that ex dx is not integrable. Thus, we reverse the order of integration and
see if the resulting integral is easier to solve. To do this, we first draw the region of integration.

Reversing the order of integration to dydx (vertical strips), we need the bounds for y and
x. The lower bound for y is 2x, and the upper bound for y is 0. Next, for the bounds for x,
we can see from the illustration above that the point of intersection is (2, 4). Thus, the upper
bound for x is 4, while the lower bound is x is 0.

Therefore, the integral with reversed order of integration is

Z 4 Z 2x
2
ex dy dx.
0 0

Now, this integral is easier to solve. Performing the necessary steps, we can find the this integral
is equal to e16 − 1.

ZZ
Example 4.5.12. Set up dA where R is the region bounded by the graphs of y = x and
R
y = 2 − x2 as shown below.
174 CHAPTER 4. CALCULUS OF SEVERAL VARIABLES

Solution We have ZZ Z 1 Z 2−x2

dA = dydx.
R −2 x

When we simplify this into a single integral,

ZZ Z 1 Z 2−x2
dA = dydx
R −2 x
Z 1
2−x2

= y  dx
−2 x
Z 1
2 − x2 − x dx.


=
−2

Notice that this single integral gives the area AR of the region R (See Example 3.4.4). Hence,
ZZ
dA = AR .
R

Double Integral as Area of a Plane Region

ZZ
In F (x, y)dA, if F (x, y) = 1 then the double integral gives the area of
R
R, i.e.
ZZ
AR = dA.
R

Example 4.5.13. Set up the double integral that will give the area of the region bounded by
the graphs of y = ln x, x = e and the x-axis using (a) dydx and (b) dxdy.
4.5. MULTIPLE INTEGRATION 175

Solution We have the following:

ZZ Z eZ ln x
(a) AR = dA = dydx
R 1 0

and
ZZ Z 1 Z e
(b) AR = dA = dxdy.
R 0 ey

ZZ
Now, we can think of getting the double integral f (x, y)dA as getting the volume of the
R
solid bounded by the region whose base is R and whose height at a point (x, y) in R is f (x, y).
We can think of the length of the bounds for x as the width, the length of the bounds for y as
the length, and the integrand f (x, y) as the height: giving us what we need to compute for the
volume.

Double Integral as Volume of a Solid

If f (x, y) ≥ 0 for all (x, y) in a region R, then the double integral
ZZ
f (x, y)dA
R

is the volume of the solid whose base is R and whose height at a point (x, y)
in R is f (x, y).

We illustrate this in the following examples.

176 CHAPTER 4. CALCULUS OF SEVERAL VARIABLES

Example 4.5.14. Set up the double integral which gives the volume of the solid in the first
octant enclosed by the graph of z = 4 − x2 − y 2 using dydx as the order of integration.

Solution Observe
√ that the base of the solid is the quarter circle in the first quadrant with
equation y = 4 − x2 .

We first set up the double integral that will give the area of this region. We have

√
Z 2 Z 4−x2
AR = dydx.
0 0

Next, we observe that the height at any point (x, y) on the base is 4 − x2 − y 2 . This will be
the integrand. Hence,

√
Z 2 Z 4−x2
4 − x2 − y 2 dydx.


V =
0 0
4.5. MULTIPLE INTEGRATION 177

Assessment 4.5
Concepts
Answer the following questions
Z Z briefly.
1. How do we evaluate f (x, y)dxdy?
Z Z
2. How do we evaluate f (x, y)dydx?

3. How do we find the area of a region using double integrals?

4. How do we find the volume of a solid using double integrals?

Computations

A. Evaluate the following double integrals.

Z −1 Z 1
1. (xy 2 + sin(πx))dxdy
−3 0
Z2 Z 1
2. (xy 2 + e2x )dxdy
−1 0
Z2Z e  
1
3. + x dydx
0 1 y
Z 3 Z 2x
4. (x2 + y)dydx
0 1
Z 2 Z x2 √
5. x3 + 1dydx
0 0
π
Z Z y
2
6. cos(x + y)dxdy
0 π

B. Set-up the double integral that will give the area of the following plane
regions

1. bounded by y = x2 − 2x + 2, x = −2, x = 1, and the x−axis with

dydx as the order of integration
178 CHAPTER 4. CALCULUS OF SEVERAL VARIABLES

π
2. bounded by y = cos x, y = sin x, y−axis, and x = with dydx as the
2
order of integration

√
3. bounded by x = y − 3, y = 3, and x = 2 with dxdy as the order of
integration
4.5. MULTIPLE INTEGRATION 179

4. bounded by y = e−x and y = 2 − x using (a) dydx and (b) dxdy

5. bounded by the graph of x − y + 1 = 0 and y = x2 − 1 using (a) dydx

and (b) dxdy as the order of integration
180 CHAPTER 4. CALCULUS OF SEVERAL VARIABLES

C. Evaluate the following double integrals.

Z Z
1. (xy)dA where R is the region bounded by y = x + 2, x = 1,
R
x = 3 and the x−axis using vertical strips

x−1
Z Z
2. sin(x − y)dA where R is the region bounded by y = ,
R 2
y = 2, the x−axis, and the y−axis using horizontal strips
4.5. MULTIPLE INTEGRATION 181

Z Z
1
3. xdA where R is the region bounded by y = 2−x and y = − x2 +2
R 2
using (a) vertical strips, and (b) horizontal strips

D. Set up the double integral that will give the volume of the following
solids using (a) dydx and (b) dxdy as the order of integration.

1.

2.
182 CHAPTER 4. CALCULUS OF SEVERAL VARIABLES
Appendices

183
Appendix A

Solutions to Chapter 1 Assessment

1.1 Intuitive Notion of Limits

Computations
A. 1. e
3. 0
5. The limit does not exist.
7. The limit does not exist.
9. The limit does not exist.

B. 1. 3
3. 2
5. The limit does not exist.

1.2 Rules on Evaluating Limits

Computations
1. π + e
7
3.
2
5. −2
18
7. −
7
3
9.
4
11. −2
√
13. 6

15. The limit does not exist.

√
17. 3

19. 10

185
186 APPENDIX A. SOLUTIONS TO CHAPTER 1 ASSESSMENT

1.3 One-Sided Limits

Computations

1. (a) 0 (c) The limit does not ex- (e) 1

ist.
(b) +∞ (d) 1 (f) 1

3. (a) 0 (c) The limit does not ex- (e) 4

ist.
(b) 1 (d) 4 (f) 4

5. Hint: If x < 0, |x| = −x and if x ≥ 0, |x| = x.

x x
lim− = lim− = −1 and
x→0 |x| x→0 −x
x x
lim+ = lim+ = 1.
x→0 |x| x→0 x
Hence, the limit does not exist.

