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CHAPTER9

I
NTRODUCTI
ONTODI
SCOURSEANALYSI
S

Sol
aOsoba
and
Eni
ayoSobol
a

I
ntr
oduct
ion

Ther eisof tenani nterchangeofl anguageanddi scoursebyl earner

sinthel i
nguisti
cand
l
iteraryfieldsint heattemptt oaccountf ortheuseofl anguagei nvari
ousf i
eldsofstudy.
Int his chapt er,we expl i
cate discourse,discour se analysi
s,i t
sr el
ated fiel
ds and
appr oaches t ot he study in a deep i ntr
oduct ory method t o expose learnersto
concept ualcl arif
icati
onsi nt hef i
eldofdi scour se.Discoursei snotr est
rictedtothe
studyi nt heDepar tmentofEngl i
shandLi nguist
icsal one;i
tcut sacrossallthefiel
dsof
l
ear ning.Itisl anguagei nuse.Asl ongasl anguagei susedbypeopl einvar i
oussocial
fi
elds,t herear ev ari
oust ypesofdi scourset obei nvest
igated.Therefore,discour
se
analy st
shav eawi derspect r
um ofar east ocovert oaccountf orhowl anguagei sused
throughl inguisti
candt heoreti
caltools.

Di
scour
sef
ormat
ion

Grammat icalstudyofl anguagei sr estr

ictedt osent enceanal ysi
sbecausesent encei s
thehighesti nthegr ammat i
calrank- scal
e.Gr ammardoesnotcr eatear oom f
oranal ysis
abov esent ence.Theneedt oinv est i
gatel anguagebey ondt helevelofsentencegi v es
bir
tht odiscour se.Di scoursehasbeenv iewedbydi fferentscholarsast heorganizati
on
orunitofl anguageabov esentence( Stubbs1983: 1,Schi f
fri
n1987a: 1,T.Onadeko2000:
82).Thest r
uctur al
istsandf ormal i
stsar econcer nedwi ththel i
nguisti
cfeatur esof
universallanguage-phonol ogy,sy ntaxandsemant i
cs,whi chdonoti ncludeconnect ed
sentencesorut terances.Connect edsent encesar et hebui l
dingblocksofdi scour se.
Schiffr
in(1994)asser t
st hat:
Consist entwi ththedef i
nitionofdi scourseasl anguage“ above
thesent ence, ”manycont empor arystructuralanalysesof
discoursev i
ewt hesent enceast heuni tofwhi chdiscourseis
compr ised.( 25)

Li
nguistswhof ounditdif
ficul
ttogiveaconci sedefi
nit
ionofdiscour
sedidnotfi
ndit
di
ff
icultto agr
eet hatdiscourseisl anguagebeyondsentence.I ti
sreferr
edto as
l
anguage use largerthan sentence.Connected sent
ences i
n a natur
all
yoccurr
ing

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utterancepl ayacr uci alr olei nt hef or mati
onofdi scour se.Discour sei snotj usta
combi nat i
onofsent ences;i tmustoccuri napar ticul arcont extuni fi
edandconv eya
socialmeani ng.I tispossi blet ocombi nesent encest oget herwithoutacohesi veuni ty.
Suchcombi nat i
onofsent encescannotber efer r
edt oasdi scoursei tdoesnotpossess
thef eaturest hatdi scour sei sexpect edt ohav e.Cr ystal (1992)expl ai nst hat
,“Discour se:
acont i
nuousst retchof( especi all
yspoken)l anguagel argerthanasent ence,of ten
const i
tutingacoher entuni tsuchasaser mon,ar gument ,joke,ornar rati
ve”(25) .Hi s
explanat i
on v al
idat es t hatdi scour se i s notf ormed by any di sjoi
nt ed st
r etch of
sentences, butcoor dinat edl anguagei nasoci alcont ext .Di scoursei sfoundi nal lfields
ofl earningwher el anguagei susedf ori nteractivepur posessuchasl aw,sci ence,
medi cine,educat ion,f ashi on,engi neering,spor t,pol itics,medi aandmor e.Fr om t he
abov e,Cry stalaswel lasot herschol arsl i
mitdi scour set ospokenl anguage.Weshoul d,
therefore,know t hatdi scour se can ei therbe spoken orwr i
tten.Egbe ( 1996:72)
suppor ts ourv iew when he r eferst o“ talk and t ext ”as “ connect ed speech and
cont i
nuous wr i
ti
ng”r espect i
vely,and cont extualizes bot h as “a st retch ofnat ural
l
anguaget hatislongert hant hesent ence,”whi chi sdi scour se.

Discoursef or
mation,whichi sor ganizationofl anguagenotonl ybey ondthesentence
butmor ethanapar agraph,r equir
esski l
ls.Wecansayt hatdi scour sehast womajor
struct
ures:microandmacr o.Themi cro-struct
ureofdiscoursei nv olvesthecombinati
on
ofsmal l
erbitsofl anguaget omakeupt hewor d,t hephr ase,t heclauseandt he
sentence.The macr o-
structure ofl anguage or gani
zation ist he discourse pr
oper
becausei thelpsi
nt heanal ysisofl anguagebey ondthesent encel evel
.Atthislev
elof
l
anguageor gani
zati
on,impor tantf actorssuchaspur pose,thet opicorsubj ectmatt
er,
thesisstatementandt heaudi encear et obeconsi der
edt opr oduceameani ngful
discourse.Thesefactorsarebet terdiscussedi nthecomposi tionsect i
on.

Inanot herstance, discour seisv iewedf r

om t hesoci alfunctionofl anguageasl anguage
i
nuse.Schi ff
rin( 1994:20)gi v esacompr ehensi v emeani ngofdi scoursewhenshe
explai
nsdi scourse as“ a particularunitofl anguage ( abovet he sentence) ,and a
parti
cularf ocus ( on l anguage use) .”
The expl anat i
on cov er
s bot h per spectives of
scholarsondi scour seasaf ragmentofl anguagebey ondsent enceandasl anguagei n
use.Thet woper spect ivesar ef or mali
standf unctionalappr oachest odi scour se.Fasold
(1990:65)i samongt heschol arswhoappr oacheddi scoursef rom thef unctionalpoint
ofv i
ew.Hesay st hat ,“thest udyofdi scour sei st hest udyofanyaspectofl anguage
use”.Languagei snotusedi nav acuum;i ti susedi nacont extbypar tici
pant sto
perform certainfunct ions.Thati swhyut terancei ssituatedi nacont ext.Schi ffr
in(1994)
corroborateswi tht hisv iewwhensheexpl i
cat esthat ,“discoursei sviewedasasy st
em
(asociallyandcul t urall
yor gani zedwayofspeaki ng)t hroughwhi chparticularfunct i
ons
are r eali
zed” ( 32) . Soci al f unct i
ons per f
ormed by di scour se del ineate t he
communi cativ
er ole ofdi scour se and the v ari
ous f i
elds ofendeav ourst o whi ch

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di
scour
sebel
ongs.

