Optimising Thermal Performance of Building Envelope

In High-rise Residential Buildings of the Tropics

Case of Mumbai

Laukik Dhage
M. Arch. Studies – Advanced Architectural Studies
School of Architecture, University of Sheffield
September, 2007
.
. ABSTRACT .

Looking at the energy situation on the global level, it is been seen that we posses
twin threat of inadequate supply of energy and increase in environmental pollution
by too much use of it. Global energy demand is predicted to reach about 66% in
2030 as compared to demand in 2000, with 40 % of this growth accounted by
developing countries of Asian region [1]. Rapid increase in population and growing
Urbanisation has led to significant rise in energy demand of Asian economic giants
like India and China.

Taking the case of India, about 56% of total energy consumption in all the sectors
comes alone from residential sector [2], major part of this being used by
construction Industry; hence energy efficiency of the residential buildings is matter
of great importance in India. With more and more people migrating to the cities,
demand for houses shoot up and for the cities like Mumbai where the land is
scarce the only way to cope up this problem is to grow vertical. Today when the
city is on the verge of having the tallest residential apartment in India, it’s now time
to direct this high-rise growth in a more sustainable manner, making these towers
more energy efficient. Significant amount of total energy consumed in these
buildings is on the maintenance of comfort conditions inside it due to the hot-
humid tropical climate of Mumbai.

Present study is focused on energy efficiency of High-rise Residential buildings in

Mumbai by optimising thermal performance of building envelope using thermal
insulation materials and high performance glazing to increase the comfort
conditions in these buildings. The study is carried out by performing thermal
simulation analysis on a computer model of existing high-rise residential apartment
in Mumbai using the building analysis programme ECOTECT.

1
. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT .

This dissertation wouldn’t have been possible without the support and guidance of
the people I mention here. It is a pleasant aspect that I have now the opportunity
to express my gratitude for all of them.

First of all I would like to express my deepest gratitude towards my beloved

parents for their constant support and encouragement for my dissertation and the
entire Masters course.

I sincerely want to acknowledge the sage guidance and encouragement I got from
my Supervisor Prof. Steve Sharples, I thank him for helping me to carve my ideas
and shape my thesis from inception to the final stage.

I am grateful to Architect T. Khareghat for allowing me to use case study one of

their buildings for thermal analysis.

I would like to thank Mr. Ameet Shinde from Godrej and Boyence properties for
providing me with the material specification data needed for the analysis. I would
also like to thank Dr. Hasim Altan for his valuable feedback on the thermal
simulation studies.

Finally I would like to thank all the faculty members, office and library staff at the
University for their Cooperation and support throughout the year, and to all my
friends for their valuable inputs.

2
. CONTENTS .

LIST OF FIGURES 5

CHAPTER 1: Introduction

1.1 Global Energy Outlook 7

1.2 Energy Insight – India 8
1.3 Energy and Building sector – India 8
1.4 Energy needs – Buildings in Tropical region of India 9
1.5 Rise of High-rise residential culture in Mumbai 9
1.6 Sustainable approach for High-rise Residential growth in Mumbai 10

CHAPTER 2: Concept of Dissertation

2.1 Origin of the Study 11

2.2 Aim of Dissertation 12
2.3 Simulation Studies performed 13
2.4 Research Strategies 13

CHAPTER 3: Tropical climate and thermal comfort

3.1 Tropical warm and humid climate 14

3.2 Thermal comfort in Tropics 15
3.3 Vernacular architecture and thermal comfort 15
3.4 Design considerations for thermal comfort in buildings 16

CHAPTER 4: Literature Review

4.1 Organisation of Literature Reviews 18

4.1.1 Energy conservation and Building sustainability 18
4.1.2 Building Envelope 22
4.1.3 Case studies of Energy efficient buildings 27

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CHAPTER 5: Study of Insulation materials

5.1 Thermal Insulation building materials 29

5.2 Plastic Insulation materials 30
5.2.1 Expanded Polystyrene (EPS) 31
5.2.2 Rigid Polyurethane Foam (PUR) 32

CHAPTER 6: Study of High Performance Glazing

6.1 High Performance Glazing options 33

6.2 Insulated glazing and its importance in warm climate 36

CHAPTER 7: Analysis of typical Residential High- rise apartment

7.1 Introduction to Modelled High-rise residential apartment 37

7.2 Climate of Mumbai 39
7.3 Use of ECOTECT for Thermal Simulation Analysis 40
7.4 Thermal Simulation Analysis 41
7.5 Summary of Results 48
7.5.1 Comparing U-values and costs of the thermal Insulation materials 50
7.5.2 Comparing U-values and costs of the Glazing materials used 51

CHAPTER 8: Conclusion

8.1 Summary 52
8.2 Limitations of Study 53
8.3 Future scope 53

REFERENCES 54

APPENDICES 58

4
. LIST OF FIGURES .

CHAPTER 1
Figure 1.1 Outlook for World Energy Supply / Demand (by Region) 7
Figure 1.2 Growth in Energy Demand in the Asian Region 2000-2030 8

CHAPTER 3
Figure 3.1 Map of India depicting different climate zones 14
Figure 3.3 Climate modification strategies and building tactics for
hot-humid climate type 15

CHAPTER 5
Figure 5.1 RSI & R values of different insulation materials 30
Figure 5.2 Comparison of building materials & relative insulation
values under 'still' air 30
Figure 5.2.1 Expanded Polystyrene (EPS) 31
Figure 5.2.2 Rigid Polyurethane Foam insulation materials (PUR) 32

CHAPTER 6
Figure 6.1.1 Triple Glazed Window 33
Figure 6.1.2 Gas filled glazing 34
Figure 6.1.3 Various tints of Glazing 34
Figure 6.1.4 Reflective glazing 35
Figure 6.1.5 Low-e coat on glass 35
Figure 6.2 Graph- Annual Energy Savings achieved by use of
four types of windows 36

CHAPTER 7
Figure 7.1.1 Typical floor plan of modelled building 37
Figure 7.1.2 Rear view of Building facing Railway lines 38

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Figure 7.1.3 Front view of Building facing Express Highway 38
Figure 7.2 Map of Mumbai 39
Figure 7.3 Building Model in ECOTECT 40
Figure 7.4.1 External double wall combination applied to model
for Thermal analysis – I 41
Figure 7.4.2 Materials applied to External single wall of model
for Thermal analysis – I 41
Figure 7.4.3 Temperature Distribution graph for Thermal analysis – I 42
Figure 7.4.4 External double wall combination applied to model
for Thermal analysis – II 43
Figure 7.4.5 Materials applied to External single wall of model
for Thermal analysis – II 43
Figure 7.4.6 Temperature Distribution graph for Thermal analysis – II 44
Figure 7.4.7 Temperature Distribution graph for Thermal analysis – III 45
Figure 7.4.8 Temperature Distribution graph for Thermal analysis – IV 46
Figure 7.4.9 Temperature Distribution graph for Thermal analysis – V 47
Figure 7.5.1 Graph shows the comparison between comfort hours (In %)
for whole year achieved by applying each set of materials 48
Figure 7.5.2 Table displaying details about Thermal Insulation materials
and glazing types used for different Thermal analysis 48
Figure 7.5.3 Table displaying U-values of different wall types 49
Figure 7.5.4 U-values and cost comparison of Thermal Insulants used 50
Figure 7.5.5 Comparative capital cost and performance of thermal
insulation materials . 50
Figure 7.5.6 U-values and cost comparison of glazing materials used 51

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CHAPTER 1: Introduction .

1.1 Global Energy Outlook:

Rapid advancement in technology all around the world has hyped the demand for
energy. Global energy demand is projected to grow by 1.6% annually on an
average (from 2000 to 2030), resulting into 66% rise in demand in 30 years [3].
Rising world’s population which is expected to reach 8 billion by 2030 [3] is also a
major concern to cope the rising energy demand.

Figure 1.1 [Outlook for World Energy Supply / Demand (by Region)]
(Source: IEA/World Energy Outlook) [1]
One reason for the sudden rise in the global energy demand is its growing use in
the developing economies of Asian region which sole account for 40% of the
predicted growth (from 2000 to 2030), with China and India in particular showing
substantial growth.

To tackle the energy crisis to be faced by both developed and developing world it’s
now the time to develop and adopt efficient energy practices and technology in all
the economical sectors of the world were use of energy is immense, to conserve
the existing energy sources and to avoid adverse impact of development on the
environment.
7
1.2 Energy Insight - India:

Second most populous and

seventh largest country in the
world, India is the fast growing
developing economy and a
political leader among
developing nations [5], the per
capita consumption of energy is
1/5th of the global average [4] Figure 1.2: [Growth in Energy Demand in the Asian Region

and the predicted substantial 2000-2030] Source: IEA/World Energy Outlook 2002 [2]

growth in energy demand by 2030 is said to be 267 Mtoe [1]. Such high demand
for energy is mainly due to rise in technology and population, the country is a
home to over one billion people living in various climatic zones [4].

India being in forefront of developing nations is constantly driving to improve the

living standards by rapid Urbanisation and reducing poverty for which energy is
prime source. This need for large source of energy in present sustained source
situation directs of development in future to happen in more energy efficient
manner.

1.3 Energy and Building sector - India:

Construction industry is one of the largest energy consuming sectors in India. In

India estimates suggest hat 20-25% of the total energy demand is for manufacture
of building materials and another 15% goes in the maintenance (running cost) of
the buildings [6]. Indian residential sector consumes 56% of total energy
consumption of all sectors in India. This share is about 11% of world’s energy
consumption in Residential sector [2].

Figures mention above explains how residential building sector in India plays a
significant role in energy expansion. Increment in Energy efficiency of these
8
buildings and innovative ways to cut down energy demand are thus the issues of
priority.