7. For the limit to exist, we must have

√
lim− f (x) = 1 − k = k − 1 = lim+ f (x).
x→1 x→1

Solving for k, we get the equation

0 = k2 − k
whose solutions are 0 and 1. Since k > 0, we take k = 1.

1.4 Limits Involving Infinites

Computations

1.   
1 1
lim 2x − 2 0 − + = −∞
x→0 x 0

3.
1 − x2
   
1 1  1
lim 4
− 2 ∞ − ∞ = lim
x→0 x x x→0 x4 0+
=+∞

5.
1 x−1
1− x x
lim = lim
x→0 x x→0 x  
x − 1 −1
= lim
x→0 x2 0+
=−∞

7. -1
 187

9.
x2 x2
lim = lim
x→−∞ 1 − 14
4
x→−∞ x −1
x x4
x6
= lim
x→−∞ x4 − 1

=+∞

Problem Solving
1. In the long run, the debt to income ratio will be at 17.24%.

3. There will be no people infected as time progresses.

5. The interest will remain at 2.12% per annum.

1.5 Continuity of Functions

Computations
A. 1. The point of discontinuity is at x = 3.
3. The point of discontinuity is at x = −1.

B. 1. i. f (2) = 21.
ii. lim f (x) = 21.
x→2
iii. lim f (x) = f (2).
x→2
Therefore, the function is continuous at x = 2.
3. The lim h(x) does not exist. Hence, the function is not continuous at x = 3.
x→3

C. 1. None
3. The function is NOT continuous at any number in the interval (−∞, 0].

D. A possible point of discontinuity is at x = 2.

Note that m(2) = 9 and lim+ m(x) = 9.
x→2
For the function to be continuous at x = 2, lim− m(x) = 2A − 3 should be equal to 9.
x→2
Hence, A = 6.

E. 1. sin 0 = 0
1
3. 3
5. ln2 1 = 0
7. cos −2π −1


3
= 2
cos (2π)
9. =1
sin (2π) + 1
x2 + x
F. 1. Note that f (x) = . Hence, f is continuous at every number except 0.
x
Thus, f is continuous on (0, 1), and f is NOT continuous on [0, 1] since f (0) is not
defined.
188 APPENDIX A. SOLUTIONS TO CHAPTER 1 ASSESSMENT
Appendix B

Solutions to Chapter 2 Assessment

2.1 Derivative of a Function

Computations

f (x + h) − f (x) 4(x + h) + 1 − (4x + 1)

A. 1. f 0 (x) = lim = lim
h→0 h h→0 h
4h
= lim =4
h→0 h

k(x + h) − k(x)
3. k 0 (x) = lim
h→0 h
(x + h)2 − (x + h) − (x2 − x)
= lim
h→0 h
2xh + h2 − h
= lim = 2x − 1
h→0 h
j(x + h) − j(x)
5. j 0 (x) = lim
√h→0 √h √ √
x+h− x x+h+ x
= lim ·√ √
h→0 h x+h+ x
1 1
= lim √ √ = √
h→0 x+h+ x 2 x
1 1
g(x + h) − g(x) x+h
− x −1 −1
7. g 0 (x) = lim = lim = lim =
h→0 h h→0 h h→0 x2 + xh x2

f (2 + h) − f (2)
B. 1. The slope of the tangent line is f 0 (2) = lim
h→0 h
3 − 4(2 + h) − (−5) −4h
= lim = lim = −4.
h→0 h h→0 h

k(h) − k(0)
3. The slope of the tangent line is k 0 (0) = lim
h→0 h
3h2 + h
= lim = lim (3h + 1) = 1.
h→0 h h→0

5. The slope of the tangent line is

1−(−3+h)
j(−3 + h) − j(−3) − (−4)
0
j (−3) = lim = lim −3+h+2
h→0 h h→0 h
3
= lim = −3.
h→0 h − 1

189
190 APPENDIX B. SOLUTIONS TO CHAPTER 2 ASSESSMENT

C. 1. It can easily be verified that f is continuous at x = −1.

f (−1 + h) − f (−1) −2 − (−2)
lim− = lim− = 0 and
h→0 h h→0 h
f (−1 + h) − f (−1) 3(−1 + h) + 1 − (−2)
lim+ = lim+
h→0 h h→0 h
3h
= lim+ = 3.
h→0 h
f (−1 + h) − f (−1)
Hence, f 0 (−1) = lim does not exist.
h→0 h
Therefore, f is not differentiable at x = −1.
3. It can easily be verified that k is continuous at x = 0.
k(h) − k(0) −h2
lim− = lim− = 0 and
h→0 h h→0 h
k(h) − k(0) h2
lim+ = lim+ = 0. Hence, k 0 (0) = 0.
h→0 h h→0 h
Therefore, k is differentiable at x = 0.
5. Since j(1) is not defined, j is discontinuous at x = 1. Therefore, j is not differentiable
at x = 1.

D. 1. Since f is a polynomial function, f is differentiable everywhere.

3. The domain of h is R \ {1}. Hence, h is differentiable at all points except 1.
5. The domain of j is R. Hence, j is differentiable everywhere.

2.2 Basic Differentiation Rules

Computations

1. 0

3. 0

5. 0

7. g 0 (x) = ex + 2x
3
9. g 0 (x) = cos x +
x4
11. h0 (x) = 4x2 ex + 8xex
√
 
0 x x 1
13. h (x) = ( x + π) (cos x + e ) + (sin x + e ) √
2 x
√ !
√ √
1
 
0 5 2
15. h (x) = (ln x + 2 log x) − sin x + √ + cos x + 5x + 5 +
2 x x x ln 10
√ 3

1

 1

( x + π) cos x + x4
− sin x − x3
+3 √
2 x
17. y 0 = √ 2
( x + π)
√ √
√ 
1 2 √5


5x + 5 x
+ − (ln x + 2 log x)
x ln 10 2 x
0
19. y = √ √
2
5x + 5
 191

Problem Solving

1. V 0 = 100π

3. A0 = 20π

5. (a) T = 450Q − 5Q2 ; (b) T 0 (50) = −50; (c) Q = 45.

