Herstein: Topics in Algebra - Normal Subgroups and
Quotient Subgroups
by Bret Sherfinski
June 13, 2015
17. Let G be defined as all formal symbols xi y j , i = 0, 1, j = 0, 1, 2, . . . , n − 1 where we
assume
0 0
xi y j = xi y j , if and only if i=i0 , j=j 0
x2 = y n = e, n > 2
xy = y −1 x.
(a) Find the form of the product (xi y j )(xk y ` ) as xα y β .
(b) Using this, prove that G is a non-abelian group of order 2n.
(c) If n is odd, prove that the center of G is (e), while if n is even the center of G
is larger than (e).
This group is known as a dihedral group. A geometric realization of this is obtained
as follows: let y be a rotation of the Euclidean plane about the origin through an
2π
angle of , and x the reflection about the vertical axis. G is the group of motions
n
of the plane generated by y and x.
Proof:
(a) We will need to consider four cases in determining the product (xi y j )(xk y ` ).
(1) i = 0, k = 0 : (xi y j )(xk y ` ) = y j+` hence α = 0, β = j + `.
(2) i = 1, k = 0 : (xi y j )(xk y ` ) = xy j+` hence α = 1, β = j + `.
(3) i = 0, k = 1 : (xi y j )(xk y ` ) = y j (xy ` ) = (y j x)y ` = y j−1 (xy n−1 )y ` = y j−2 (xy 2(n−1) )y ` =
· · · = xy j(n−1) y ` = xy `−j hence α = 1, β = `−j or n+`−j whichever is positive.
(4) i = 1, k = 1 : (xi y j )(xk y ` ) = (xy j )(xy ` ) = x(y j x)y ` = · · · = x(xy j(n−1) )y ` =
y `−j hence α = 0, β = ` − j or n + ` − j whichever is positive.
1
2
(b) In part(a) we showed that G is closed under the defined product and clearly G has ex-
actly 2n distinct elements. As a consequence of our geometric realization mentioned
above, this product can be thought of as the composition of mappings of the Eu-
clidean plane onto itself. We know also that composition of mappings is associative.
Furthermore, we can take our geometric realizations further by observing the effects
these rigid motions have on a regular n−gon in the Euclidean plane. Namely, they are
the rigid motions of the Euclidean plane preserving a regular n − gon. Furthermore,
these rigid motions induce a permutation on the vertices of the regular n − gon as
the rigid motions takes vertices to vertices. Hence, the rigid motions preserving the
n − gon correspond to certain mappings of the n vertices onto themselves, making
the dihedral group G, also denoted as Dn , a subgroup of Sn .
G is non-abelian since xy = y n−1 x 6= yx as n > 2.
(c) Finally with part(a) in hand we can look at all the elements which lie in the center
of G, Z(G), or those elements which commute with every element in G.
First looking at the “cyclic half” of G we must only consider the question: Does an
element y ` commute with every element having the form xy j ? If so, then (xy j )(y ` ) =
(y ` )(xy j ). Hence by part(a),
xy j+l = (y ` )(xy j ) = xy j−`
n
Therefore, after cancellations we conclude that y 2` = e or ` = . Thus, if n is even
n
2
then y 2 ∈ Z(G) otherwise if n is odd then no power of y belongs to the center of G.
Now considering the “non-cyclic half” of G, fix xy ` ∈ G. (We need not consider
the case ` = 0 because we know xy 6= yx as discussed above). If xy ` ∈ G has any
chance to be in the center of G then it must commute with y j for every non-zero j,
but by part(a),
y j (xy ` ) = (xy ` )(y j ) =⇒ xy `−j = xy `+j for every non-zero j.
Hence, after cancellations y 2j = e for every non-zero j. This is impossible, therefore
no element of the form xy ` is in the center of G.
Reviewing what has been accomplished:
(
(e) if n is odd
Z(G) = n
{e, y 2 } if n is even.