1.4 Energy needs – Buildings in Tropical region of India:

High temperature and humidity are the main reasons for creating thermal
discomfort in tropical cities. In order to achieve comfort conditions use of air-
conditioning systems for cooling has gained popularity, not only commercial
buildings but also residential buildings are becoming centrally air-conditioned. In
addition to climatic conditions, population and congestion are also amongst the
main reasons for growing discomfort in tropical cities. To achieve more comfort
levels in buildings in tropical climates by opting energy efficient solutions one has
to carefully deal with the day lighting, natural ventilation and shading parameters
of the building. In modern buildings in tropical climate the present trend of building
materials and methodologies used for construction needs to be evaluated for
better thermal comfort with less consumption of energy.

1.5 Rise of High-rise residential culture in Mumbai:

With the population of about 18 million as on 2006 Mumbai is the India’s topmost
and world’s fifth most populous metropolitan area [7]. This commercial capital of
India with the annual population growth rate of 2.2% is one of the most densely
populated cities of the world with the density of about 27,220 people per square
kilometre [7]. The ever increasing migrant population in the city demands for more
housing on the limited land, hence in order to serve this housing need for the
growing population the only alternative was to grow vertical. Following the present
trend of having taller buildings in the city, which is the growing competition
amongst mega cities of both developed and developing countries, Mumbai is also
on the verge of having one of the tallest commercial as well as residential
buildings in Asia.

9
1.6 Sustainable approach for High-rise Residential growth in Mumbai:

As we go higher the energy usage of the building increases not only to achieve
indoor comfort conditions but also for the vertical transport and building
maintenance. In the light of the strained energy supply scenario more efforts
should be made to minimise the energy use in the high-rise residential apartments
by application of solar passive design techniques in design of new high-rise
buildings and using renewable energy technology systems. In general, energy
efficiency in new high-rise buildings can be achieved through:

• Bioclimatic architectural principles;

• Load minimization by the input of solar passive techniques in building design;

• Design and use of energy efficient lighting and HVAC systems;

• Use of renewable energy systems to meet a part of the building load; and

• Use of low energy materials and energy efficient methods of construction. [6]

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CHAPTER 2: Concept of Dissertation .

2.1 Origin of the Study:

Previous chapter describes the need for energy efficient approach for High-rise
residential construction in future. The following dissertation is focused on the
energy efficiency of high-rise residential blocks in the city having tropical hot and
humid climate. As discussed in paragraph 1.4 climatic conditions and growing
urban heat island effect are the main reasons for growing discomfort in tropical
cities. Thermal comfort is influenced by physical characteristics of the place. By
adapting correct climate modification in a building; better thermal comfort can be
achieved with less consumption of energy.

When we talk about climate modification we look at basic strategies – controlled

airflow for ventilation, solar gain, cooling and thermal mass. Various methods were
been used in vernacular architecture in small-scale buildings to maximise comfort
in warm humid weather.

Tropical buildings face hot and sunny weather for most of the time round the year.
There two major thermal forces acting on the building envelope, radiation and
convectional impacts. The radiation component consists of solar radiation and
radiant heat exchange with the surroundings. The conventional component
includes the air moving around and through the building. Various studies has been
undertaken for optimizing natural ventilation in buildings to achieve better comfort
conditions in its interiors, some of those study are done on sustainable
technologies like use of wing walls, narrow plans, cross ventilation, these
methods are widely used in projects by Architect Ken Yang. Present research is
based on optimising the design of building envelope for better thermal
performance in tropical climate.

Referring to literature and research from the past, it is clear that most of the study
done in field of energy efficiency in high-rise buildings is done in context of
commercial buildings. In his book “The Skyscraper – bio-climatically considered

11
(1996)”, architect Ken Yang has also proposed set of sustainable design principles
for high-rise office buildings. There is only limited amount of research done on
energy-efficient residential building design in hot and humid tropical conditions and
to go further, a negligible amount of research literature was found done on Indian
buildings in tropical cities of India. The study undertaken here is thus focused on
energy efficiency of high-rise residential buildings in Indian tropical city; the case
taken is of Mumbai located on west banks of India.

2.2 Aim of Dissertation:

The aim of the research is to achieve thermal comfort in high-rise residential

buildings in hot and humid tropical conditions in turn minimising the energy
consumption of the building.

Building envelope comprises of external building fabric, window glazing and

shading devices. The following study mainly concentrates on achieving more
thermal comfort by optimising two components of building envelope wiz. Building
fabric, window glazing. One part of the study is on investigating the possible role of
thermal insulation in making the building envelope more energy efficient by
improving thermal comfort in the interiors of the building. Second part investigates
high performance glazing systems and its use in improving thermal comfort
conditions inside the building.

To meet this effort an industry leading building analysis programme ECOTECT is

used. The study involves improving thermal comfort inside the residential high-rise
in tropical climatic zone of India; the building model chosen for performing
simulation analysis is of existing high-rise residential apartment located in the
suburbs of the of Mumbai city which comes under the same climatic zone. The
building is 20 storeys in height, a typical example of high-rise construction in
Mumbai.

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2.3 Simulation studies performed:

For the following research two types of building insulation materials and high
performance glasses are selected. Combination of these insulation and glazing
materials were applied in four sets to the building model of the selected building
made in ECOTECT. Then the detailed thermal analysis was run applying all the
four sets individually. Results are derived in form of data regarding total comfort
hours achieved for whole year, which is then compared to judge which of the four
sets is more effective to achieve maximum comfort hours in the interiors of the
Building model. The simulations were performed on the three floors at different
heights for faster process.

2.4 Research Strategies:

Study was carried out in different stages involving data collection from wide range
of materials, reviewing literature related to study, choosing prototype of high-rise
residential for analysis, performing computer simulations study on the prototype
and analysing the findings. The stages followed are explained in this dissertation
in eight main chapters. Chapter one mentioned earlier provides background to the
study undertaken, reviewing global energy situation and need for sustainable
approach towards growing high-rise culture in tropics. Chapter two introduces aim
and objectives of the research. Chapter three discusses features of tropical
climate and thermal comfort. Chapter four mentions reviews of the literature
collected from wide range of sources. Chapter five focuses on Insulation materials
by mentioning two of the materials in detail. Chapter six presents new range of
high performance window glazing. Chapter seven mentions simulation studies
performed on building model and comparison between different building thermal
insulants and glasses used for study. The results, limitations and recommendation
are concluded in final chapter eight.

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CHAPTER 3: Tropical climate and thermal comfort .

3.1 Tropical warm and humid climate:

The zone between Tropic of Cancer (latitude 23.5°N) and the Tropic of Capricorn
(latitude 23°S) is defined as Tropical zone. This zone occupies about 40% of the
land surface of the earth
and holds half of the world’s
population. There are
variations in climate within
the tropics, the equatorial
zone of tropics; the area
within 10° of equator with
not much seasonal changes
of temperature has warm
and moist climatic
conditions [8]. Some of the
countries that lie in this
zone are Brazil, part of
Central African and South-
east Asian countries. In
India tropical warm and humid Figure 3.1: Map of India depicting different climate zones

climatic band covers eastern, Source: National Building Code 2005, Part 8, Fig. 2

western and southern parts of the country [figure 3.1]. Few of the important
characteristics of the tropical warm and humid climate are listed below [9]:
• Air Temperature i.e. DBT: Maximum between 27°C and 33°C and
minimum between 21° and 22°C.
• Humidity (RH): varies from 75% to almost 100%
• Precipitation: High throughout the year annual rainfall of 2000mm to 5000mm,
sometimes exceeds 500mm in a month.
• Wind speed: Typically low but strong winds occur during rain squalls. Gust
of 30 m/s has been reported, usually one or two dominant directions.

• Sky conditions: Fairly cloudy throughout the year, skies can be bright. [9]

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3.2 Thermal comfort in tropics:

Thermal comfort conditions depend on various factors, air temperature, relative

humidity and wind speed of the location, not only the climatic factors but it also
depends on the age, sex and type of activity performed by the person. The thermal
comfort in the tropics usually lies between Temperature summer index (TSI)
values of 25°C and 30°C with maximum per cent of people being comfortable at
27.5°C, conversely cold temperatures between 19°C and 25°C (TSI) are tolerable.
Hence if we have to achieve thermal comfort inside the house in tropical warm-
humid climate, possible emphasis on design techniques should be made to keep
the indoor temperature to TSI values around 27.5°C in summer seasons. Along
with the conditioning of indoor environment; provision of ample air movement is
also an important requirement for building design in warm-humid climate. [10]

3.3 Vernacular architecture and thermal comfort:

In traditional Vernacular architecture there are best design solutions to cater

tropical climatic impact in most natural way. Naturally ventilating the building along
with proper shading were the main features of Vernacular architecture. Stretched
building with the prominent openings towards the predominant wind direction and
providing cross ventilation provided better thermal comfort conditions in residential
Vernacular architecture. These buildings had light construction with wide awnings
or verandas shading large windows which were kept open during most of the year.
Most of the important design strategies of Vernacular architecture are concluded in
this table [11]:
Climate Adverse climatic Climate method Response strategies
type elements
Hot -humid Rain Minimise heat gain Thin plan with axis east-
Heat, high humidity Maximise ventilation west
Insolation Maximise shading Cross- ventilation,
Small diurnal high ceilings
variation Ventilated roof
Window shading all year
Shaded veranda.
Figure 3.3: Climate modification strategies and building tactics for hot-humid climate type.
Source: Climate Responsive Design [11]
15
3.4 Design considerations for thermal comfort in buildings:

Application of solar passive design techniques in the buildings located in tropical

climate mainly aims in optimising internal thermal comfort. For keeping the indoor
environment cooler passive techniques mainly focuses on reducing heat
penetration through building envelope and optimising natural cross-ventilation in
indoors. Some of the methods for reducing heat flow through building envelope
are discussed below

Optimum Orientation: The amount of daily solar radiation incident per unit area
on N and S facing walls is much less compared to that on the walls facing other
directions [10], so orienting longer axis of building in East – West direction will
minimise solar heat gain by the envelope. Rectangular planning of the building
with aspect ratio 2:1 reduces the fabric load by 30% compared to square planned
building with equally distributed glazed window area on all the four sides [10].