2.3 Higher-Order Derivatives

Computations

A. 1. f (4) (x) = 24; f (5) (x) = 0

3. f 000 (x) = 18; f iv = 0
120
5. g (4) (x) = 6
x
−6
7. y (4) = 4
x ln 10
−10 −5
B. 1. =
64 32
945 1
3. − √
64 413
5. e

Problem Solving

1. (a) D0 (t) = tet + et − 200

(b) The acceleration of the bacterium after 5 minutes is D00 (5) = 7e5 µm/min2 .

3. (a) The building is 80 meters tall.

(b) The pebble hits the ground after 2 seconds.
(c) The pebble’s velocity when it hits the ground is −80 m/sec.
(d) The pebble is decelerating.

5. (a) Faust is moving at a velocity of 360 m/min when he left the house.
(b) 2 minutes had passed before Faust turned around to get his lunchbox.
(c) Faust arrived at his house at 7:06 AM.

7. (a) The building’s height is the same as the rock’s initial height, which is h(0) =
−16(0)2 + 1600 = 1600 feet.
(b) The rock hits the ground when h(t) = −16t2 + 1600 = 0. That is, at t = 10 seconds.
(c) The rock’s velocity is given by v(t) = h0 (t) = −32t. Therefore, its velocity when it
hits the ground at 10 seconds is v(10) = −32(10) = −320 feet per second.
(d) The rock experiences a constant acceleration of a(t) = v 0 (t) = −32 ft/s2 .

9. (a) The function of the car’s velocity is given by f 0 (x) = −(x − 3)2 + 70.
(b) The car obtains maximum velocity when f 00 (x) = −2(x − 3) = 0 or 3 hours. There-
fore, its maximum velocity is f 0 (3) = 70.
192 APPENDIX B. SOLUTIONS TO CHAPTER 2 ASSESSMENT

(c) At x = 3, the car has travelled f (3) = 210 − 9 = 201 kilometers.

2.4 Curve Sketching

Computations

1. f (x) = −x2 − 4x
f 0 (x) = −2x − 4
f 00 (x) = −2
Setting f 0 (x) = 0, we get the critical number x = −2.
There is no point of inflection, since f 00 (x) 6= 0

x f (x) f 0 (x) f 00 (x) Conclusion

(−∞, −2) + − Increasing, concave downward
−2 4 0 Relative maximum
(−2, +∞) − − Decreasing, concave downward

y
4

x
−5 −4 −3 −2 −1 1

3. h(x) = x1/3
h0 (x) = 31 x−2/3
h00 (x) = −29
x−5/3
Setting h0 (x) = 0, we get the critical number x = 0.
Setting h00 (x) = 0, we get the possible point of inflection x = 0.

x h(x) h0 (x) h00 (x) Conclusion

(−∞, 0) + + Increasing, concave upward
0 0 0 0 Point of inflection
(0, +∞) + − Decreasing, concave downward
 193

y
2

x
−3 −2 −1 1 2 3

−2

5. q(x) = sin x
q 0 (x) = cos x
q 00 (x) = − sin x
Note that x ∈ [0, 2π] Setting q 0 (x) = 0, we get the critical numbers x = π2 , 3π
2
.
00
Setting q (x) = 0, we get the possible points of inflection x = 0, π, 2π.

x q(x) q 0 (x) q 00 (x) Conclusion

0 0 + 0
(0, π2 ) + − Increasing, concave downward
π
2
1 0 − Relative maximum
( π2 , π) − − Decreasing, concave downward
π 0 − 0 Point of inflection
(π, 3π
2
) − + Decreasing, concave upward
3π
2
−1 0 + Relative minimum
( 3π
2
, 2π) + + Increasing, concave upward
2π 0 + 0

2 y

x
−2 2 4 6 8

−1

−2

2.5 Optimization

Computations

1.
π π
f (x) = sin x ⇒ f 0 (x) = cos x = 0 ⇒ x = − ,
2 2
194 APPENDIX B. SOLUTIONS TO CHAPTER 2 ASSESSMENT

π π
f (− ) = −1, f ( ) = 1
2 2
π π
Abs max of 1 at 2 ; abs min of −1 at − 2

3.
3
h(x) = 64 − 3x + x2 ⇒ h0 (x) = −3 + 2x = 0 ⇒ x =
2
3
h(−6) = 118, h( ) = 61.75, h(4) = 68
2
Abs max of 118 at −6; abs min of 61.75 at 23

Problem Solving
1. Max xy subj x + y = 22 with x ∈ [0, 22]

f (x) = x(22 − x) = 22x − x2 ⇒ f 0 (x) = 22 − 2x = 0 ⇒ x = 11

f (0) = 0, f (11) = 121, f (22) = 0
The two numbers are 11 and itself.

3. Max f (x) = −x2 + 4x with x ∈ [0, 4]

f (x) = −x2 + 4x ⇒ f 0 (x) = 4 − 2x = 0 ⇒ x = 2

f (0) = 0, f (2) = 4, f (4) = 0
200 laborers must be present to yield the maximum output

2.6 The Chain Rule

Computations
√ !
 √  4x3 3 x4 + 1 √
1. Dx (3x2 + sin x)( 3 x4 + 1) = (3x2 + sin x) 4
+ ( 3 x4 + 1)(6x + cos x)
3(x + 1)

3. Dx [cos(9x5 + 2)] = − sin (9x5 + 2) (45x4 )

5. Dx [(cos 6x)(7x8 )] = (cos 6x)(56x7 ) + (7x8 )(−6 sin 6x)

√ !
√
 3

2 x 2
3
" √ !# √ !  (5x + 1) − ( x2 )(5) 
3
x2
3
x2  3x 
7. Dx sin = cos 
2

5x + 1 5x + 1   (5x + 1) 


"r #  −3 
cos3 x 1 cos3 x 4 (−sin3 x)(3 cos2 x) − (cos4 x)(2 sin x)
 