Di
scour
seisbothstr
uctural
andf uncti
onali
nnatureandthebestappr
oacht
odiscour
se
i
stoexpl
icat
eitfr
om bothstruct
uralandfunct
ionalper
spect
ivest
oshowhowlanguage
i
susedinsoci
alcont
ext,andwhati ti
susedtodo.

Di
scour
seanal
ysi
s

Sincediscoursehasbeenexpl or
edasauni toflanguageabov esent enceandf ocuson
l
anguageusei nsoci alcontexttoper f
or m soci
alfunctions,di scour seanalysi
si sthe
analysi
sofauni toflanguageabov esentenceusedinasoci alcont extt operf
orm social
funct
ions.BrownandYul e(1983:1)statethecoreofdi scourseanal ysisthus:
theanalysisofdi scourse,isnecessaril
y,theanal ysisof
l
anguagei nuse.Assuch,i tcannotber estrict
edt ot he
descr
ipti
onofl i
nguisti
cf or
msi ndependentoft hepur poses
orfuncti
onswhi cht hesef ormsar edesignedt oser vei n
humanaf fair
s.

Theconcer nofdi scour seanal ystsisthest udyofl anguagei nusei nsoci alcont ext,that
i
s, whatl anguagei susedf ornott hef ormalpr opertiesoflanguage.Theyar ei nterested
i
n di ff
er entsoci alcont exts ofconv ersation especi all
yi ts or gani
zation and t he
processesi nv olvedi ntheencodi nganddecodi ngofi t
smeani ng.Thef ocusoft he
anal ysti nt hef ieldofdi scoursei snat urall
yoccur ri
ngconv ersati
onwhi chmaybe
utterances ordocument ed conv er
sation.Onadeko ( 2000:83)f rom t he l i
ngui sti
c
per spect i
vet o discoursegi vesauni quei nsightt o discoursebysay ing,“ I
tist he
scient i
ficstudyofnat ural
l
yoccur r
ing(i.
e.spont aneous)conv ersati
on( orwhati smeant
tober ender edi nwr i
tt
enmode)whi chexi stsbet weenatl eastt wopar ticipantsi na
soci alcont ext.”Fr om hi sv i
ew,di scour seanal y
sisencompassesal lverbalandnon-
verbalact i
onst hatt akeplaceinaconv ersationi nasoci alsett i
ng.Schiffri
n( 1994:42)
alsogi v esani nt eresti
ngexposi t
ionbyexpl ainingt hatanal y
sesofdi scour ser ev eal
i
nt erdependencebet weenst ructureandf unct i
onofl anguagei nuse.Sheasser t
st hat
structur aldefini
tionf ocusesont extwhilef unctional defi
nit
ionfocusesoncont ext.

Therear esev er
alfunct i
onsthatl anguagecanbeusedt oper f
ormi nsoci alcontext
especiall
yi nt
eracti
onalconv ersationali nteracti
on.Jakobson ( 1960)pr oposes six
functi
onsofl anguagewhi chHy mes( 1962)al sosuppor t
s.St ubbs(1995:46)hav i
ng
observedt hesef unctions,buil
dsonJakobson’ sandHy mes’cont r
ibuti
onsbymaki ng
hisownpr oposi t
iononf unct
ionsofl anguageasexpr essiveoremot i
ve,di r
ecti
veor
conative,poetic,contactorphat i
c,met ali
ngui sti
c,ref
erentialandcont extualfunct
ions.
Halli
day( 1970:140- 165)hasalsopr oposedt hreebroadf unctionshebel i
eveslanguage
shouldper form asideational
,i
nterpersonal andt ext
ualfunct i
ons.

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Thesef uncti
onscanbeper formedbyl anguagei ndi f
ferentgenr esofdi scourse.Text s
canbet akenf rom var i
ousgenr esofdi scoursesuchasf ami l
y(interacti
onamongf amily
member s)
,classroom ( interactionbet weent eacherandst udents),hospi t
al(i
nteracti
on
betweendoct orandpat i
ent ),mar ket(int
eractionbet weensel lerandbuy er
),politi
cal
(conversationamongpol it
icalact orsonpol i
ticali
ssues) ,rel
igi
ous( i
nteracti
onbet ween
pri
estandcongr egat i
on) ,legal( conversat
iononl egalissuesei t
herbet weent hejudge
andt heaccusedorbet weenl awy erandhi scl i
ent).Ineachoft hesef i
eldsofhuman
operation,thef unctiont hatl anguagei susedt oper form canbesi tuatedi nanyoft he
functi
onsgi v
enabov e,oratt imesadi scoursecanper form someoft hesef unctionif
analyzed.

ZelligHar r
is( 1952)i sthef i
rstscholart ouset het erm di scour seanal ysi
sasamet hod
foranal ysisofconnect edspeechorwr it
ingi nor dert ocont i
nuedescr i
ptiv el
ingui st i
c
anal ysisbey ondasi nglesent ence,andal sot oshow cor relationbet weencul tureand
l
anguage.Heempl oyeddistributi
onalt echni quet odi scov erel ement sthatcanco- occur
i
nt hesameenv ir
onmentt oshowt hepat t
er nofcombi nationoft hecl assesofwor dsi n
at ext( Mal mkj ærandAnder son1991: 100) ,ontheot herhandt odi scov erthepat ternsof
mor phemes,whi chshoul dbeabl etodi st
inguishat extf rom acol lectionofsent ences
(Onadeko2000:84) .Hecoul dnotdoj ust i
cet ot heconceptbecauseheonl yappl iedt he
struct urali
stappr oachwhi chcoul dnotexpl oresemant i
ci mpor tofl anguageanal y zed.
Hal li
day( 1961,1967 and 1970)dev elopswhatHar r
isi nt r
oduced ear lierwhen he
discussest hef i
eld,themodeandt het enorofdi scour se.Si nclairandCoul t har
d( 1975)
aret hef i
rstpeopl ethatmadeanat temptt opr oduceast r
uct uralanal ysisofnat ur all
y
occur r
ingconv ersationincl assroom di al
ogue.Theyexami nespont aneousdi scour se
unitsandt heirrelati
oninsequence.Sacks,Schegl offandJef ferson( 1974)hav epav ed
thegr oundonwhi chSinclairandCoul thar dachi ev edt heirsuccessi ndi scour seanal ysis.
Var iousschol arshav eproducedsev eral wor ksont heconcept .