Window Shading: Especially in tropics importance of shading is enormous. It was

always a major issue in the vernacular architecture of tropics. The use of shading
is critical to achieve thermal comfort and energy conservation in passive design.
Shading to the windows can be provided by application of overhangs or providing
louvers to the window to cut off the direct radiations from sun into the room.
Effective length of the overhangs depends upon the sun path, and duration for
which windows are exposed to the sun. Different shading techniques should be
applied for different orientations of the windows to achieve optimum results for
example a simple box type louver may be suitable on eastern façade, a slightly
more complicated vertical and horizontal louver system on the southern façade
and an egg crate type on western façade. For the northern facade receiving only
very early morning sun - rain shade is sufficient [10]. While providing desired
shading to the window care should be taken avoiding over shading which may
obstruct required day light to enter in the room.

16
Window Design: Windows are the primary source of heat loss in the winter and
heat gain in the summer. In light of optimising energy efficiency of building by
increasing thermal comfort in interiors various factors should be considered during
window design. Window dimensions should be varied with varying orientation for
the optimised results. Windows on the East and West facades should be avoided
as they are worst orientations from heat gain point of view [10].

Insulating Window Glazing: By addition of the insulation layers to the single

glazed window or by replacing single glazed windows with double or triple glazing
will prevent the heat gain and loss in desired season in turn reducing energy
demand. U- value of the glass indicates the rate of heat flow due to conduction, as
a result temperature difference between inside and outside. Lower the U-value
lower the heat transferred through the glass. The U-value is considered less
(3 W/ m² K) for a window system consisting of double glazing with an air gap of
12mm-18mm. Adoption of such system reduces heat gain by 10% [10].

Roof and Wall Insulation: Application of the insulation material on the external
wall of the building increases the thermal resistance of the building envelope and
helps to reduce space conditioning loads. Location of insulation in building
envelope and roof and its optimum thickness are very important. In hot climate
placing insulation on the outer face of the building envelope is proved effective as
the thermal mass of the wall is weakly coupled with external source and strongly
coupled with interior. Introduction of air cavity in the wall also increases its thermal
resistance [10].

External Finishes: The external finish of a surface determines the amount of heat
absorbed or rejected by it. Smoot and light colours reflects more light and heat in
comparison to dark coloured surface. Lighter colour surfaces have higher
emissivity and are ideal for use in warm climate.

17
CHAPTER 4: Literature Review .

4.1 Organisation of Literature Reviews:

Literature selected for reference is informative providing suitable base for research
and is in broader context of research topic; mainly focusing on the ideas behind
different research, surveys done in the analysing thermal performance of the
building envelope, energy conservation and building sustainability issues in
Tropics. Literature is mainly extracted from research papers, books, articles from
magazines and websites related to the topic. Reviews of these literatures are
categorised broadly into three main topics as follow:

1) Literature related to Energy Conservation and Building Sustainability in Indian

and Tropical context.

2) Literature focusing on Building Envelope (building fabric material, window

glazing and shading).

3) Literature mentioning Case studies on Energy efficient buildings in India and

China.

All the literatures reviewed in above mentioned sections are been organised in
ascending order of their dates of publication, putting the oldest publication at first,
followed by the most recent works.

4.1.1 Energy Conservation and Building Sustainability:

Climate Responsive Building - Appropriate Building construction in Tropical

and subtropical Regions –
Paul Gut, Dieter Ackerknecht (1993), [12]

Book describes alternative techniques for designing buildings to specific climates

in tropical and subtropical regions. Emphasis is given on the measures that will
reduce energy consumption, well considered construction and appropriate

18
selection of materials. Book provides background necessary to understand the
climatic factors. Author describes many practical applications and low energy
design techniques. Several case-studies done and thermal performance analysis
performed on various materials suggests us on use of different energy efficient
construction alternatives for best climatic performance.

Energy efficiency and building construction in India –

Piyush Tiwari (July, 2000), [13]

The concern of the paper is energy consumption in building construction in India.

In this paper the energy costs of alternative construction techniques using an
optimization framework are assessed and compared. The alternative techniques
evaluated in the paper are commonly used low cost techniques in India. Author
also uses Energy efficiency housing options evaluation model (ENEHOPE) to
identify combination of methods at different construction stages. Step by step
evaluation of energy required for different building materials, for their use in
different construction stages is mentioned clearly in form of tables. Author also
gives general idea about cost, investments and labour needed for this construction
process making the paper more practical in its inputs.

Sustainable Buildings in Tropics –

Michael Laar and Friedrich Wilhelm Grimme (2002), [18]

In light of the major issue about Sustainable buildings in tropics, the present paper
focuses on the measures for energy conservation in Buildings in the Tropics. The
author defines thermal comfort in hot-humid climate referring to various findings
and standards approved by bodies like ASHARAE. Author also investigates the
potential of natural ventilation, optimisation and the impact of shading devices or
lowering the consumption of energy for air conditioning in Office buildings located
in tropical climate. Further in the paper the efficiency of day lighting control
systems to reduce use of artificial lighting in office buildings is being discussed. In
19
this paper the potential of different techniques discussed in the paper are
quantified by displaying results of simulation studies done on the office building in
Rio de Janeiro using different simulation tools. Author concludes the essay
suggesting the work to be done in various areas to achieve a major change in the
existing paradigm towards sustainability in the built environment.

Agenda 21 for Sustainable Construction in Developing Countries - Indian

Case –
Kirtee Shah (2002), [16]

This paper is one of the nine position papers commissioned, three each from Asia,
Africa and Latin America, by the International Council for Research and Innovation
(CIB) as part of the Action Plan for the Implementation of the CIB Agenda 21 on
Sustainable Construction and to further its proactive approach on the subject. The
paper mostly talks on social sustainability and sustainability through construction
in India. It gives evidences from the past were some initiatives were taken in vision
of sustainable construction development. Paper gives economic profile of Indian
construction Industry, energy costs of different building materials in India.
Mentioning the rural sustainability it also highlights the reinvention of mud as the
sustainable building material. Author uses current examples that to in Indian
context to back her comments which makes the paper more contemporary.

Indian Urban Building Sector: CDM Potential through Energy Efficiency in

Electricity Consumption –
Inderjeet Singh, Axel Michaelowa (August, 2004), [14]

Present paper belongs to series of papers concerning CDM (Clean Development

Mechanism) potential and capacity building in India published by Hamburgisches
Welt- Wirtschafts- Archiv (HWWA), Hamburg Institute of International Economics,
and Germany. Paper mentions Indian energy situation in global context and

20
Energy used in building sector of India especially of residential sector and different
climatic zones in India. Paper also assesses the potential to improve building
energy efficiency and how measures in the building sector could be framed as
projects under the Clean Development Mechanism. CDM case studies for large
buildings in the Indian public and private sector are presented. Paper exhibits vital
information about energy use in Indian building Industry both in Residential and
commercial sector backed by the case studies. Chapter on Energy efficient glazing
systems in Indian housing industry and suggestions on optimization of glazing
area and building insulation is quite informative.

Tropical Sustainable Architecture: Social and environmental dimensions

Joo- Hwa Bay and Boon- Lay Ong (July, 2006) [17]

This book, developed from the first conference of the International Network for
Tropical Architecture, supplies articles from experts worldwide covering the
cultural, environmental and technical aspects of thinking, researching and
designing for the tropics.

The article on High-rise High-Density Living; Socio-Environmental Dimensions: In

Tropical Semi-open Spaces of High-rise Housing in Singapore was referred from
this book. This article does not directly relate to the research topic, as it speaks
about social- sustainability through design of semi-open spaces in High-rise
housing in Tropical climate. The set of guidelines proposed for designing fore
courts (Tropical Veranda) on upper levels of High-rise residential buildings to
provide shade and reduce cooling load increasing thermal comfort, definitely
suggest different aspect of designing building envelope.

21
Thermal Control in Buildings –
John Straube (2006), Building Science Digest 011 (November, 2006) [15]

This paper was extracted from the series of papers displayed on the Building
Science website focusing on awareness of sustainability to promote the design
and construction of buildings that are more durable, sustainable and economical
than most buildings built today. The paper forms an introduction to large topic of
thermal insulation in buildings. Author focuses on basic mechanism of heat
transfer, definitions of Thermal insulation, thermal bridging, air leakage in building
envelopes, solar radiation through windows and Interior heat gains. Brief and basic
information provided in the paper helps to understand need of thermal control in
building. The chapter of thermal insulation materials discusses thermal properties
of different insulation materials and their thicknesses required to achieve standard
thermal resistance. Information mentioned in the paper provides understanding for
thermal control in buildings. Paper serves as a basic reading material for any
research done in the light of thermal and energy efficiency of building envelope.

4.1.2 Building Envelope:

Influence of thermal insulation position in building envelope on the space

cooling of high-rise residential buildings in Hong Kong –
M. Bojic, F. Yik, P.Sat (September 2000) [19]

This paper investigates into the influence of thermal insulation layer (positioning it
in the external walls of the building) on the yearly cooling load and maximum
cooling demand in two typical residential flats of high-rise residential building in
Hong Kong by employing HTB2, detailed heat transfer simulation software.
Performance of thermal Insulation of different thickness is being tested by varying
their position in building envelope. Paper explains the parameters of modelled flats
in details along with diagrams. Occupancy patterns and use of energy in flats are
taken into consideration to derive more logical results. Step by step summary of

22
each case is presented and recommendations made through simulations are
catering changing seasonal patterns. The results from the simulation study
performed indicates reduction in maximum yearly cooling load which is 6.8% for
air-conditioned residential flat in hot climate when thermal insulation faces inside
the flat and reduction in maximum cooling demand is 7.3% when the thermal
simulation faces either inside or outside the flats. Results also indicate that yearly
cooling load in mildly sensitive to increase in thermal insulation thickness used i.e.
5cm. The paper is summarised by author highlighting on the need to perform
energy simulations, for finding yearly cooling load demand during design stage of
the high-rise residential buildings in hot climate.