4
9. Dx =
sin2 x 4 sin2 x sin4 x
 
1
11. Dx cos (3x − 15) = 3(cos2 (3x − 15))(− sin(3x − 15))
3
3
 195
√ !
 √
 √
3x √
13. Dx sin x 3x = cos x 3x + 3x
2
 
h p i 1 −2 p
15. Dx (x3 + 2x−1 + 5) 3 sin(x2 ) = (x3 +2x−1 +5) (sin x2 ) 3 cos x2 (2x) + 3 sin(x2 )(3x2 −
3
2x−2 )

Problem Solving

1. The area of the oil spill is changing at the rate of 8000π ft2 /hr.

3. The radius of the balloon is changing at the rate of 0.15 mm/min.

13
5. The kite is moving at the rate 600
m/s or 0.0217 m/s.
196 APPENDIX B. SOLUTIONS TO CHAPTER 2 ASSESSMENT
Appendix C

Solutions to Chapter 3 Assessment

3.1 Antidifferentiation and the Indefinite Integral

Computations
A. 1. Since F 0 (x) = 6x2 − 2x + 3 6= f (x), F is not an antiderivative of f .
3. Since F 0 (x) = x
x
+ ln x − 1 = ln x = f (x), F is an antiderivative of f .
5. Since F 0 (x) = x cos x + sin x 6= f (x), F is not an antiderivative of f .
7. Since F 0 (x) = √−3 6= f (x), F is not an antiderivative of f .
2 1−3x

3x6 4x4 x2 x6 x2
Z
B. 1. (3x5 + 4x3 − x)dx = + − +C = + x4 − +C
6 4 2 2 2
Z 3
x + 3x2 − 1 x3 3x2
Z  
2 1
3. dx = x + 3x − dx = + − ln |x| + C
x x 3 2
4
√
Z
x

x 3x 3
5. 3 sin x + e − x dx = −3 cos x + e −
3
+C
4
Z
C. 1. 4x2 (2x3 + 1)100 dx
Let u = 2x3 + 1 ⇒ du = 6x2 dx ⇒ 23 du = 4x2 dx

2 (2x3 + 1)101
Z Z
2 3 100 2
4x (2x + 1) dx = u100 du = · +c
3 3 101

Z 1
(ln x) 3 3 4
3. dx = (ln x) 3 + C
x 4
Z
1 2
5. cos(2x) sin(2x)dx = sin (2x) + C
4

Problem Solving
1. Since the slope of the line tangent
Z to the graph of f3 at point (x, f (x)) is x2 − 3x,
2
x 3x
f 0 (x) = x2 − 3x. Note that x2 − 3x dx =


− + C. We need to find the
3 2
antiderivative f such that the graph of f intersects the y-axis at the point (0, 1), that is,
3 2
we need to solve for C such that when x = 0, f (x) = x3 − 3x2 + C = 1. This would give
3 2
us C = 1. Hence, f (x) = x3 − 3x2 + 1.

197
198 APPENDIX C. SOLUTIONS TO CHAPTER 3 ASSESSMENT

3. a. Z
f (x) = −2x cos(2 − x2 )dx = sin(2 − x2 ) + C
√
0 = sin(2 − ( 2)2 ) + C
C = 0 ⇒ f (x) = sin(2 − x2 )

b.
√
1 21 ln x √ √ √
Z Z Z
ln x 1 ln x
f (x) = √ dx = · √ dx = · √ dx = x ln x − x + C
4 x 2 x 2 x

1 1 3
= ln 1 − 1 + c ⇒ c =
2 2 2
√ √ √ 3
f (x) = x ln x − x +
2

5. The desired
Z velocity is an antiderivative of the acceleration.
Note that (−2t + 5) dt = −t2 + 5t + C. We need to find the antiderivative v such that
v(0) = 24, that is, we need to solve for C such that when t = 0,
v(t) = −t2 + 5t + C = 24. This would give us C = 24. Hence, the velocity at time t is
given by v(t) = −t2 + 5t + 24 kilometers per hour.

7. Z
ln 4 ln 4
f (x) = −2 ln 4 · e− 25 t dt = 50e− 25 t + C
ln 4
50 = 50e− 25 (0) + c ⇒ C = 50 − 50 = 0
ln 4 ln 4
f (x) = 50e− 25 t ⇒ f (x) = 50e− 25 (10) mg

9. We first need
Z to determine the cost function c.
200 − 1.6x + 0.009x2 dx = 200x − 0.8x2 + 0.003x3 + C. We know that


Note that
c(10) = 1800. Hence, we need to solve for C, such that when x = 10,
c(x) = 200x − 0.8x2 + 0.003x3 + C = 1800. This would give us C = −123. Thus, c(x) =
200x − 0.8x2 + 0.003x3 − 123. Therefore, the cost of making 100 pies is c(100) = 14877
pesos.

3.2 Integration by Parts

Computations

Let u = x2 and dv = sin xdx.

1. Z Z Then, du = 2xdx and v = − cos x.
x2 sin xdx = −x2 cos x + 2x cos xdx
Let u = 2x and dv = cos xdx. Then, du
Z Z = 2dx and v = sin x.
x sin xdx = −x cos x + 2x sin x − 2 sin xdx = −x2 cos x + 2x sin x + 2 cos x + C
2 2
 199

e2x
3. Let u = x2 and dv = e2x dx. Then, du = 2xdx and v = .
2
x2 e2x
Z Z
x2 e2x dx = − xe2x dx
2
e2x
Let u = x and dv = e2x dx. Then, du = dx and v = .
2
x2 e2x xe2x e2x x2 e2x xe2x e2x
Z Z
x2 e2x dx = − + dx = − + +C
2 2 2 2 2 4
Let w = x2 → dwZ = 2xdx → dw
5. Z 2
= xdx.
1
x ln x2 dx = ln wdw
2
1
Let
Z u = ln w and dv = dw. Then, du = w dw and v = w.
1 1
2
ln wdw = (w ln w − w) + C
Z 2
1 2
Hence, x ln x2 dx = x ln x2 − x2 + C.