Discoursef eat ures

There are cer tainf eatures thatchar acteri
zed di scour se.These f eatures vari
es in
number ,butwhatmakest hem i mpor tantist hatt heyar eembeddedi nthef i
el dof
discourseandt heirknowl edgemakest heanal ysisofdi scour seeasi erforscholarswho
arenotv eryf ami l
iarwithdi scourse.Amongal lthosewhohav epr oducedl i
terat
ureson
discourse anal ysis Wal e Osisanwo gi ves simpl e butcompr ehensivef eatures of
discourseinhi si ntroductorybookI ntroduct i
ont oDi scour seAnal ysisandPr agmat ics.
Thesef eatur esagr eewithourper spect i
v eandwi llbeexpl oredbriefl
y .
i
.Conv ersat ion:t hisisi nter
actionbet weenpeopl e.Att wopeopl emustbei nvol
v edin
conversati
on,andonet alksafteranot herespeci all
yasar esponset ot hefir
stspeaker .
Insomesi t uat i
on,onemayusepar alingui
sticcuesasar esponsesuchasgest ure,
noddingorf acial expression.
i
i.Discoursepar ticipants:thesear ethepeopl ei nvolvedinconv ersation.Theyar eknown

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asi nt erlocut or s; eachoft hem i saddr esseddi fferent lyasspeakerandaddr essee.
i
ii.Openi ngandcl osingofdi scour se:t hepr elimi nar yexchanget hatmustt akepl ace
bef or econv ersat ionbegi nsi sdi scour seopeni ng.I tmaybei nf or m ofgr eet i
ngor
summoni ng.I tcr eat esapl atf ormt oini t
iat econv er sation.Cl osingofdi scour sei st he
concl udingr emar kmadebyoneoft hepar ticipant st oshowt hatconv ersat ionhascome
toanend.Thecuessuchas“ by e” ,“ goodby e”or“ final ”coul dbeused.
i
v .Hol dingf loor : thisi sasi t
uat ioni nwhi chapar ticipanti sspeaki ngi nadi scour sewhi l
e
theot herpar ti
ci pant swai tforhi mt of inishwhathehast osay .Theper sonspeaki ngis
hol dingf looratt hatmoment .
v.Tur n- taki ng:i ti sapoi ntatwhi chaspeakerst opsspeaki ngandanot herspeaker
begi nst ospeak.I nconv er sat i
oneachpar ticipantwai tsf orhi st urnt oav oi dov erlapping.
vi.Sel ect ingt henextspeaker :itist hemet hodofchoosi ngwhospeaks.I tisdonei nt wo
way s:ei therbycal lingt henextspeakert oai rhi sv ieworbyusi ngnon- v er balcuessuch
aspoi ntingt ot henextspeakerorsi mpl ykeepi ngqui etaf terspeaki ngi fonl yt wo
par ticipant sar ei nv olv edi ndi scour se.
vii
.Ov erlappi ng:i tisal socal l
edi nt errupt i
on.I toccur swhenanot herspeakerdoesnot
allowt hef i
rstspeakert of i
ni shhi st alk,sot hatt woormor epar ti
cipant sar et alki
ngat
thesamet imeasweexper i
encei nf oot bal ltalks.
vii
i.Topi cnegot iation:i ti sadev iceusedbyapar ti
cipantwhof eelsabandonedi n
conv ersat ionandi seagert omakehi spoi ntatal lcost .I ti
sdonebyi ntroduci nganew
topi c.
i
x.Di scour semar ker s:t hesear et hedev i
cesorcuewor dsusedt omar kboundar yofan
utter ancei n di scour set o show r elation.Theyshow how a pi eceofdi scour sei s
connect edt oanot herpi eceofdi scour se,t hati s,t heyshow connect ionbet weenwhat
hasbeensai dorwr i
ttenandwhatwi llbesai dorwr itten.Forexampl e, “mi ndy ou” ,“sti
ll
”,
“byt heway ”,“howev er”, “nev er thel ess” ,“ l
ike” .
x.Speecher ror s:t hesear emi st akesmadedur ingconv er sationorwhenat urni sgoi ng
on.I tcoul dbef act ualer rororer r or sofconst ruct ion.I ti ncludeshesi t
ations, repet iti
ons
anduseofgapf ill
er ssuchas“ em” , “I
...
”, “
Youknow” ,“Imean”et c.
xi.Repai rmechani sm:t hisi st hemet hodusedt ocor rectspeecher rors.I tmaybedone
through r est atementorwi thdr awalofst atement ,orbei ng cor rected byt he ot her
par ticipant s.
xii.Rol eshar ing:r ol ei sal l
ocat edt opar ticipant si nasoci alset -
upbasedonage,sex,
educat i
on,achi ev ement ,pr of essi onorsoci alst atus.Thef actorsabov ear eusedi n
allocat ionoft ur nsi nhumansoci et ysi ncei tishi ghl yst ratif
ied.Thebi nar yf eaturesof
Ber ry( 1987:51)assi gn+hi gherand–hi gherr ol est odi sti
ngui sht hest atusoft he
par ticipant si nconv ersat ion.
xiii
.Tal ki nitiat i
on:i tist hepr ocessofst ar tingconv ersation.Oneoft hepar ti
cipants
star tst heconv er sat ionwhi l
et heot herl istens.
xiv.El icitat ioni nt alk:i tist hepr ocessofdemandi ngar eact ion,responseorf eedback

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(verbalornon-
verbal)f
rom anint
erl
ocutorbyquestioni
ngt heinter
locut
or.
xv.Adjacencypairs:whentheexchangest r
uctur
esar einpairs,wehaveadj acencypai
r.
Theyar ealwayscompl ementaryandreciprocat
orywi t
hf eatur
essuchasgr eeti
ngand
response,complaintandapology,
questi
onandanswer ,chall
engeandr eact
ion.