Energy Performance of windows in high-rise residential buildings in

Hong Kong-
M. Bojic, F. Yik, P. Sat (March, 2001), [20]

The study investigates effect of three types of window glazing on yearly peak
cooling loads of flats in high-rise residential tower located in hot and humid climate
of Hong Kong. Calculations are performed using detailed building heat-transfer
simulation programme HTB2. The two flats selected were of different sizes, facing
different orientations. Results obtained indicate that optimised performance of
different types of glass used for windows of flats depends on the orientation of
flats. Values obtained also indicate that drops in values of yearly cooling load and
yearly maximum cooling demand were higher for the larger flats then smaller ones
and had slight difference depending on flat orientation. There is a detail mention of
U-values of glazing, flat areas and occupancy assumptions. Calculation process is
self explanatory and results are presented in form of tables and graphs. Author
makes a note of limitations of study, concluding with suggestion on use of
simulation studies to be performed while designing buildings in hot climates.
Author further suggests that study should extend further calculating actual energy
consumption, economic appraisal and environmental assessment of the buildings
to be designed.

23
Embodied energy of common and alternative building materials
&Technologies-
B.V. Venkatarama Reddy, K.S. Jagadish (November, 2001), [21]

Considerable amount of energy is spent in the manufacturing, transportation and

constructional use of the building materials. The paper is focused around some
issues pertaining to embodied energy of materials and technologies used in
buildings construction, particularly in the Indian context. Initially in the paper
authors describe the studies done in other countries and then they give details in
Indian context. Paper gives us information about energy consumption in
manufacturing process of main building materials in India followed by information
about energy consumed in transportation of these materials thus suggesting the
best building material in terms of energy efficiency in both manufacturing and
transportation context. Comparative studies of different types of masonry, flooring
and roofing systems are presented, comparing it with some of the conventional
systems used viz. Reinforced concrete slab roof. At the end, paper discusses and
compares various construction methods used in India through three examples of
different buildings built with diverse methods of construction; analysis is also made
regarding embodied energy involved in these methods.

Day lighting in the Tropics –

R. Edmonds and P.J. Greenup (March, 2002), [22]

Low daylight factor in tropical buildings encourages optimised use of artificial

lighting which contributes to peak cooling load in High-rise buildings in the tropics.
Over shading of windows by external and internal shading devices is other reason
for low day lighting levels in High-rise buildings even though the ambient
luminance levels are very high. In order to overcome this problem some examples
of optical shading systems such as Light guiding shades, Light deflecting glazing,
Angle selective glazing further categorised into fixed, tiltable, skylight and atrium
glazing, light piping systems are mentioned and described in detail in this paper in

24
terms of their angle, orientations, adaptability to changing seasons and ability to
illuminate interiors avoiding excessive glare and heat gains. There is a brief
mention of simulation of these devices in Radiance software.

Energy performance of the self-shading building envelope –

I.Guedi Capeluto (July, 2002), [23]

This paper is about designing of self shading envelope for the buildings,
implementing Solar Collection Envelope (SCE) concept which uses computer
model Sust Arc for its application. This model can be used to understand the
relationship between sun movement, building geometry and performance. Paper
includes sections on solar collection Envelope method, case study of Bank of
Israel as example of self shading envelope design and simulation of the office
block model considered under different scenarios. Paper is informative and uses
hypothetical models as well as live examples for its explanation. The author makes
a point to mention limitations of SCE method.

Design development of a static sunshade using small scale modelling

technique
Rahul V. Ralegaonkar, Rajiv Gupta (November, 2004), [24]

In the present paper, with respect to particular geographical location in Rajastan

India, the desired sunshade has been developed and verified experimentally by
small scale modelling technique. Two small scale experimental models of actual
construction materials with varying static sunshades are constructed and analysed
by models of insulating material (Polyurethane Foam [PUF]) [24]. Authors explain
detailed methodology used for deciding on desired geometric shape and
dimensions for proposed static sunshade, the sunlit entry regulation in turn
temperature effect has been studied over 6 months period for the proposed
sunshade using different materials and their results are compared with the case of
horizontal sunshade.
25
Thermal performance of bedrooms in a multi-storey residential building in
southern Brazil –
Enedir Ghisi, Ricardo Felipe Massignani (October, 2005), [25]

The paper is a case study presenting the methodology used to compare the
thermal performance of bedrooms in multi-storey residential building located in
Florianopolis, southern Brazil which comes under warm-humid climatic zone.. The
assessment involved the measurement of absorptance of the colour of external
surfaces, calculation of thermal properties of walls and windows, drawing of
shading on the windows, correlation between external and internal temperatures
and correlation between temperature differences and thermal properties.

The study was done mainly using physical instruments like data logger and results
are mentioned for a specified time period. The primary conclusion derived from the
experiment indicates that the thermal performance of bedrooms in multi-storey
residential building located in warm-humid climate over summer would optimise if
the façade areas and U-values are minimised, while in winter season maximisation
of thermal performance and thermal time lag period really works. As mentioned in
the conclusion the readings were measured in flat with no occupancy there lies the
drawback of the study as the consideration of closing and opening of windows,
internal thermal load produced by people and equipment is not taken into
consideration, also readings were taken in winter months so affect of summer
conditions are unconsidered.

High Performance Glass -

Indian Green Building Council, CII- Sohrabji Godrej Green Business Centre (2005), [26]

This article is a part of the technical bulletin from the website owned by Indian
Green Building Council and it mainly speaks about the booming construction
Industry in India and significant increase in use of glass in buildings which initiates
need to choose right type of energy efficient glazing for significant low cost

26
building energy consumption. Article also explains different factors to be
considered in glass selection, defines high performance glazing and mentions
different types of energy efficient glazing. The Article is concluded with a section
on integrated approach for selection of glazing and list of buildings in India using
High Performance Glass. Article is informative giving general knowledge about
need, selection and examples of High Performance glazing.

4.1.3 Case studies of Energy Efficient Buildings:

In the following sub topic reviews of the books and articles mentioning case
studies of Energy efficient buildings in India and other tropical climatic locations
are mentioned. No specific case study was done on energy efficient buildings in
Tropics, hence following literature was reviewed which was referred for studying
energy efficient techniques used in buildings located in warm-humid tropical
climate.

Energy- efficient buildings in India –

Mili Majumdar (2002), TERI, India, [27]

In light of growing urbanisation and booming building construction in India

following book was prepared under Ministry of Non-conventional Energy Sources
(MNES) project. The book covers 41 projects from India’s various climatic zones.
The book provides insight on these various projects and emphasis on the energy
efficient techniques used in them. From the 41 case-studies mentioned, three of
the case studies on office buildings belonging to Renewable Energy Development
Agency and Pollution control Board of Kolkata, India and an apartment building in
Auroville were studied as these buildings are located in climatic zone:warm-humid.
Use of energy efficient lighting systems, low-e glass for windows, adequate design
of fenestrations with overhangs for efficient day lighting and cut off direct gains,
optimum orientation and waste water treatment were some of the green features
applied in these projects which are described in the book.

27
Green Buildings – (Paper prepared for WEEA) –
Debajit Palit (June, 2004), TERI, India, [6]

This is an occasional paper prepared for World Energy Efficiency Association

(WEEA). The paper mainly focuses on the importance of energy efficient buildings.
Paper discuses passive solar design techniques, use of renewable energy
technologies and use of low energy methods for building construction to achieve
energy conservation in buildings. The paper is concludes mentioning need of
environment conscious building design and promoting passive design as a cost
effective solution for building design. Giving evidence for effective working of
passive design techniques author has mentioned the example of RETREAT
complex at Gurgaon that demonstrates energy efficiency, sustainability, efficient
use of natural resources and waste management systems establishing a ‘zero
energy in – zero energy out’ building. Case-study presented explores effective
use of building insulation, day lighting techniques, use of gas-fired ammonia
absorption chillers and earth tunnel system to achieve energy savings upto
250,000 units of electricity and 2100LPG cylinders.

28
CHAPTER 5: Study of Insulation materials .

5.1 Thermal Insulation building materials:

Heat flow occurs through the building enclosure via external wall. All the materials
used in building construction are in some sense resistant to heat flow. In order to
retard the heat flow through the building enclosure some of the products having
lower U-values are deliberately used in building assemblies, which are termed as
Thermal Insulation materials.

Most of the building materials like concrete, wood, plastic have relatively high
density, hence to minimise the total density of the building enclosure, thermal
insulants having low-density, low conductivity materials are being used. Previously
low density bricks were used for the building construction as they had moderate
insulating and load bearing characters. In some of the constructions air gap is
introduced between two brick walls in order to optimise its thermal insulation
characteristics, but today Foamed plastics and Fibreglass bats having density of
about 16 kg/m³ and thermal conductivity of 0.043 W/ m. K [15] are widely being
used as the insulation material in most of the modern building enclosures.

At low densities the effective conductivity is generally high; density of glass fibre
batt used is more commonly less than 1 pcf (pounds per cubic foot) (15kg/m³)
hence if we have to achieve higher strength high density fibrous products of 3 to 8
pcf are used which will increase the cost as more material is used, but instead if
we use Foam plastic insulants like extruded polystyrene which provide better R-
value for higher strengths we can resist pressures of 10 psi with density of only 2
pcf [15], hence plastic cellular insulations ranging from expanded polystyrene to
phenolic foam boards are preferred over mineral fibre based insulation products to
increase the thermal comfort in energy efficient buildings reducing space
conditioning loads. The table displayed in figure 5.1 shows R & RSI (thermal
resistance index) values of some of different thermal insulating materials. R-value
is the measure of thermal resistance of the building insulation material, higher the
R-value better is the thermal resistance of the material. R-value is inversely
proportional to the U-value.
29
Figure 5.1: RSI & R values of different insulation materials
Source: Thermal Insulation of Energy efficient Buildings [28]

5.2 Plastic Insulation materials:

Plastics products are mainly categorised into 3 forms viz. foam, rigid sheet and
loose fill, as mentioned earlier thermal conductivity of these products are really low
hence we can achieve great impact with small thicknesses. Plastic products are
water resistant and do not rot or get affected by termites. Initially these products
used HCFCs for their production which are ozone –depletion agents but they are
been replaced by other agents which have no impact on ozone layer. Two types
of Plastic insulation materials
widely used in building industry
today are been described in this
Chapter. The diagram below
compares the degree of
insulation of some of common
insulating materials used in
construction, these figures are
calculated under assumption of
still’ air. [35]
Figure 5.2:Comparison of building materials
& relative insulation values under 'still' air conditions, source:www.foam-insulation.co.uk [35]

30
5.2.1 Expanded Polystyrene (EPS):

EPS is an inert, organic material. It is popular as a building insulation material due

to its stable R –value and recognised energy efficiency and is used in multitude of
building application.