2
3.3 The Definite Integrals

Computations

A. 1.
Z 1 Z 1
(x + 1)(x + 2)(x + 4)dx = (x3 + 7x2 + 14x + 8)dx
0 0
1
x4 x3 x2


= +7· + 14 · + 8x 
4 3 2 0
 
1 7 211
= + +7+8 −0=
4 3 12

3.
64 √ Z 64 
x−1/2 + 1
Z   
2x x+x 1/3
√
3
− dx = 2x − dx
1 x2 2x 1 2
64
x4/3 1 x1/2 1 

= 2· − · − x 
4/3 2 1/2 2 1
= (384 − 8 − 32) − 0 = 344

5.
Z −π/6 Z −π/6  

cos x
1 − 2 sin x cot x + 3 cos x dx = 1 − 2 sin x + 3 cos x dx
−π/4 −π/4 sin x
Z π/6
= (1 + cos x)dx
−π/4
−π/6
= (x + sin x)

−π/4
   √  √
π 1 π 2 π 2−1
= − − − − − = +
6 2 4 2 12 2
200 APPENDIX C. SOLUTIONS TO CHAPTER 3 ASSESSMENT

B. 1. Let u = x2 − 4x5
0 √ → du = (2x − 20x4 )dx
Z
(10x4 − x) x2 − 4x5 dx 1
−1 → − du = (10x4 − x)dx
Z 0
√ 2
1 Moreover, x = −1 → u = 5,
= u · − du
2 x=0→u=0
Z5 5
1√
= udu
0 2
5 √
u3/2  5 5
= =
3 0 3

3. Let u = cos 2x
Z 0 → du = −2 sin 2xdx
sin 2x sin(cos 2x)dx 1
−π/8
→ − du = sin 2xdx
2 √
1
−1
Z
π 2
= √
sin udu Moreover, x = − → u = ,
2/2 2 8 2
1 √ x=0→u=1
cos u  cos 1 − cos( 2/2)
= =
2 √ 2/2 2

5. Let u = ln (sin x)
3π cos x
→ du = dx = cot xdx
Z
4
cot x ln (sin x)dx sin x
π
π/2
√ Moreover, x = → u = ln 1 = 0,
Z ln 2/2 2√
= udu x = 3π
4
→ u = ln 2/2
0
√
2  2/2
√
u ln2 2/2
=  =
2 0 2
Z
C. 1. Let us first find the indefinite integral 2xex dx.
Let u = 2x and dv =Z ex dx. Then du = 2dx and v = ex .
Z
2xex dx = 2xex − 2ex dx = 2xex − 2ex + C
Z 1
Hence, 2xex dx = (2xex − 2ex )|10 = 2
0
x2 ln x x2
Z
3. We know that x ln xdx = − + C.
2 4
Z e  2 e
x ln x x2  e2 e2 1 e2 + 1

Hence, x ln xdx = − = − + = .
1 2 4 1 2 4 4 4
3.4 Area of a Plane Region

Computations
1.
2 √
Z
2x − 1dx
1

3. Z π  
π

sin x + + 4 dx
0 2
 201

5. Z 1
ex + sin x2 dx


−1.5

7. The points of intersection are (0, 0), (0, 1), and (π/2, 1).

(a)
Z π/2  
2
 π
1 − cos x + dx
0 2
(b)
1  
√
Z
π
Arccos y − dy
0 2
9. The points of intersection are (0, −4), (0, 4), and (4, 4).

(a)
4
(x − 2)3
Z  
4− dx
0 2
(b) Z 4 
p

3
2y + 2 dy
−4

11. The points of intersection are (0, −1), (0, 4), (1, 4) and (3/2, −1).

(a)
Z 1 Z 3/2   
1
5dx + − 5 log2 x− dx
0 1 2
(b) Z 4 
− y+1 1
2 5 + dy
−1 2
13. The points of intersection are (0, −2), (0, 4), and (2, 0).

(a)
2 √
Z  
4 − 2x + 4− x2 dx
0

(b)
0 4  
4−y
Z p Z


2
− 4 − y dy + dy
−2 0 2
15. The points of intersection are (−6, −3), (−6, 3), (6, −3) and (6, 3).

(a)
s  ! s  ! 
Z −3 Z 3 Z 6
x2 x2
2 3+ 3 −1 dx + 3dx + 3+ 3 −1 dx
−6 9 −3 3 9

(b) r !
3
y2
Z
6 + 1 dy
−3 3
202 APPENDIX C. SOLUTIONS TO CHAPTER 3 ASSESSMENT
Appendix D

Solutions to Chapter 4 Assessment

4.1 Antidifferentiation and the Indefinite Integral

Computations

A.
π π  √
3
B. 1. f , =− ; Df = R2
3 6 2
√
3. h(2, −3, 1) = 14; Dh = {(x, y, z)|x2 + y 2 + 9z 2 ≤ 36}
4
5. j(−6, 0, 3) = − ; Dj = {z 2 6= 3y}
3

Problem Solving
1. a.
√
i. h(5, 30, 60) = 4400 ≈ 66.33
√
ii. h(0, 100, 0) = 5500 ≈ 74.16
√
iii. h(10, 60, 15) = 6175 ≈ 78.58

b. No. Dh = {(x, y, z)|250x + 55y + 25z ≥ 0} = {(x, y, z)|50x + 11y + 5z ≥ 0}

3. a. C = f (x, y, z) = 20x + 35y + 50z

b. f (30, 20, 10) = 1800

203
204 APPENDIX D. SOLUTIONS TO CHAPTER 4 ASSESSMENT

c. Df = R3

5. a. g(30, 25) = 150.34

b. g(10, 18) = 108.08
c. Dg = {(x, y)|4x2 − 5y + 3 > 0, y 6= 0}

4.2 Partial Differentiation

Computations

∂f 6 ∂f 5 ∂f
A. 1. = − 4, = √ , = −6z 2
∂x x ∂y 2 y ∂z
∂f 2 2 x
3. = 2xex +y − p
∂x 2
x + 2yz
∂f 2 2 z
= 2yex +y − p
∂y x2 + 2yz
∂f y
= −p
∂z x2 + 2yz
∂f 2x ∂f x2 + 1 ∂f
5. = , =− 2 , = −2(z + 3)
∂x y ∂y y ∂z

B. 1. fx (x, y, z) = −y sin(xy),
fy (x, y, z) = −x sin(xy) − ze−yz
fz (x, y, z) = −ye−yz
3. fyx (x, y, z) = −xy cos(xy) − sin(xy)
fyy (x, y, z) = −x2 cos(xy) + z 2 e−yz
fyz (x, y, z) = yze−yz − e−yz
5. fxyz (x, y, z) = 0, fyzx (x, y, z) = 0, fzxy (x, y, z) = 0

dw 6 log 4t
C. 1. = − 20e4t
dt t ln 10
dw 3 3t + sin 3t t 3t + et
3. = t − · e + · 3 cos 3t
dt e − sin 3t (et − sin 3t)2 (et − sin 3t)2
  5  
dw  t 
 − log 2t · 1
5. = 2 log 2t ln 
dt log 2t  t ln 10
" #
(log 2t)2
− 4 sin t5 cos2 (t + 1) − 1 cos2 (t + 1) · 5t4