Discour serank-
scale
Theconceptofr ank-scal
ei st
heor gani
zat ionofuni t
sinhierar
chical or
der
.Itmeanst hat
al argeruniti
nranki smadeupofoneormor eunitsoftherankbel owit.I
nthiscase, it
i
mpl i
est hatt
hehigherunitinr ankhasst r
uct urethatcanbeexpl or
edwhi l
et helowest
uni thasnost r
ucture.Hall
iday( 1961)dividesgr ammari ntomor pheme, word,phrase,
clauseandsent encei ngrammat icalr
ank- scale.I
nconsonancewi t
hhi sgrammat ical
rank- scal
ebutcontraryincont ext,Si
nclairandCoul t
hard(1975)dividescl
assroom
discour seint
oorganizati
onal unitsinhierar chi
calorderas: l
esson
↓
transact i
on
↓
exchange
↓
mov e
↓
act

i
ndescendi
ngor der
.Lessoni
sthehi
ghestuni
tindi
scour
ser
ank-
scal
ewhi
l
eacti
sthe
l
owestuni
tinascendingor
der
.

Act
Anacti st hesmal lestuni tindi scoursehi erar chy.Ithasnost ruct
ureofi tsown;
therefore,i
ti snotdi vi
sibl
ej ustli
kemor pheme.I tcanbecr eatedbygr ammat i
calunits
suchaswor ds,groups,clausesorsent ences.Itr elat
estothef unctionofanut t
eranceit
wasmeantt operform whichi sil
locutionaryactofSear le(1962) .Actalwaysper f
orms
actions,andi tiscat egori
zedaccor di
ngt of unct i
onsi tperf
orms.Ther earethreemain
typesofact .Theyar ei nf
ormat i
veact ,elici
tationactanddi recti
v eact.Aninformati
ve
actgi vesinformat i
ont othei nt
erl
ocut orinform ofr esponseei t
herposi t
iveornegati
ve
i
nv er balutteranceornon- verbalcommuni cationsuchasnoddi ng,shakingofheadet c.
Forexampl e:
Beni :Youneedt orest.
Teni :
Yes. (positi
veresponse)

Bol
a:Iwi
ll
takeyourbagtot
hepar
ty.
Bal
a:No,
Iwon’tal
lowyou. (
negat
iver
esponse)

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Charl
es:Youneedt
obeagoodgi
rl
.Youknow.
Grace:(
Nod) (non-
ver
bal
communi
cat
ion)

Anel i
cit
ationacti
susedt odemandav erbalr
esponset hei
nterl
ocutor.I
tcomesinfor
m
ofquest ionwithapr edicated answer.Ifther esponseisdel ayed,thequest
ionis
repeatedwi themphasisorr efr
amed.Ther esponsemaybeaccompani edbybody
l
anguagesuchasnoddi ng,rai
singorshakingofhand.Forexampl e:
Mum: Wher ei
sthetoy
?
John:Itishere,mum. (
immediateresponse)

Sol
omon:Whereareyoucomingf
rom?
Mary:
(Si
l
ence) (
del
ayedr
esponse)
Sol
omon:Iaskagai
n;wherear
eyoucomi
ngf
rom?
Mary:
Theclub.

Adi r
ecti
veactr
equestsanact i
onasar esponseei
therfort
hebenefi
tofthespeakeror
otherpeopl
e.I
tmayr eceiveei
therv
er balornon-
ver
balresponse,
oratti
mesbothv er
bal
andnon-ver
balresponse.Forexample:
Toni:Let
’smakeitadeal.
Tonia:Adeal
.

Chukwu:Canyougi
vemeacupofwater?
Chi
nyere:
(Comingwi
thacupofwat
er)Herei
sitsi
r.

Dad:Pleaseshutt
hedoor.
Ti
ti
:(Sheshutthedoor
.)

Mov e
A mov eisauni tofdi scoursehigherthanacti nr ankandlowert hanexchange.It
consist
sofoneormor eact sini
tsstructure.Amov eissi
mplewheni tconsist
sofone
act,
butcompl exwhent herearemor ethanoneactini t
sconsti
tuent
.Unli
keact,amove
hasactinitsstructur
e.Forexample:
Chuks:Ineedy ourhelp. (
simplemove)
James: WhatcanIdof oryou?
Chuks:Ilostmywal letwhenIwascomi ngfrom t
heSpor t
sCent r
e.Idon’thaveany
moneywi t
hme,andIneedt ogohome.Pl ease,l
endme#500t i
llnextweek.
(
complexmov e)
James: Okay,t
ake( gi
vinghimt hemoney ).

Si
ncl
airandCoul
thar
d(1975)hav
eident
if
iedf
ivet
ypesofmov
eincl
assr
oom di
scour
se

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whichmakeupexchanges.Theyar ef ramingmov e,focusingmov e,openingmov e,
answer i
ngmov eandf ol
l
ow-upmov e.Thef ramingmov eisusedt ost ructur
el esson,
thatis,i
tindi
catestheendofalessonori nit
ialt
askandr eadinessforanot hertask.The
focusingmov efol
lowsframingmov e;itisusedt oat t
ractst udents’attenti
ont othe
dir
ect i
onofthelessonorchangethedi recti
onoft hespeaker.Forexampl e:
Ayo:AssoonasIcol l
ectmysalary,Iwillchangethefurni
ture. ( f
ocusing)
Funke: Wait,
youmustpayy ourrentfi
rst. (fr
ami ng)

Theopeni ngmov ecanbeusedt osupplyinf

ormat ion,askaquest i
on,makear equest,
directanact i
onorel i
citaf act(Coult
hard1992:22) .Theopeni ngmov edirectsthe
student st oparticipateinaconv er
sati
onbyst arti
ngi tofffort
hem tof ol
low.Answer i
ng
mov eisar esponset otheopening.Ananswer ingmov emayhav etwopar t
s:aheadand
apost -head.I tist heheadt hatwi l
lgiv
et heresponset ot heopeni
ng, andthepost-head
requirest hatthei nit
iatoroftheopeningtogi vear esponset oi
t.
Dad: Pr epareacupoft eaforme. (opening)
Ver o:Yessi r.Doy ouwanti tcoldorhot? (answer i
ng)
(head) ( post -head)
Dad: Makei thot. (responset opost-
head)