Density: Available in varying densities usually from 0.90 pcf (pounds per cubic
foot) to 1.8 pcf.

Thermal Conductivity (K-value): 0.032 – 0.040 W/Mk [29]

Thermal Resistance (R value at 1 inch thickness): 3.6 and 4 at mean

temperatures of 75°F and 40°F.

Moisture resistance: moderate water vapour

permeability per unit of thickness compared
to other building materials, vapour and
moisture barriers recommended for sever
exposure. The small amount of moisture has
little or no effect on the compressive or
flexural strength, and the EPS insulation
retains between 95% and 97% of its thermal
efficiency. Permeance rating on Figure 5.2.1: Expanded Polystyrene

EPS is 2.0 to 5.0. Source: www.atlasroofing.com

Fire resistance: EPS softens at 180°F and melts at the temperature of 240°F.

Other characteristics: Nowadays we get these insulants free of HCFC and can
also be recycled, this is an environmental benefit. These are rot free and
resistance to mould and termite attack.

(Source: EPS technical data - www.insultech-eps.com)

31
5.2.2 Rigid Polyurethane foam (PUR):

PUR is efficient high performance insulation material which provides optimised

energy savings at smaller thickness thus providing large occupational spaces.

Density: Density of PUR used for thermal insulation in buildings normally ranges
between 1.87 pcf (pounds per cubic foot) and 2.8 pcf, for some of the applications
it can reach up to 6.2 pcf.

Thermal Conductivity (K-value): 0.022 – 0.028 W/Mk [29]

Moisture resistance: PUR has lowest moisture permeability ratings then any of
the products used by building industry. Permeance rating on PUR is 1.2

Fire resistance: resists fire (not ignite) until temperature reaches at about 1000°F.

Other characteristics: Polyurethane Foam is resistant to most of the chemicals

and like EPS it is resistant to termite and mould attack.

Figure 5.2.2: Rigid Polyurethane Foam

insulation materials (PUR)

Source: Brochure of Federation of European

on Rigid Polyurethane Foam Associations

(Source: Polyurethane Vs. EPS - www.sipsupply.com)

32
CHAPTER 6: Study of High Performance Glazing .

6.1 High Performance Glazing options:

The glass which reduces the intake of heat, allowing higher penetration of daylight
through it is termed as High Performance Glass. These types of glazing have low
U-value ranging from 1.7 – 3.0 W/m².K, low Shading Coefficient from 0.1 – 0.4 and
VLT (Visual Light Transmittance) of 40-60% [26] and are the most energy efficient
solutions for vertical fenestrations in building. High performance glass can provide
30-40% more energy savings compared to conventional glass enhancing occupant
comfort. Some of the High Performance Glazing types are described below:

Insulated Glazing (double, triple glazed):

The window having two or more glass panes
which are separated by a spacer are termed as
Multiple-pane or insulated glazing. Using multiple
panes of glass paced with an air gap between
them increases the thermal resistance of glass
lowering the U-factor and solar heat gain
coefficient without much reducing light
transmittance into the interiors. For the residential
windows the air space from 12 to 30 mm is Figure 6.1.1: Triple Glazed Window

maintained between the glass panes for Source: www.gienow.com

effective insulation. A 16mm air gap is considered the optimum thickness and is
usually recommended for most users [7]. The spacers introduced between the
panes accommodate expansion and contraction of glass due to heat and provide
moisture barrier and insulating barrier.

Another advantage of using multiple glazed windows is that along with heat it also
retards sound, for effective sound retardance the air gap between the panes
should be minimum 25 mm.

33
Gas filled Insulated Glazing:
Another way of further improving the thermal
performance of multiple panes Insulated Glazing Gas
Fill
is to fill the air space between the glass panes
with inert gases like Argon or Krypton. Both these
glasses are non- toxic, odourless, clear and more
resistance to heat flow than air. Care should be
taken to avoid gas loss through window edges.
Use of gas between window panes can bring
down the U-values to 0.2-0.3 W/m²°C [26]. Use of Figure 6.1.2: Gas filled glazing

this kind of technology does not add much of the Source: www.efficientwindows.org

cost compared to air filled insulated glazing and do not reduce the VLT of window.

Tinted Glazing:

Figure 6.1.3: Various tints of Glazing Source: www.patiorooms.com

Made by altering chemical composition of glass, tinted glazing absorbs large

fraction of solar radiations, reducing glare, but the disadvantage is that it also
reduces the Visual light transmittance of glass. This glazing type also reflects
small amount of light and does not produce mirror like effect like reflective coated
glass. There are some types of tints allowing greater amount of light to pass
through them along with reducing heat gain, such glasses are called as spectrally
selective Glazing. Tinted glazings are mainly used in the buildings located in

34
warm climates where reduction of solar heat gain is a major concern. Tints like
bronze retards light and heat while blue and green allows more of light to
penetrate, retarding heat transfer.

Reflective Glazing:
Reflective glazing have better shading
coefficients than tinted glazing as they reflect
most of the heat radiations than absorb it but at
the same time reflective coats reduces visible
light transmittance of window. These glazing are
made by applying reflective coats made up of
thin layers of metal or metallic oxides on the
outer surface of the glass. These type of glazing
are more recommended in hot climate to control
solar heat gain, more preferred for commercial Figure 6.1.4: Reflective glazing

buildings as they give uniform aesthetic appearance. Source: betterbricks.com

Low-Emissive (Low-E) Glazings:

Low-emissive or low-e are coatings applied on the
glass. These films are microscopically thin and
are transparent made of metal or metallic oxides.
These films when applied to the window glazing
reduces heat transfer through the windows. Low-e
coats mainly reduce the heat transfer caused by
long wave radiations [26]. Emissivities of the
window glazing range from 0 to 1, lower the
emmsivity lower is the heat transfer through the
glass. Low-e coatings have emissivity ranging
from 0.35-0.04 which is quite less compared to
the emmisivity of clear glass that is 0.84 [26]. Figure 6.1.5: Low-e coating on glass

Low-e windows performs double role it reflects Source: www.greenspec.co.uk

35
heat to interiors in winter season and avoid heat loss while in summer season it
reflects back the heat in the exterior reducing heat gains of interiors thereby
increasing internal comforts. Figure 6.1.5 shows the position of low-e coating
preferred in cold climate to avoid heat loss, when same coat applied on exterior
surface heat radiations are reflected back keeping interiors cool in hot climate.

6.2 Insulated glazing and its importance in warm climate:

For many years the use of insulated glazing for buildings was restricted in cold
climatic zones, that too in the regions of North American and European countries.
In the cold climate insulated glazing (double or triple glazed) are widely used for
their ability to reduce infiltration and heat loss in turn reducing heating costs in
winter seasons, while in summers they act as heat reflectors in turn reducing air-
conditioning costs. Heating systems are more efficient compared to cooling
systems like air-conditioning, both environmental and energy cost point of view. In
the buildings situated in warm –humid climate were thermal comfort is the prime
issue use of air-conditioning is in excess, hence use of insulated glazing in hot and
warm-humid climates seems to be an
important energy efficient solution. In
order to optimise thermal efficiency of
insulated glazing, filling of inert gas within
the glass panes and application of low-e
coat is recommended. Graph mentioned
in Figure 6.2 indicates savings on cooling
energy for residential place in cooling
climates for four types of windows. Graph
clearly suggest that the double glazed
window with application of high
performance ext. tint, a low-e coating, Figure 6.2: Graph- Annual Energy Savings

an argon gas fill and an aluminium frame achieved by use of four types of windows

can achieve cooling energy savings Source: Technical Manual Glazing- Hot

up to70% [30] humid [30]

36
. CHAPTER 7: Analysis of typical Residential High- rise apartment .

7.1 Introduction to Modelled High-rise residential apartment:

The study deals with the high-rise residential apartment in specific climatic zone
i.e. warm and humid hence a residential tower located in suburbs of Mumbai
(comes under warm-humid tropical belt passing through India) was chosen for
analysis. The residential tower is already built and is a part of Godrej Garden
Enclave residential complex in Vikroli (area located in suburbs of Mumbai).
Building specifications are as follows:
• Building site - Building site is adjacent to Railway lines
(on one side) and Express Highway (on other side) - (Refer Appendix A)
• Building shape - In order to achieve economic loading of
of four flats on each floor, less ground coverage and to avoid view of the
Railway tracks a sort of triangular shape was chosen for building design.
• Building orientation - Two of the corners of triangle are facing
N-S direction, third corner facing East, with major windows facing S-E & N-E
directions. (Refer Appendix A for Elevations of building)

Figure 7.1.1: Typical floor plan of modelled building Source: Architect T. Khareghat
37
• Number of storeys - 20
• Number of flats on typical flrs. - 4
• Number of flats on 20th floor
and two Refuge floors - 2
• Building envelope material - R.C.C (Reinforced Cement Concrete)
• External wall type - 600mm thick external wall boxing which
shades windows and air space between wall acts as the heat insulator.
• External wall finish - Exterior acrylic putty
• External wall colour - White (acts as heat reflective surface)
• Roof Insulation Used - The Roof i.e. the terrace slab + brickbat-
coba layer + EPS 16Kg Density + reflective clay tiles.
Elevation wall raised 6m above the terrace slab which hides the services on
the terrace as well as cuts off sunrays directly falling on terrace slab reducing
heat gain by the roof.
• Windows type - Aluminium framed, single glazed
• Type of glass used for windows - 6 mm, float glass

Figure 7.1.2: Rear view of Building Figure 7.1.3: Front view of Building facing
Facing railway lines Express Highway
Source: Architect T, Khareghat Source: RADIANCE.