+ 5
t
+ 8 sin t5 cos2 (t + 1) − 1 t5 cos(t + 1) · sin(t + 1)



Problem Solving

1. Recall that the formula for the area of a rectangle is the product of its length and width,
i.e., A = LW.
dL dW
Given: = 12 cm/hr; = −8 cm/hr; L = 5 cm; W = 9 cm
dt dt
 205

dA dA dL dA dW
= · + ·
dt dL dt dW dt
= W (12) + L(−8)
= 9(12) + 5(−8)
= 68
The rate of change of the area of the rectangle is 68 cm2 per hour.
dI dR
3. Given V = IR, = 0.01, = 0.4.
dt dt

dV dV dI dV dR
= +
dt dI dt dR dt
= R(0.01) + I(0.4)
= 2(0.01) + 3(0.4)
= 1.22

Therefore, the voltage is changing at a rate of 1.22 volts/s.

5. Recall that the formula for the area of a triangle is half the product of its base and height,
bh
i.e., A = .
2
dx dy dθ π
Given: = −10 cm/sec; = −15 cm/sec; = 20 per sec;
dt dt dt
x = 100 cm; y = 150 cm

h
sin θ = =⇒ h = x sin θ
x
y(x sin θ)
So, A = .
2
dA y sin θ dx x sin θ dy xy cos θ dθ
= · + · + ·
dt 2 dt 2 dt 2 dt
150 sin( π4 ) 100 sin( π4 ) 100(150) cos( π4 ) π
= · (−10) + · (−15) + ·( )
2 2 2 20
≈ 605.42
The rate of change of the area of the triangle is 605.42 cm2 per second.
206 APPENDIX D. SOLUTIONS TO CHAPTER 4 ASSESSMENT

4.3 Extrema of Functions of Two Variables

Computations
A. 1. The partial derivatives of f are

fx (x, y) = 9x2 − 1 fxx (x, y) = 18x fxy (x, y) = 0

fy (x, y) = −6y + 1 fyy (x, y) = −6

Note that f and its partial derivatives are continuous everywhere. Next, we
find the points where the first partial derivatives of f are zero.

fx (x, y) = 9x2 − 1 = 0 fy (x, y) = −6y + 1 = 0

1 1
x=± y=
3 6

   
Thus, the points for which relative extremum may occur are 31 , 16 and − 31 , 16 .
We compute for D at these points and summarize the results in the table below.

 (x, y)
 fxx (x, y) fyy (x, y) fxy (x, y) D(x, y) Conclusion  
1 1 1 1
, 6 -6 0 -36
f has no relative extremum at ,
3 6    3 6

− 13 , 16-6 -6 0 36 f has a relative maximum at − 13 , 61

   
1 1 11 1 1
Therefore, f has a relative maximum value of f − 3 , 6 = 36 at − 3 , 6 .
3. The partial derivatives of h are

hx (x, y) = ey − 6x hxx (x, y) = −6 hxy (x, y) = ey

hy (x, y) = xey − 2 hyy (x, y) = xey

Note that h and its partial derivatives are continuous everywhere. Next, we
find the points where the first partial derivatives of f are zero.

hx (x, y) = ey − 6x = 0 hy (x, y) = xey − 2 = 0

We
( solve the system of equations obtained.
ey − 6x = 0,
xey − 2 = 0.

From the second equation, ey = x2 .

Substituting this to the first equation we have, 2 − 6x2 = 0.
Thus, x = ± √13 .
√ √
If x = √13 , ey = 2 3 =⇒ y = ln(2 3).
√
If x = − √13 , ey = −2 3. (No solution)
 207
 √ 
Thus, the point for which relative extremum may occur is √13 , ln(2 3) . We com-
pute for D at these points and summarize the results in the table below.

 (x, y) √  hxx (x, y) hyy (x, y) h√

xy (x, y) D(x, y) Conclusion
1
√ , ln(2 3) -6
3
2 2 3 -24 h has √
 no  relative exremum at
1
3
, ln(2 3)

Therefore, h has no relative extremum.

5. The partial derivatives of i are

ix (x, y) = − sin x ixx (x, y) = − cos x ixy (x, y) = 0

iy (x, y) = − sin y iyy (x, y) = − cos y

Note that i and its partial derivatives are continuous everywhere. Next, we
find the points where the first partial derivatives of i are zero.

ix (x, y) = − sin x = 0 iy (x, y) = − sin y = 0

x = 0 or x = π y = 0 or y = π

Thus, the points for which relative extremum may occur are (0, 0), (0, π), (π, 0), and
(π, π). We compute for D at these points and summarize the results in the table
below.

(x, y) ixx (x, y) iyy (x, y) ixy (x, y) D(x, y) Conclusion

(0, 0) -1 -1 0 1 i has a relative maximum at (0, 0)
(0, π) -1 1 0 -1 i has no relative extremum at
(0, π)
(π, 0) 1 -1 0 -1 i has no relative extremum at
(π, 0)
(π, π) 1 1 0 1 i has a relative minimum at (π, π)
Therefore, i has a relative maximum value of i(0, 0) = 2 at (0, 0) and has a relative
minimum value of i(π, π) = −2 at (π, π).

B. 1. We set the partial derivatives of f to zero.

fx (x, y) = 2(x − 1) = 0 fy (x, y) = 2(y − 2) = 0

x=1 y=2

Hence, a possible absolute extremum occurs at the point (1, 2).

Along the boundary x = 0, we have f (0, y) = 1 + (y − 2)2 . We set the partial
derivative of this to zero. Thus,

fy (0, y) = 2(y − 2) = 0 =⇒ y = 2.
208 APPENDIX D. SOLUTIONS TO CHAPTER 4 ASSESSMENT

Hence, a possible absolute extremum occurs at the point (0, 2). We do the same for
the other boundaries of R.
Along the boundary y = 2, we have f (x, 2) = (x − 1)2 . We set the partial derivative
of this to zero. Thus,

fx (x, 2) = 2(x − 1) = 0 =⇒ x = 1.