Thef ol
low-upmov etakespl aceaf t
ertheanswer ingmov e.Itfuncti
onsasfeedbackor
verdi
ctt oconfi
rm whet hertheanswer ingmov eiscorr
ectorwr ong.I
tisproducedby
someonewhopl aysahi gherroleinconv ersationespecial
lytheteacherasareacti
ont o
thestudent’
sresponse, orparenttochil
d.
Supervi
sor:Howdoy ouconv i
nceacust omert ochoosey ourcustomertochoosey our
productinsteadofot herproduct s?
Salesrep.: Iwil
lpersuadet hecustomert hatmypr oducthassomebenef i
tsthatother
productsdonothav e,andt hati ti sthebestofi tskindandlatestint he
mar ketatthepricecheapert hani tsfuncti
ons,andlethim knowthatmissing
mypr oductisal osstohim.
Supervi
sor:Good, y
ougoti t. (f
ollow-up)

Exchange
Anex changei smadeupofmov es.Ther earet wot y
pesofexchangei ncl assr
oom
discourseaccor di
ngtoSincl
airandCoul thard(1992:25).Theyareboundar yexchanges
andt eachingexchanges.Boundar yexchangesar eini
ti
atedbyt heteachert osignala
tr
ansitionfrom onesecti
onofl essont oanother.Teachingexchangestakeplacewher e
questions are asked,answered and f eedback is given tothe answers.Boundar y
exchangeconsi st
softwomov es:framingandf ocusi
ngmov es.Teachingexchange
consists oft hree moves:openi ng,answer i
ng and f oll
ow-up moves.Si nclai
rand
Coulthard( 1992:3)ref
ert othesemov esasi ni
ti
ati
on,responseandf eedbacki n,“A

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typicalexchangeint
heclassroom consist
sofani ni
ti
ati
onbyt heteacher
,fol
l
owedbya
responsef rom t
hepupi
l
,foll
owedbyf eedbackt
ot hepupil
.”Coult
hardandBrasi
l(1992:
65)ar einconsonancewiththem bycoi ni
ngthetermInit
iator
,ResponseandFeedback
(IRF).

SinclairandCoul t
hard(1992:26- 27)descr ibethreekindsoft eachingexchangesas
i
nf orming,dir
ecti
ngandel icit
ingexchanges.Ani nfor
mi ngexchanget akesplaceina
sit
uat i
onwher etheteacherneedst ogivehisorherst udentsnewi nformat i
onorfacts
thattheyneedt oknow.Adi recti
ngexchangei smeanttogett hest udentst oper
for
m an
actionbydoi ngsomet hing,butnotspeaki ng.Anel i
citi
ngexchangei st hecommon
exchangei ntheclassr
oom di scourse.Ittakesplacewhent het eacherasksaquest i
on;
thest udentpr
ovidesananswer ,
andt heteachergivesafoll
ow- upev aluati
on.

Transaction
Transactionismadeupofanexchangeorasequenceofexchangesuni tedbyasi ngle
task.Itisthenexttolessoni ntherank-scale.Iti
st hebasicuni
tofconversati
onand
consistsofmi ni
malcont r
ibuti
onmadebyt hepar t
icipant
sinthedi
scourse.Itusual
ly
beginswi thanopeningandendswi thacl osing.Thereareboundar
ymar kerssuchas
“ri
ghtnow” ,“
ok”
,“well”
,“right
”whichi ndicatesthebegi nni
ngofanew t r
ansacti
on.
Thesemar ker
sarecall
edframes.

Lesson
Alessonist
hehighestunitofclassroom di
scourse.Itconsistsofasetoft
ransacti
ons.
Itr
eferst
oallact
ivi
ti
est hattakeplaceintheclassroom from themomentt heteacher
enter
sthecl
assti
llheleaves.Itconsist
sofasequenceofi nt er
act
ions.

Spokendi scourse
Spokendi scourseincl
udesal lv erbalut t
erancesei therfor
malorinf ormal .Iti
sdi scourse
i
nv erbalorspokenf or m.Ev erysoci alacti
v i
tywegeti nv
olvedi nt or elatewi thone
anot hersuch as causalconv ersati
on,i nterview,ser mon,semi nar,publ i
cl ecture,
classr oom conv er
sation,t elephone exchange,pol i
ti
caltalk and so on i s spoken
discour se.Thoughspokendi scour sei sv er
bal ,itisalsoaccompani edbysomenon-
verbalbehav i
oursuchasf acialgest uresandbodymov ementt oai di nterpretationof
discour se.Casualconv ersati
oni st hemostf requentt ypeofspokendi scour sefoundi n
humansoci ety.Spokendi scour semaybef ace-to-
faceordi stancecommuni cati
on
wher et hespeakeri snotphy sicall
ypr esentl iket el
ephoneconv ersat i
on,r adioand
televisionbroadcast.

Cert
ainfeat
ureschar act
eri
zedspokendiscour
sewhichi
ncl
udeknownorexpect
ed
audi
ence,i
nstantunderst
andingandf
eedback,f
ast
ert
hanwri
tt
endi
scour
seandv
ari
ed

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i
n speech,gest ur
e,intonat
ion,rhy
thm,pit
ch r
ange and pausi
ng.It
sl exi
caland
grammat i
calcomposit
ionsencour
agetheuseofshor
tphrasesandcl
auses,at
tr
ibut
ive
adject
ivesandlexi
cal
repeti
ti
ons.

Spokendiscoursemaybecl assif
iedaccor
dingtothenumberofpar t
ici
pantsinvolved.
Wehav emonol ogueinanuni nt
errupt
edspeechbyonlyoneper son.Thespeakermay
betal
kingtohimselforotherswhodonotr espondorarenotexpectedtor espond.Itis
mostlyusedindrama.Dialogueisaconversati
onbetweentwopar t
ici
pants.Mul t
il
ogue
i
saconv ersat
ionalsi
tuat
ionwheremanypar t
ici
pant
sareinvol
vedinaconv ersati
on.