38
7.2 Climate of Mumbai:

Location - Maharashtra, India

Latitude - 18° 53’ N

Longitude - 72° 49’ E

Elevation - 11m above sea

level

Climate - warm – humid

Seasons - summers from April

to mid June,
Monsoon from mid
June to mid Sept.
winters from Figure 7.2: Map of Mumbai

Nov, to Feb. Source: Google Earth [33]

Temperature (DBT) - max. DBT of 38.5° C to min. DBT of 14.2° C

Dew point temperature - max. of 28° C and it goes min. to 2.9° C in winters

Relative Humidity - avg. relative humidity of 72% (usually varies

between 62-85%

Rainfall - annual average rainfall 2200mm (85 inches)

Wind speed - max. of 11m/s to as low as 0 m/s

Wind direction - predominantly blows from north and south west

During monsoon seasons

(Source: Climatic data ASHARAE 2005 - [31])

39
7.3 Use of ECOTECT for Thermal Simulation Analysis:

ECOTECT is industry leading building analysis programmes were we can model a

building of any level of simplicity (or complexity) in details and apply wide range of
materials on it. Various simulations can be performed on the model prepared
applying different materials to get the best option out of it. There are various range
of calculations we can undertake in ECOTECT. The results acquired can be
visualised in form of graphs and tables and we can also compare these results.
Some of the analysis we can perform in ECOTECT are Solar, lighting, acoustical
and thermal. For the present research the Thermal analysis feature of ECOTECT
was explored in detail. Under this Thermal analysis feature we can calculate
heating and cooling loads for model and also predict the comfort levels. Thus
statistical analysis is performed which can give details about the passive
performance of building. [32]. The 3D model of building to be analysed was drawn
in ECOTECT, forming various zones, then in material properties window new
elements were added representing the building materials of the actual building.
These materials were then applied to the building model, thermal analysis
calculations are performed on the model and results were noted down in form of
comfort hours achieved for whole year for given climatic condition. Similar
calculations were performed by altering the materials with higher thermal
performance and the results achieved thus were compared with earlier results.
.

Figure 7.3: Building model in ECOTECT

40
7.4 Thermal Simulation Analysis:

Thermal analysis was performed on the building model applying five different
options of materials. First analysis performed was with application of the materials
which are actually used in the existing building construction and other four
simulations were performed by applying combinations of two types of thermal
insulation materials viz. EPS and PUR (on the external wall) with two types of High
Performance glasses which replaces the original glazing used for windows.
Thermal analysis of the building model applying four different combinations of
thermal insulants and high performance glazing and a thermal analysis with
application of original materials (as used in existing building) are been discussed
below

Thermal analysis – I: Applying original materials

Flooring and ceiling: Concrete slabs covered with screed and ceramic tiles.

External wall material: 150mm Concrete Stone (1-2-4 Mix) material finished with
cement plaster on outer and gypsum plaster on inner side was applied to external
wall representing R.C.C materials of actual building.

.Figure 7.4.1: External double wall combination applied to model for Thermal analysis - I

.Figure 7.4.2: Materials applied to External single wall of model for Thermal analysis - I

41
The actual double wall (wall boxing) consists of two 150mm thick concrete walls
separated by air gap of 450mm, finished by cement plaster on the outer surface of
exterior wall and gypsum plaster on inner surface of inner wall.

Window materials: Single glazed aluminium frame window element was selected
from the ECOTECT library of building materials which was applied to all the
windows in the model. The glazing material used was single glazed 6mm float
standard glass.

Thermal Simulation Results: Results obtained by carrying out simulation with

above sets of materials are as follows:

Annual Temperature Distribution:

.Legengs: - - - - - - Outside Temperature ___________ Inside Temperature

.Figure 7.4.3: Temperature Distribution graph for Thermal analysis – I

The graph compares the Internal and external temperatures of building model
predicting the comfort temperatures we achieve in whole year. Total we get 5005
hours (i.e. 57.1%) in comfort for the entire year by application of above materials
to the building model. (comfort band considered 18.0 -27.0 °C) - (Refer Appendix B for details)

42
Thermal analysis – II: Applying EPS and SUNERGY single glass

Flooring and ceiling: Concrete slabs covered with screed and ceramic tiles.

External wall material: 150mm Concrete Stone (1-2-4 Mix) material with
additional 75mm Expanded Polystyrene (EPS) layer on external side finished with
cement plaster on outer and gypsum plaster on inner side was applied to external
wall, The double wall (wall boxing) consists of two 150mm thick concrete walls
with additional layer of 75mm Expanded Polystyrene (EPS) on outer surface of
inner walls reducing air gap to 375mm. Walls are finished by cement plaster on
the outer surface of exterior wall and gypsum plaster on inner surface of inner wall.

.Figure 7.4.4: External double wall combination applied to model for Thermal analysis – II

.Figure 7.4.5: Materials applied to External single wall of model for Thermal analysis - II

Window materials: Single glazed aluminium frame window element was selected
from the EOTECT library of building materials changing the glazing material from
single glazed 6mm float standard glass to 6mm thick SUNERGY single glass
(clear) which has low –e coating on it which reduces the heat gains through
windows.

43
Thermal Simulation Results: Results obtained by carrying out simulation with
above sets of materials are as follows:

Annual Temperature Distribution:

.Legengs: - - - - - - Outside Temperature ___________ Inside Temperature

.Figure 7.4.6: Temperature Distribution graph for Thermal analysis – II

The graph compares the Internal and external temperatures of building model
predicting the comfort temperatures we achieve in whole year. In total we get 5287
hours (i.e. 60.40%) in comfort for the entire year by application of above materials
to the building model. (comfort band considered 18.0 -27.0 °C) - (Refer Appendix
B for details)

Considerations for all the Thermal Analysis from I-V:

Comfort bands considered between 18.0 -27.0°, HVAC system chosen is Natural
Ventilation, Occupancy – 4 people per flat, Activity type –Sedentary Air change
rate- 5.81
(The temperature distribution graphs are for simulations carried for 19th floor and
the comfort hours results mentioned are average of results derived by carrying out
thermal analysis on different floors.)

44
Thermal analysis – III: Applying EPS and SUNERGY double glass
with low-e coating.
Flooring and ceiling: Same materials as applied in case of Thermal Analysis - II

External wall material: Same materials used as in case of Thermal Analysis II

Window materials: Applying same window element as in case of Thermal

Analysis – II, changing the glazing material from SUNERGY single glazed to
SUNERGY double glazed (clear) with Planibel Top N low-e coating. The entire
glazing unit in this case consists of two 6mm thick glasses separated by air gap of
16mm with low-e coatings on it.

Thermal Simulation Results: Results obtained by carrying out simulation with

above sets of materials are as follows:
Annual Temperature Distribution:

Legengs: - - - - - - Outside Temperature ___________ Inside Temperature

.Figure 7.4.7: Temperature Distribution graph for Thermal analysis – III

The graph compares the Internal and external temperatures of building model
predicting the comfort temperatures we achieve in the whole year. In total we get
5345 hours (i.e. 61%) in comfort for the entire year by application above materials
to the building model. - (Refer Appendix B for details)
45
Thermal analysis – IV: Applying PUR and SUNERGY single glass

Flooring and ceiling: Same materials as applied in case of Thermal Analysis - II

External wall material: Same material combination as applied in case of Thermal

Analysis– II, changing the thermal insulation material from Expanded Polystyrene
(EPS) to 75 mm Rigid Polyurethane Foam (PUR).

Window materials: Applying same window element and same glazing applied as
in case of Thermal Analysis – II.

Thermal Simulation Results: Results obtained by carrying out simulation with

above sets of materials are as follows:

Annual Temperature Distribution:

Legengs: - - - - - - Outside Temperature ___________ Inside Temperature

.Figure 7.4.8: Temperature Distribution graph for Thermal analysis – IV

In total we get 5309 hours (i.e. 60.6%) in comfort for the entire year by application
of above materials to the building model. (comfort band considered 18.0 -27.0 °C) - (Refer
Appendix B for details)

46
Thermal analysis – V: Applying PUR and SUNERGY double glass
with low-e coating.
Flooring and ceiling: Same materials as applied in case of Thermal Analysis - II

External wall material: Same material combination as applied in case of Thermal

Analysis – IV

Window materials: Applying same window element and same glazing applied as
in case of Thermal Analysis – III.

Thermal Simulation Results: Results obtained by carrying out simulation with

above sets of materials are as follows:

Annual Temperature Distribution:

Legengs: - - - - - - Outside Temperature ___________ Inside Temperature

.Figure 7.4.9: Temperature Distribution graph for Thermal analysis – V

In total we get 5391 hours (i.e. 61.50%) in comfort for the entire year by
application of above materials to the building model. (comfort band considered 18.0 -
27.0 °C) - (Refer Appendix B for details)

47
7.5 Summary of Results:

The results of the Thermal analysis performed on building model by altering the
materials are summarised in form of graph.
62 61.5
61
60.4 60.6
61
60
59
58 57.1
57
56
55
54
I II III IV V

Comfort hours in %

.Figure 7.5.1: Graph shows the comparison between comfort hours (in %) for whole year by
applying each set of materials.
Thermal Thermal
Analysis Insulation material Glazing type

I Original material concrete Standard 6mm float glass

with no insulation
II EPS (75mm) Sunergy (clear) single glazed

III PUR (75mm) Sunergy (clear) single glazed

IV EPS (75mm) Sunergy (clear) double glazed

with Planibel Top N coating
V PUR (75mm) Sunergy (clear) double glazed
with Planibel Top N coating
.Figure 7.5.2: Table displays details about Thermal Insulation materials and glazing types used for
Thermal analysis.