Again, it’s the point (1, 2).

Lastly, along y = 2x, we have f (x, 2x) = (x − 1)2 + (2x − 2)2 . We set the partial
derivative of this to zero. Thus,

fx (x, 2x) = 2(x − 1) + 4(2x − 2) = 0 =⇒ 10x = 10 =⇒ x = 1.

It’s the point (1, 2).

In addition, we consider the corner point (0,0). We now compute for the function
values at all the points that we have obtained.

f (0, 0) = 5, f (1, 2) = 0, and f (0, 2) = 1.

Hence, f has an absolute maximum value of 5 at (0, 0) and an absolute minimum

value of 0 at (1, 2) on R.
3. We set the partial derivatives of l to zero.

lx (x, y) = cos x = 0 ly (x, y) = 2y = 0

π y=0
x=
2

Hence, a possible absolute extremum occurs at the point π2 , 0 .

Along the boundary y = 0, we have l(x, 0) = sin x. We set the partial derivative of
this to zero. Thus,
π
lx (x, 0) = cos x = 0 =⇒ x = .
2
π


Again, we get 2 , 0 .
We do the same for the other boundaries of R. Along the boundary y = π2 , we have
2
l x, π2 = cos x + π4 . We set the partial derivative of this to zero. Thus,

 π
lx x, = sin x = 0 =⇒ x = 0.
2
Another possible absolute extremum occurs at the point 0, π2 .

Along the boundary x = 0, we have l(0, y) = y 2 . We set the partial derivative of this
to zero. Thus,
ly (0, y) = 2y = 0 =⇒ y = 0.
Another possible absolute extremum
occurs at the point (0, 0).
Lastly, along x = π2 , we have l π2 , y = 1 + y 2 . We set the partial derivative of this
to zero. Thus, π 
ly , y = 2y = 0 =⇒ y = 0.
2
π


Again, we get 2 , 0 .
Observe that all the corner points are already considered. We now compute for the
function values at all the points that we have obtained.
 209
π 
l(0, 0) = 0 l ,0 = 1
 π  π2 2
l 0, =
2 4

 
π2
Hence, l has an absolute maximum value of 4
at 0, π2 and an absolute minimum
value of 0 at (0, 0) on R.
5. We set the partial derivatives of b to zero.

3 +y 2 ) 3 +y 2 )
bx (x, y) = e−(x (−3x2 ) bx (x, y) = e−(x (−2y)
x=0 y=0

Hence, a possible absolute extremum occurs at the point (0, 0).

3
Along the boundary y = 0, we have b(x, 0) = e−x . We set the partial derivative of
this to zero. Thus,
3
bx (x, 0) = e−x (−3x2 ) = 0 =⇒ x = 0.
Again,we get (0, 0).
3
Along the boundary y = 1, we have b(x, 1) = e−(x +1) . We set the partial derivative
of this to zero. Thus,
3 +1)
bx (x, 1) = e−(x (−3x2 ) =⇒ x = 0.
Hence, another possible absolute extremum occur at the point (0, 1).
2
Along the boundary x = 0, we have b(0, y) = e−y . We set the partial derivative of
this to zero. Thus,
2
by (0, y) = e−y (−2y) = 0 =⇒ y = 0.
Again,we get (0, 0).
2
Finally, along x = 1, we have b(1, y) = e−(y +1) . We set the partial derivative of this
to zero. Thus,
2 +1)
by (1, y) = e−(y (−2y) = 0 =⇒ y = 0.
Hence, another possible absolute extremum occur at the point (1, 0).
In addition, we consider the corner point (1, 1). We now compute for the function
values at all the points that we have obtained.

b(0, 0) = 1 b(0, 1) = 1/e

b(1, 0) = 1/e b(1, 1) = 1/e2

Hence, b has an absolute maximum value of 1 at (0, 0) and an absolute minimum

value of 1/e2 at (1, 1) on R.
210 APPENDIX D. SOLUTIONS TO CHAPTER 4 ASSESSMENT

Problem Solving

1. The partial derivatives of P are

Px (x, y) = −4x + 160000 Pxx (x, y) = −4 Pxy (x, y) = 0

Py (x, y) = −2y + 100000 Pyy (x, y) = −2

Note that P and its partial derivatives are continuous everywhere. Next, we
find the points where the first partial derivatives of P are zero.

Px (x, y) = −4x + 160000 Py (x, y) = −2y + 100000

x = 40000 y = 50000

Thus, the point for which relative extremum may occur is (40000, 50000). We compute
for D at these points and summarize the results in the table below.

(x, y) Pxx (x, y) Pyy (x, y) Pxy (x, y) D(x, y) Conclusion

(40000, 50000) -4 -2 0 8 P has a relative maximum at
(40000, 50000)

Therefore, the profit is at its maximum when the company produces 40,000 of version
pink and 50,000 of version purple.

3. We want to maximize G = KLA.

Note that 400K + 100L + 300A = 1200. Thus our working equation is,

G(K, A) = K(12 − 3A − 4K)A = 12AK − 3A2 K − 4AK 2 .

The partial derivatives of G are

GK (K, A) = 12A − 8AK − 3A2 GKK (K, A) = −8A

GA (K, A) = 12K − 6AK − 4K 2 GAA (K, A) = −6K
GKA (K, A) = 12 − 8K − 6A

Note that G and its partial derivatives are continuous everywhere. Next, we
find the points where the first partial derivatives of G are zero.

GK (K, A) = 12A − 8AK − 3A2 = 0 GA (K, A) = 12K − 6AK − 4K 2 = 0

A = 0 or 12 − 8K − 3A = 0 K = 0 or 12 − 6A − 4K = 0

Solving the system, the points for which relative extremum may occur are (0, 0), (0, 4),
(3, 0), and (1, 4/3). We compute for D at these points and summarize the results in the
table below.
 211

(K, A) GKK (K, A) GAA (K, A) GKA (K, A) D(K, A) Conclusion

(0, 0) 0 0 12 -144 G has no relative extremum at (0, 0)
(0, 4) -32 0 -12 -144 G has no relative extremum at (0, 4)
(3, 0) 0 -18 -12 -144 G has no relative extremum at (3, 0)
(1, 4/3) -32/3 -6 -4 48 G has a relative maximum at
(1, 4/3)

Therefore, the quantity of goods is at its maximum when the company used 1 unit of
capital, 4/3 units of advertisement and 4 units of labor.