Utteranceandcommuni cativeact s
Utteranceandcommuni cativeact sar eindispensabl econcept si nspokendi scour se.
Utterancei sauni tofspokenl anguagei ncont ext.Schiffri
n(1994:39- 41)descr ibes
discour seasut terances.I timpl iest hatut ter ancesar esmal luni t swhi chmadeup
discour se.Ut terancesar econt extual i
zedsent ences,t hati s,acol l
ect i
onofsent ences
placedi napar t
icularcont extj ustasdi scour sei sdefinedasl anguagei ncont ext .An
utterancei sdi fferentf rom asent encebecauseasent encei sdecont extual i
zedwhi lean
utterancei scont extual i
z edsent ences.Ut terancesar eusedt oper f
or m communi cat iv
e
acts.Theconceptofcommuni cativ eact sisder iv
edf rom J.L.Aust inlect ureof1955
ti
tledHow t oDoThi ngswi thWor dswher ehedescr i
bedev er
yspeechasanact i
on.
Communi cativeacti sal so r eferredt o asspeechact .Ev eryut ter ancemadebya
speakeri smeantt oper for m anact i
on,t hati s,changi ngt herealit
yoft hesi tuat ioni n
cont ext .Iti st heper for mat iv
ef unct ionofi l
locut i
onar yactoft hespeechact s.The
out comeofcommuni cativeacti st heact ioncar ri
edoutasar esul toft heut ter ance
whi chi si l
locut i
onar yr esult.Theposi tionofJ.R.Sear l
e( 1962)ist hatunder st andi ngt he
utterance whi ch he cal led i l
locut ionaryr esul tis mor ei mpor tant.He ex plains
i
ll
ocut ionar yactasconv ent i
onalr elat i
onbet weent heut t
eranceandt hei ntent ionoft he
speaker .Theactoft heut terancei st hemai nconcer nincommuni cat iveact ions.I tmay
beanyoft hosegi venbyJ.R.Sear l
e( 1969) :asser t
ives,directiv es,commi ssi v es,
expr essi vesanddecl arat i
vesort hosegi venbyJakobson( 1960)r eferent i
al ,emot ive,
phat ic,conat i
v e,met aphy sicalandpoet icfunct ions.Communi cat i
v eacti sst r
uct ured
accor ding tot het hreel evelsofspeech act :l ocutionaryact ,i l
locut i
onar yactand
per l
ocut i
onar yactbecausei tisbel ievedt hatut teranceper formsact ionateachl ev elof
speechact .

Writ
tendiscourse
Writ
ten discourse i
s anyf orm ofdiscour
se thatbeen gr aphi
call
yr epr
esent
ed or
documentedonapi eceofpaperorot hermediameans.I tencouragesdocumentat
ion
ofthemessageconv eyed which can beused laterforrefer
encing.Itiscaref
ully
constr
uctedwi t
har oom forcorr
ect
ionandreconstruct
ionunli
kethespokendiscourse.

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Thewr i
terisabl et oadj ustt hecont entofhi swor k.Thei deasi nwr i
ttendi scoursear e
organizedst r
uctur all
yi nt
opar agraphs.Eachpar agr aphconv eysani deat hatcanbe
summar ized into one sent ence cal led the t
opic sent ence.Punct uat ion mar ks are
employ edi nwr i
ttendi scour set omakei tmeaningf ultother eader .Thepar agraphsar e
l
inkedonet oanot herbyconnect i
vest omaket hedi scourseauni f
iedwhol e.Weshoul d
notet hatwr itt
en di scour se can be di v
ided i
nto chapt ers,v erses,sect ions,uni t
s,
headings,subheadi ngset c.Thewr iterisalwayscar efulinwr i
tt
endi scoursebecause
anyonecanpi ckt het extupatanyt i
met oread.Someoft heexampl esar enov el,pl
ay,
poem,book,edi torialinnewspaper ,ar ti
cleinmagazi ne,letter,reportet c(Brownand
Yule1983: 12-26).

Text
Thepioneersofsystemi
cfunct
ionall
ingui
stic(
SFL)whodev elopint
erestinthest udyof
writ
tendiscourser
efert
othestudyofwr i
tt
endiscourseast extli
ngui
stics(Hall
idayand
Hasan1985:10,Bl oorandBloor1995:86) .Thei
rv iew isthatwrit
tendi scoursehas
cert
ainfeaturewhichmakesitdiff
erentfrom spokendi scourse,whichisact uall
yits
text
uali
ty.

Textor i
ginatesf rom t heLat i
nf ormt ext usmeani ng“toweav e”.Itisacont i
nuouspi ece
ofwr i
tingoranext ractfrom anypar tofwr ittenorpr i
ntedmat erials(Daramola2001:
161).Texti snotr estri
ctedt owr it
tenl anguageal one;iti
sbot hspokenandwr itt
en.Iti s
defi
nedbyl inguistsasanyl anguaget hati sf uncti
onal,t
hatis,eitherspokenorwr i
tten
l
anguagewor kingi napar ticularcontext .Hal l
idayandHasan( 1976: 1)expl
ainthat,
“The
wordt extisusedi nlinguisti
cst or efert oanypassage,spokenorwr i
tt
en,ofwhat ev er
l
engtht hatdoesf ir
m auni fi
edwhol e.”I tmeanst hatat extmaybespokenorwr itten,
butitmusthav eel ement sofuni t
ywhi chwi llenableittomakemeani ngorsense.I ti s
descri
bedasasemant i
cuni t.Daramol a( i
bid)explainsthatithast wobasi cfeatur
es:a
productandapr ocess.I tcanbeconst ructedandr ecordedi nasy st
emat i
cwayf or
furt
herassessmentasapr oduct.Itev olvesasasemant i
cchoi ce,asapr ocess,t
hrough
asemant icnet wor ki nacont ext
.Textcanbeseenasameansofexchangeoran
i
nteractiveev entbet weent wospeaker sofal anguage.

Textur
e
Textur
eisthequal i
tyofatext.Atexthastextur
ebecauset hati
swhatdi sti
ngui
shesit
fr
om othercombi nati
onofwor dsthatisnotat ext.Iti
st heelementt hatunif
iesthe
str
uctur
eofat extbyshowingrel
ati
onbet weensentencesi nanenv ir
onment(Halli
day
and Hasan1976: 2).Daramola(2001:163)assertsthat,“thet ext
ureofat extisa
demonstrat
ion ofsome ki nds ofsemant i
cr elat
ions between its components or
messages.”Hej usti
fi
esatextasasemant i
cunitwhi chhast extur
easel ementofits
meaningunity
.