By analysing the above comparisons and discussions made in present and last
two chapters (i.e. chapter 5 &6) following conclusions are been derived:

• It is clear that use of Insulation materials and high performance glazing

definitely helps in increasing comfort inside the High-rise apartment, in turn
reducing the energy consumption for conditioning of flats. We can get drastic
rise of 3.3–4.5% in total yearly comfort hours by application of these materials.

48
• The effective combination of PUR and High performance double glazing with
low-e value coat gives maximum comfort hours inside an apartment when
used in the building envelope.

• Double glazed insulated windows have more advantage over single glazed
and are recommended for their use in hot climates and addition of inert gases
into these glazing will further yield higher results.

• Results also suggest that Rigid Polyurethane Foam (PUR) has better thermal
insulation, moisture resistance and fire retardance properties over Expanded
Polystyrene (EPS) and hence recommended over EPS.

• If we compare the U-values of the actual external wall construction of the

building [which is 1.972 W/(m2.K)] with the U-values of the external walls with
addition of 75mm layer of EPS and PUR respectively [which is 0.35 W/(m2.K)-
value same for both the wall types] we can see that with addition of thermal
insulation significant fall in U-value can be achieved in turn restricting rate of
heat flow through wall, the U-values thus achieved are also less than the
standard U-value for External wall specified by Energy Conservation Building
Code (ECBC) [which is 0.352 W/(m2.K)]

U-value
Legend Wall Type (W/(M2.K)

O Original concrete wall of the building made up R.C.C 1.972

Original concrete wall of the building made up R.C.C with

EPS 75mm EPS insulation. 0.34

Original concrete wall of the building made up R.C.C with

PUR 75mm PUR insulation. 0.34

U Value Recommended By ECB code (Climate Zone

R Warm & Humid) 0.352
.Figure 7.5.3: Table displays U-values of different wall types
Source: ECB CODE: The Energy Conservation Building Code,2006, INDIA [34] refer Appendix C

49
7.5.1 Comparing U-values and costs of the thermal Insulation materials:
12 0.7
£11.00 0.62
10 0.6
£8.00 0.5
8 0.42
0.4
6
0.3
4
0.2
2 0.1
0 0
EPS PUR EPS PUR

cost (£/m 2) U-values (in W/(M2.k)

Figure 7.5.4: U-values and cost comparison of Thermal Insulants used.(U-values from ECOTECT)
Source: capital costs from Sustainability – Thermal insulation, issue 41, 2006 – [29].

The comparison of U-values (in W/(M2.K) of insulation materials Expanded

Polystyrene (EPS) and Rigid Polyurethane foam (PUR) and cost (in £/m2) analysis
done serves as a guideline for the choice of effective thermal insulant considering
the budget of the project. Following table compares thermal conductivity and
capital costs of different insulation materials widely used in the building industry.

Insulation material Class Thickness Cost Thermal

(mm) (£/m²) conductivity W/mK

Rock wool Mineral fibre 100 4-6 0.033 - 0.044

Glass wool Mineral fibre 150 8-10 0.033 - 0.044

Rigid urethane
foam (PUR) Plastic cellular 75 11-13 0.022 - 0.028

Expanded
Polystyrene (EPS) Plastic cellular 75 8-10 0.032 - 0.040

Plant/animal
Cellulose fibre fibre 100 9-11 0.036 - 0.040

Plant/animal
Wool fibre 100 13-15 0.037 - 0.040
Figure 7.5.5: Comparative capital cost and performance of thermal insulation materials
Source: Building, Sustainability – Thermal insulation, issue 41, 2006 – [29]
50
 7.5.2 Comparing U-values and costs of the glazing materials used:

6 35
5.38
30 £29.00
5
4.2
25
4
20
3
15 £11.70
2
1.4 10
£5.00
1 5

0 0
SG SSG SDG SG SSG SDG

U-values (W/(m 2.K) Cost (in £/m 2)

U-value Cost
Legend Glazing Type [W/(m².K)] (£/m²)

SG Standard 6mm float glass 5.38 5.00

SUNERGY clear (single glazing) High

SSG performance glass 4.2 11.70

SUNERGY clear (double glazing) High

SDG performance glass with Planibel TOP N
coating 1.4 29.00

Figure 7.5.6: U-values and cost comparison of Glazing materials used

Source: www.myglaverbel.co.uk/products/brochureslist, costs mentioned are taken from quatations
accuired from AIS glass solutions. (refer Appendix D)

There are many types of High performance glazing brands available in market, for
the analysis made here the glasses selected are from the range of High
performance glass from Glaverbel, which are supplied by AIS Glass Solutions in
India. The information about U-values and and capita costs of the glazing
materials used serves as a guide line to choose the right type of insulted glazing
(according to the buget) suitable for the project for higher energy conservation.

51
CHAPTER 8: Conclusion .

8.1 Summary:

This research investigates the thermal behaviour of the High-rise Residential

apartment by applying thermal insulation layer in the envelope of the building and
replacing the existing window glazing system by High performance glazing
system. The investigations were based on the thermal analysis predicting the
comfort hours achieved in the whole year. The thermal analysis was carried out by
using the detailed building analysis programme ECOTECT.

Thermal simulation results indicate that application of thermal insulation layer to

the external wall and use of High performance glass in the window element of the
High-rise Residential Building in the Tropical warm-humid climate can increase in
the thermal comfort hours inside the building by 3- 4.5%.

To find out, which combination of High performance glazing and thermal insulant
can gain higher comfort hours in the building, four cases were analysed in the
research. The cases with the results for individual analysis are described in the
subtopic 7.5 in the Chapter 7. The results indicates that highest amount of comfort
hours rise to 61.5% is achieved by use of Rigid Polyurethane Foam (PUR) as
insulant in external wall and double glazing with low-e coating for windows, the
rise is 4.5% more than the comfort hours achieved by using normal glazing for
windows and no thermal insulation for external walls.

The study performed on the cost analysis and U-value comparison further
demonstrates the thermal performances of the materials used and gives the
general idea about the material selection for the best results considering the
budget of the project.

Conclusions drawn from the study clearly demonstrates and suggests need of
thermal insulation and High performance insulated glazing for High-rise
Residential structures in warm-humid and hot climates to achieve more comfort
hours throughout the year in turn reducing costs on energy need for air-
conditioning

52
8.2 Limitations of Study:

As study investigate into thermal insulation and High performance glazing

materials, the limitations of these materials for their use as a building material may
be termed as the limitations of the study, apart from that use of ECOTECT for
thermal simulation analysis shows some limitations. Use of thermal insulation
layers in the building model envelope do show remarkable rise in yearly comfort
hours but further simulation analysis carried out for lower U-value insulation
materials and insulated glazing does not show much difference in the rise of
comfort hours though the U-values are less than half the U-values of earlier
material used.

8.3 Future scope:

Use of Thermal insulation materials and High performance glazing to improve

thermal performance of building envelope is one way to cut down energy costs of
building by increasing comfort conditions in flats, there are other ways like
optimisation of natural ventilation and use of energy efficient lighting systems by
which high energy cuts can be achieved exploring these and some other
techniques can be seen as future scope in this field. ECOTECT was used as the
programme to carry out thermal analysis for this research but had some
limitations, hence similar studies can also be performed using different building
simulation soft-wares to find out the most effective one.

53
. REFERENCES .

1) Earth Trends: The Environmental Information Portal, World outlook,

(enecho.meti.go.jp/english/energy/world/outlook) - last visited August 2007

2) Earth Trends: The Environmental Information Portal, India,

(earthtrends.wri.org/text/climate-atmosphere/country-profile-India) - last visited
August 2007

3) The Outlook for Energy- View of 2030, (www.exxonmobil.co.uk) - last visited

August 2007

4) Annex B – Overview by country– Short report on energy situation of

India, P.K. Kaw (October, 2004), Report on Research and Development of
Energy Technologies, IUPAP working group on energy

5) Indian Urban Building Sector: CDM Potential through Energy Efficiency

in Electricity consumption, Inderjeet Singh, Axel Michaelowa (August,
2004), HWWA discussion paper 2004

6) Green Buildings,Occasional Paper prepared for WEEA, Debajit Palit [The

Energy and Resources Institute (TERI), June,2004], Agenda 21 for sustainable
Construction in Developing Countries – The Indian Case.

7) Wikipedia – The Free Encyclopaedia, (http://en.wikipedia.org)

8) Special problems of conservation in the tropics, Baish, M .A. (1987),

Conservation Administration News 31: 4-5. [Source: Preservation of Archives in
Tropical climate - Gateway of Resource and information on Preservation (GRIP),
www.knaw.nl/ecpa/grip]

9) Manual of Tropical Housing and Building - Part one: Climate Design;

Koenigsberger, Ingersoll, Mayhew, Szokolay (1974),pp.26

54
10) Climate Design for Energy Efficiency in Buildings, V.K.Mathur, I Chand
(Octobe,2002), I E Journal-AR Vol. 84, pp. 34,35.

11) Climate Responsive Design: A study of Buildings in moderate and hot-

humid climates; Richard Hyde (2000). - E&FN Spon, London, pp.57

12) Climate Responsive Building - Appropriate Building construction in

Tropical and subtropical Regions; Paul Gut, Dieter Ackerknecht, SKAT,
(1993) Swiss Centre for Development Cooperation in Technology and Management

13) Energy efficiency and building construction in India, Piyush Tiwari (July,
2000), Building and Environment 36, pp. 1127-1135.