5. We want to maximize P (x, y) = −x2 − 2xy − 5y 2 + 50x + 90y.

The partial derivatives of P are

Px (x, y) = −2x − 2y + 50 Pxx (x, y) = −2

Py (x, y) = −2x − 10y + 90 Pyy (x, y) = −10
Pxy (x, y) = −2

Note that P and its partial derivatives are continuous everywhere. Next, we
find the points where the first partial derivatives of P are zero.

Px (x, y) = −2x − 2y + 50 = 0 Py (x, y) = −2x − 10y + 90 = 0

Solving the system, the point for which relative extremum may occur is (20, 5). We
compute for D at this point and summarize the results in the table below.

(x, y) Pxx (x, y) Pyy (x, y) Pxy (x, y) D(x, y) Conclusion

(20, 5) -2 -10 -2 20 P has a relative maximum at (20, 5)

Therefore, the company must produce 20 thousand mugs and must purchase 5 hours of
radio advertisement.

4.4 Lagrange Multipliers

Computations
1. The Lagrange equations are 
y = λ

x=λ

x + y = 1.


Solving for x and y, we have x = 0.5 and y = 0.5 and thus, f (0.5, 0.5) = 0.25.

3. The Lagrange equations are 

1 = λ(2x)

−1 = λ(2y)

 2
x + y 2 = 1.
212 APPENDIX D. SOLUTIONS TO CHAPTER 4 ASSESSMENT
√ √
Solving for x and y, we have x = ± 22 and y = ± 22 . This means that the √
values√of x and
√ √ √
y that give the maximum value of f are x = 2 and y = − 2 , which is f (√22 , − 22 ) = √ 2
2 2

while the values of x and y that give the minimum value of f are x = − 22 and y = 22 ,
√ √ √
which is f (− 22 , 22 ) = − 2.

5. The Lagrange equations are 

2x = λ

2y = λ(−2)

x − 2y = 9.


9
Solving for x and y, we have x = 5
and y = − 18
5
and thus, f ( 59 , − 18
5
) = − 81
5
.

Problem Solving

1. Let x, y and z be real numbers. We are minimizing f (x.y.z) = x2 + y 2 + z 2 subject to

x + y + z = 15. The Lagrange equations are


 2x = λ

2y = λ


 2z = λ

x + y + z = 15.

Solving for x, y, and z, we get x = 5, y = 5, and z = 5 and f (5, 5, 5) = 75.

3. Let x and y be the number of sneakers and heels produced by Benshoppe, respectively.
We are minimizing C(x, y) = 6x2 + 10y 2 + 2xy + 32x + 84y subject to x + y = 120. The
Lagrange equations are 
12x + 2y + 32 = λ

20y + 2x + 84 = λ

x + y = 120.


Solving for x and y, we get x = 79 and y = 41. Therefore, Benshoppe needs to produce
79 sneakers and 41 heels to minimize the cost of production.

5. Let r and h be the radius and height of the closed right cylindrical can, respectively.
We are minimizing the surface area f (r, h) = 2πrh + 2πr2 subject to πr2 h = 16π. The
Lagrange equations are 
2πh + 4πr = λ(2πrh)

2πr = λ(πr2 )

 2
πr h = 16π.
Solving for r and h, we get r = 2 and h = 4. Therefore, the dimension of the closed right
cylindrical can that gives the smallest surface area is r = 2 cm and h = 4 cm.
 213

4.5 Multiple Integration

Computations
A. 1.
Z −1 Z 1 2 2 Z −1  1

x y cos(πx)
(xy 2 + sin(πx))dxdy = −  dy

−3 0 −3 2 π 
0
Z −1  2 
y 1 1
= + + dy
−3 2 π π
Z −1  2 
y 2
= + dy
−3 2 π
 3  −1
y 2y 
= +
6 π 

−3
1 2 27 6 13 4 13π + 12
=− − + + = + =
6 π 6 π 3 π 3π
3.
e
Z 2 Z e  Z 2
1 
+ x dydx = (ln y + xy)  dx

0 1 y 0 
1
Z 2
= (1 + ex − x)dx
0
Z 2
= (1 + (e − 1)x)dx
0
 2
(e − 1)x2 

= x+
2 
0
= (2 + 2e − 2) = 2e

5.
x2
 x2 !
Z 2 Z √ Z 2 √ 
x3 + 1dydx = y x3 + 1 dx
0 0 0 0
Z √ 2
= x2 x3 + 1dx
0
2
2 3 3
= (x + 1) 2 
9 0
2 52
= (27 − 1) =
9 9
Z 1 Z x2 −2x+2
B. 1. dydx
−2 0
Z 7Z 2
3. √
dxdy
3 y−3
Z 2 Z x−1
5. (a) dydx
−1 x2 −1
214 APPENDIX D. SOLUTIONS TO CHAPTER 4 ASSESSMENT
√ √
Z 0 Z y−1 Z 3 Z y−1
(b) √
dxdy + dxdy
−1 − y−1 0 y−1
C. 1.
3 x+2
x+2 3
xy 2 
Z Z Z
(xy)dydx = dx
1 0 1 2 0
Z 3
x(x + 2)2
= dx
1 2
Z 3 3
x + 4x2 + 4x
= dx
1 2
 3
1 x4 4x3

2 

= + + 2x 
2 4 3
 1  
1 81 108 1 4
= + + 18 − + +2
2 4 3 4 3
106
=
3
3. (a)
Z 2 Z − 12 x2 +2
− 1 x2 +2
Z 2
 2
x dydx = xy  dx
0 2−x 0 2−x
Z 2  
1 2
= x − x + 2 − 2 + x dx
0 2
Z 2 
1 3 2
= − x + x dx
0 2
 4  2
x x3 
= − +
8 3 0
8 2
= −2 + =
3 3
(b)
√
2 4−2y 2
x2
Z Z Z
x dxdy = dy
0 2−y 0 2
Z 2
4 − 2y 4 − 4y + y 2

= − dy
0 2 2
1 2
Z
= (−y 2 + 2y)dy
2 0
 2
1 −y 3

2 

= +y 
2 3
  0
1 −8 2
= +4 =
2 3 3
Z 2 Z x
4 − y 2 dydx


D. 1. (a)
Z0 2 Z0 2
4 − y 2 dxdy


(b)
0 y