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Cont ext
Cont exti st hesoci alenv ir
onmenti nwhi chat extoccur s.Itisasetoff actar ounda
par ti
cul arev ent .Thus,i ti s ev er ything t hatsur rounds pr oduct ion ofan ut terance
i
ncl udi ngt hesi t
uat i
on,t hei nterlocut orsandt heknowl edgeoft hecul turalnor msand
behav iour.Al lt hese ext ernalf act orsconst itute cont extwhi ch hel pst he l anguage
speakert oi nt erpretmeani ng i n appr opr iatemanner .Schi ff
r i
n( 1994)cat egor icall
y
decl arest hat :
Cont ext i st hus a wor ldf il
led wi t
h peopl e pr oduci ng
utter ances:peopl ewhohav esoci al,cul turalandper sonal
i
dent it
ies,knowl edge,bel iefs,goal s and want s and who
i
nt er actwi thoneanot heri nv arioussoci all
yandcul turally
def inedsi tuati
ons.( 363)
Indi scour seanal ysis,west udybot ht extandcont ext .Thei deaofcont extiscr editedt o
Mal inowski ’scont extofsi t uationwhi chr eferst ot hecont exti nwhi chuser sofany
l
anguage orpar ticipantsi n di scour se f ound t hemsel ves.Cont extofsi tuat i
on i s
i
ndi spensabl ei nthei nterpret ati
onandunder standi ngofdi scourse( Dar amol a2005: 67)
.
At extoccur si nacont extofsi tuat i
on.Ther ear et hreecomponent sofcont extof
situat i
onaccor dingt oHal l
iday .Theyar ef ield,t enorandmode.Thet hreecomponent s
helpust of ocusourat t
ent i
ononapar ti
cularspeechsi tuationbymaki ngthef eat uresof
at extexpl icit.Eachoft hesecomponent smakest hest udyofdi scour seexpl icit.Fiel dof
discour ser efer st ot heact ivit
yt hati sgoi ngonandt hepur poset hatl anguagei s
per formi ngi ncont extoft heact i
v ity.Tenorofdi scour ser eferstot hei nteractionamong
thepar ti
cipant sespeci allyt hesoci alr elat i
onshi pamongt hem.Modeofdi scour se
refer st other ol eofl anguagei ncommuni cat i
onpar t
icularlyasachannelormedi um of
communi cat i
on.Themodecanei therbespokenorwr it
ten.

Cohesi
on
Cohesi
onisther el
ationsofmeaningwhichexistwit
hinthetextandjusti
fyitasatext.I
t
i
st heli
ngui
sti
cmeansbywhi chat extfunct
ionsasasi ngleunit(Hal
li
dayandHasan
1976:4,Osi
sanwo2003/ 2005:31).Therearevari
ouselementst hatareusedt ot
ieup
var
ioussentencest ogetheri
nat ext
;theseelementsar eusedt oachievecohesion.
Cohesi
onislexicalandgr ammati
calunit
ywi t
hinatext
.Wi t
houtcohesion,atextwil
lnot
makemeaning.

Theel ementsthatareusedt oachievesemanti

cunityinthetextar
ecall
edcohesiv
e
devices.Hal l
idayand Hasan( 1976)i dent
if
yfi
vemaj ortypesofcohesi
vedev i
ces:
ref
er ences,substit
uti
on,ell
i
psi
s,conjuncti
onandlexi
calcohesi
on.Eachofthesemay
fur
therbesubdi v
ided.Letusbr
ief
lyl
ookatt hem.
Refer ence

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Ref er encei st her el
at ionbet weenanel ementofat extandsomet hingel sewhi chrefer s
toi tf ori nt er pret ationi nagi vencont ext .Wor dsusedasr eferencesdonothav ethei r
ownmeani ng; wecanonl yinfert hei rmeani ngbyr eferringt osomet hi ngel sei nt het ext.
Ther ear ef ourmaj ort ypesofr efer ence.Fi rst,anaphor i
ci smaki ngr ef erencet owhat
hasbeensai dear li
eri nt het ext .Second,cat aphor i
ci st her eferencemadet owhatwi l
l
besai dl at eri nt het ext ,thatis, forwar dr efer enci ng.Thi rd, endophor ici sr efer encewi t hin
thet ext ;i tcov ersbot hanaphor icandcat aphor ic.Four t
h,exophor ici st her eferencet o
somet hi ngout si det het ext.
Subst itut ion
Itist her epl aci ngofawor d,phr aseorcl ausewi t
hawor di nthenextcl auset oav oi d
repet ition.Forexampl e:
Bunmi :Iwonschol ar shipt ostudyi nLondon.
Taju: Iknowi tal ready .
Thecohesi vei tem “ i
t”i sused t or epl acet hesent encemadebyBunmit o avoi d
repeat ingi t.
Elli
psi s
Itist hedel etionofcer taingr ammat i
cal element sf rom ast ructuref orcohesi vepur pose.
Suchgr ammat i
calel ement sar er ef erredt oasr edundantel ement s,butt heycanbe
uniquel yr ecov er ed.Forexampl e:
Janet :Di dy ouseet hemoneyIl ef tont het abl e?
James: No.( ^)
Conj unct i
on
Conj unct i
onsar euset oshow r elationshi pbet weencl ausesandsent ences.Theyar e
cohesi v edev icesusedt ol i
nkt wosuccessi v ecl ausesorsent ences.Hal li
dayandHasan
(1976:320- 322)st at ef ourspeci ficconj unct iver elationsof‘ and’,‘ yet ’
,‘ so’and‘ then’
whi chmayoccurei theri next er nalori nter nalcont ext.Ot herschol ar sment ionaddi tive,
tempor al ,adv er sat i
v e,casualand cont i
nuat iver elations ofconj unct ion ( Onadeko
2000: 99) .
Lexi cal cohesi on
Lexi calr elat ionshi pexi stswhenl exicali temshav east ructuralr el ationshi p.Lexi cal
i
t emsar eusedasacohesi vedev icewhent hef eat uresofwor dsandgr oupofwor dsar e
usedt ocr eat er el ationshi psamongt hewor ds.Ther ear et wot y
pesofl exi calcohesi on:
reit
er at ionandcol l
ocat i
on.Rei terat ionsi mpl ymeansdoi ngorsay ingt hesamet hing
sev er alt imes.I tmaybedonet hrought heuseofr epet i
ti
on,sy nony my ,hy pony myand
antony my .Col locat ioni st her elat i
onofwor dst hatal way soccurt oget her .Oncet hef irst
i
t em i sment i
oned, itiseasyt omar koutwhatf ollows.Forexampl e: husbandand. ..
.