14) Indian Urban Building Sector: CDM Potential through Energy Efficiency
in Electricity Consumption, Inderjeet Singh, Axel Michaelowa (August,
2004)

15) Thermal Control in Buildings, John Straube (2006), Building Science

Digest 011(November, 2006) www.buildingscience.com – last visited August 2007

16) Agenda 21 for Sustainable Construction in Developing Countries -

Indian Case, Kirtee Shah (2002)

17) Tropical Sustainable Architecture: Social and environmental dimensions

Joo- Hwa Bay and Boon- Lay Ong (July, 2006)

18) Sustainable Buildings in Tropics, Michael Laar and Friedrich Wilhelm

Grimme (2002), RIO 02 – World Climate & Energy Event, January 6-11, 2002,
pp. 159-164

55
19) Influence of thermal insulation position in building envelope on the
space cooling of high-rise residential buildings in Hong Kong, M. Bojic,
F. Yik, P.Sat (September 2000), Energy and Building 33, pp. 569-581

20) Energy Performance of windows in high-rise residential buildings in

Hong Kong, M. Bojic, F.Yik, P.Sat (March, 2001), Energy and Building 34,
pp.74-82

21) Embodied energy of common and alternative building materials

&Technologies, B.V. Venkatarama Reddy, K.S. Jagadish (November, 2001),
Energy and Building 35, pp. 129-137.

22) Day lighting in the Tropics, R. Edmonds and P.J. Greenup (March, 2002),
Solar Energy Vol.73 (2002), No. 2, pp. 111–121

23) Energy performance of the self-shading building envelope, I.Guedi

Capeluto (July, 2002), Energy and Building 35, pp.327-336.

24) Design development of a static sunshade using small scale modelling

technique, Rahul V. Ralegaonkar, Rajiv Gupta (November, 2004),
Renewable Energy 30, pp.867-880.

25) Thermal performance of bedrooms in a multi-storey residential building

in southern Brazil, Enedir Ghisi, Ricardo Felipe Massignani (October, 2005),
Building and Environment 42, pp. 730-742.

26) High Performance Glass, Indian Green Building Council technical bulletin,
CII- Sohrabji Godrej Green Business Centre (October, 2005).
www.greenbusinesscentre.com – last visited August 2007

27) Energy- efficient buildings in India, Mili Majumdar (2002), published by TERI
and MNES, India.
56
28) Thermal Insulation of Energy efficient Buildings, Akash Singh, Mohd.
Alam Khan, Juhi Gaur, Grishma Gupta (December, 2006), Paper presented
for AER 2006 held by department of Energy Systems Engineering, IIT, Mumbai.

29) Sustainability – Thermal insulation, Building magazine, issue 41, 2006.

30) Your Home Technical Manual -1.8b Glazing Hot humid,

www.greenhouse.gov.au – last visited August 2007

31) Statistics ASHARAE- weather data – IND Mumbai,

Climatic data ASHARAE 2005, www.eere.energy.gov– last visited August 2007

32) Ecotect: An Overview, http://squ1.com/ecotect– last visited August 2007

33) Location: Mumbai, India, Goggle Earth Version 4.2 -Virtual globe programme

34) Energy Conservation Building Codes (ECBE), 2006, by Bureau of Energy

Efficiency, India (BEE), draft found on www.energymanagertraining.com

35) Polyurethane Chemistry, www.foam-insulation.co.uk– last visited August 2007

57
APPENDIX A: SITE LAYOUT .

SITE LAYOUT, GODREJ GARDEN ENCLAVE - HIGH-LIGHTING THE BUILDING

58
ARIAL VIEW OF THE SITE HIGHLIGHTING THE BUILDING USED FOR ECOTECT
MODELLING.

59
CLOSE ARIAL VIEW OF THE BUILDING

REAR ELEVATION FRONT ELEVATION

ELEVATIONS OF THE BUILDING

60
 APPENDIX B: ANNUAL TEMPERATURE DISTRIBUTION TABLES.

Annual Temperature Distribution Table for Thermal Analysis - I:

Operation: Weekdays 00-24, Weekends 00-24.

Comfort Band: 18.0 - 27.0 °C
In Comfort: 5005hrs (57.1%)

TEMP. HRS % TEMP. HRS %

------- ------- -------- ------- ------- --------
0°C 0 0.0% 24°C 1211 13.8%
2°C 0 0.0% 26°C 3026 34.5%
4°C 0 0.0% 28°C 2738 31.3%
6°C 0 0.0% 30°C 942 10.8%
8°C 0 0.0% 32°C 75 0.9%
10°C 0 0.0% 34°C 0 0.0%
12°C 0 0.0% 36°C 0 0.0%
14°C 0 0.0% 38°C 0 0.0%
16°C 0 0.0% 40°C 0 0.0%
18°C 0 0.0% 42°C 0 0.0%
20°C 125 1.4% 44°C 0 0.0%
22°C 643 7.3% 46°C 0 0.0%
------- ------- ---------
Comfort 5005 57.1%

Annual Temperature Distribution Table for Thermal Analysis - II:

Operation: Weekdays 00-24, Weekends 00-24.

Comfort Band: 18.0 - 27.0 °C
In Comfort: 5287hrs (60.4%)

TEMP. HRS % TEMP. HRS %

------- ------- -------- ------- ------- --------
0°C 0 0.0% 24°C 1213 13.8%
2°C 0 0.0% 26°C 3101 35.4%
4°C 0 0.0% 28°C 2603 29.7%
6°C 0 0.0% 30°C 844 9.6%
8°C 0 0.0% 32°C 26 0.3%
10°C 0 0.0% 34°C 0 0.0%
12°C 0 0.0% 36°C 0 0.0%
14°C 0 0.0% 38°C 0 0.0%
16°C 0 0.0% 40°C 0 0.0%
18°C 0 0.0% 42°C 0 0.0%
20°C 127 1.4% 44°C 0 0.0%
22°C 846 9.7% 46°C 0 0.0%
------- ------- --------
Comfort 5287 60.4%
61
Annual Temperature Distribution Table for Thermal Analysis - III:

Operation: Weekdays 00-24, Weekends 00-24.

Comfort Band: 18.0 - 27.0 °C
In Comfort: 5345hrs (61.0%)

TEMP. HRS % TEMP. HRS %

------- ------- -------- ------- ------- --------
0°C 0 0.0% 24°C 1285 14.7%
2°C 0 0.0% 26°C 3132 35.8%
4°C 0 0.0% 28°C 2653 30.3%
6°C 0 0.0% 30°C 746 8.5%
8°C 0 0.0% 32°C 16 0.2%
10°C 0 0.0% 34°C 0 0.0%
12°C 0 0.0% 36°C 0 0.0%
14°C 0 0.0% 38°C 0 0.0%
16°C 0 0.0% 40°C 0 0.0%
18°C 0 0.0% 42°C 0 0.0%
20°C 65 0.7% 44°C 0 0.0%
22°C 863 9.9% 46°C 0 0.0%
------- ------- --------
Comfort 5345 61.0%

Annual Temperature Distribution Table for Thermal Analysis - IV:

Operation: Weekdays 00-24, Weekends 00-24.

Comfort Band: 18.0 - 27.0 °C
In Comfort: 5309hrs (60.6%)

TEMP. HRS % TEMP. HRS %

------- ------- -------- ------- ------- --------
0°C 0 0.0% 24°C 1192 13.6%
2°C 0 0.0% 26°C 3118 35.6%
4°C 0 0.0% 28°C 2580 29.5%
6°C 0 0.0% 30°C 845 9.6%
8°C 0 0.0% 32°C 26 0.3%
10°C 0 0.0% 34°C 0 0.0%
12°C 0 0.0% 36°C 0 0.0%
14°C 0 0.0% 38°C 0 0.0%
16°C 0 0.0% 40°C 0 0.0%
18°C 0 0.0% 42°C 0 0.0%
20°C 157 1.8% 44°C 0 0.0%
22°C 842 9.6% 46°C 0 0.0%
------- ------- --------
Comfort 5309 60.6%
62
Annual Temperature Distribution Table for Thermal Analysis - V:

Operation: Weekdays 00-24, Weekends 00-24.

Comfort Band: 18.0 - 27.0 °C
In Comfort: 5391hrs (61.5%)

TEMP. HRS % TEMP. HRS %

------- ------- -------- ------- ------- --------
0°C 0 0.0% 24°C 1283 14.6%
2°C 0 0.0% 26°C 3160 36.1%
4°C 0 0.0% 28°C 2628 30.0%
6°C 0 0.0% 30°C 734 8.4%
8°C 0 0.0% 32°C 7 0.1%
10°C 0 0.0% 34°C 0 0.0%
12°C 0 0.0% 36°C 0 0.0%
14°C 0 0.0% 38°C 0 0.0%
16°C 0 0.0% 40°C 0 0.0%
18°C 0 0.0% 42°C 0 0.0%
20°C 65 0.7% 44°C 0 0.0%
22°C 883 10.1% 46°C 0 0.0%
------- ------- --------
Comfort 5391 61.5%

63
 APPENDIX C: BRIEF NOTE ON ECB CODES, 2006, INDIA .

The growth of economy and building construction in India lead to increase in

energy intensity, the supply of energy was not up to the mark to meet the energy
demands of various sectors in country which lead the Indian government to enact
the Energy Conservation Act in 2001. The Act mainly provides framework for
encouraging Energy efficiency in various sectors including Building construction
Industry. The government also appointed a body named as Bureau of Energy
Efficiency (BEE) for the effective implementation of this Act.

The Energy Conservation Building Code (ECBC) 2006 has been developed by
the International Institute for Energy Conservation (IIEC) under contract with the
United States Agency for International Development (USAID) as a part of the
Energy Conservation and Commercialization (ECO) Project providing support to
the Bureau of Energy Efficiency (BEE) Action Plan [34]

The main aim behind developing these codes is to set minimum Energy
performance standards for buildings and initiate the energy conservation by use
of thermal efficient building materials, lighting systems and less energy
consuming building construction techniques.

There has been a recent launch of The Energy Conservation Building Code
(ECBC), 2007 specifying energy performance requirements for all commercial
buildings to be constructed in India.

For more details regarding The Energy Conservation Building Code (ECBC),
2006 and Energy Conservation Act in 2001 following sites can be referred:

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energy_Conservation_Building_Code

www.energymanagertraining.com/ECBC/DRAFTECBC27MARCH2006.pdf

64
APPENDIX D: SPECIFICATIONS OF GLASS USED FOR ANALYSIS

65