Coher
ence
Coher
enceiswhatenabl
esat
extt
omakesensetopeopl
e.Itdoesnotexi
sti
nlanguage
buti
npeople.I
tispeopl
ewhodeter
minewhet
herwhattheyreadmakessenseornot

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becauset heytrytoarri
veatani nt
erpretat
ionwhichislinewit
ht hei
rexperi
ence.I
tis
possi
bl eforat exttomakesensewi thoutcohesiveti
es.Suchtexthascoherencebut
l
ackscohesi on.
A:Iam hungr y
.
B:Thereisnomoney .
C:Iwil
l wait
.
Thetextabov est i
llmakessensedespitethattherearenocohesivetiest
ojointhem.
Coherencecanbeachi evedthroughcauseandef fect
,conti
gui
tyinti
meandspace, and
associati
ves.

Lit
erarydiscour se
Lit
erarydiscour seisat extwi thli
teraryfeatures.Itmaybedr amat ic,prosai
corpoet i
c.
Eachoft hegenr esoflit
er at
urehasi tspeculiarstyli
sti
cfeatures.Languagei susedasa
vehicl
ef orli
teraturebecauseev eryliter
arywor kispr esentedinl anguageei t
herinoral
orwr it
tenf orm,t herefore,everyl i
terarywor ki saf orm ofdi scour se.Styl
isti
cshas
preparedagr oundwher elanguageandl i
teratureinter
act.Anyl i
terarydiscoursecanbe
analyzedt hroughanydi scourseanal yti
calappr oacht oinvestigatehow l anguagei s
usedbyt hewr iterinthesoci alcont extbecausel it
erarywr i
ter
swr it
et ocommuni cate
social,
economi c,poli
ti
cal andrel
igiousissuesi ntheircommuni tyt osocietyasawhol e.

Approachestodiscourseanalysis
Therearev ari
ousappr oacheswhi chcanbeappl iedindoinganalysi
sofdi scourse.
These approaches are botht heoreticaland met hodi
cal
.Sixoft hese approaches:
pragmati
cs,speech act s,semi otics,et hnogr
aphy of communicati
on,
conversati
on
analy
sisandinteract
ionalsoci
olinguisticsareexaminedbri
efl
ybel
ow.

Pragmat ics
Pragmat icsist hest udyofmeani ngofl anguageusei ncontext.Itdoesnott ake
cognisance of f ormalpr opert
ies of l anguage const ructi
on whi ch determine its
grammat i
cali
ty,butmeani ngderivedf rom howut terancei susedandi t
srelati
onandi ts
rel
ati
ont othesoci alcont extinwhi chitisused.Or i
ginofpr agmaticswast racedbackt o
Mor r
is( 1938)whodef inedi tasabr anchofsemi oti
cs( Schiff
ri
n1994:191,Osi sanwo
2003/2005:49) .Pr agmat icsisdifferentfrom semant i
cswhi chist hestudyofmeani ng
oflanguage.I tlooksatt heaspectofmeani ngandl anguageuset hatisdependenton
thespeakerandt hel i
stener( Wales1989:365,Yul e1996:1) .Any oneusingpr agmat i
c
approacht odi scoursei ntendst oi nvesti
gatemeani ngofl anguagebey ondt hel i
teral
meani ng.Hel ooksatt hemeani ngi nthecont extofdi scoursebetweent hepar t
icipants,
thati
s, communi cati
vemeani ng.

Pr
agmat
icshassomebasi
cpr
inci
plest
hatev
ery
onef
ami
l
iarwi
thi
tmustknowi
nor
der

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toappl yit
.Theyar eexpl ainedbel ow.
Utteranceandcont ext:Ut ter ancei sauni tofdi scourseorspeech.I tismadei na
context.Cont exti sallphy sical,soci alandcul turalsituati
onst hatsur r
ounddi scour se.
Utterancemustbeconsi der edwi thinitscont extbef oremeani ngcanbeder ived.
Implicature:Thi sismeani ngorsomet hingi mpl iedi nconv ersat i
onalcont extwhi chi s
disti
nctf r
om whati ssai d.
Entailment :I
ti sl ogicali mpl icat i
on.Ent ai
l
ment sar ededuct i
onsori nferencesmade
fr
om ut terancest ohel pusi nter pretthem successf ull
y.
Presupposi ti
on:I tist hebackgr oundknowl edgeorbel iefshar edbyt hepar ti
cipant sin
discoursewhi chmakest hem t ounder standt heappr opriat
econt extofdiscour se.
Deixis:Itist heuseofr eferencei temsi nut terances,andsuchi temsdependont he
contextoft heut terance.Commondei cticwor dsar e‘I,you,we, now, her
e,there, thatetc.
Therear edi fferentki ndsofdei xiswhi char e:di scoursedei xis,per sonaldei xis,place
deixi
s, t
imedei xi
sandsoci al deixis.

Speechact s
Speechact st heorybeganwi tht heOxf ordphilosopher ,J.L.Aust ini nthe1930s.I twas
expoundedasaser iesofWi ll
iam Jamesl ecturet hatAust ingav eatHar vardUni v
ersity
i
n1955.Theser i
esoft het wel vel ectureswaspubl i
shedi n1962wi tht it
leHow t oDo
Thingswi thWor ds.Thecr uxoft het heoryist hatpeopl eper for m act ionwhent hey
makeanut ter
ance.Hedi stinguishesbet weenper f
ormat iveut terancesandconst ative
utterances.Per f
ormativeut terancesper formv ariousact ssuchasdecl ari
ng,ordering,
conf i
rmi ng,deny i
ngof fering,per mi t
ti
ng,adv i
sing,pr omi sing,t hanki ng,condol inget c.
Ver bsar et hestrengthofper format ivecl auses.Per for mat ivev er bsar et hev erbst hat
perfor mt heact sstatedi nt heut terances.Someoft hem ar e:aut hori
ze,or der,adv i
se,
i
nst ruct,accept ,name,decl are,summon,sent ence,sanct ion,apol ogize,chr i
sten,
conv ict,quer y,swear,rejectetc.Insomecases, thesev erbsgowi th‘ Iher eby’t
oper form
theact .Forexampl e,“ Iherebydecl arey ouhusbandandwi fe.”Const at i
veut t
erances
aret hoseusedi nmaki ngst atementordescr i
bingt hest at eofaf fairs.Itisbelievedt hat
theseut terancesdonotper form act sbecauset heyar enotper for mat ives(Mal mkjær
andAnder son1991:416) .Hel aterincludedt hati ssuinganut terancei naspeech
sit
uat ioni st hemosti mpor tantfact or(Aust i
n1962: 139) .

Therearet wocondi t
ionsunderl
yingspeechact saccor dingtoAusti
n;theyar etext(t
he
utt
erancemadet oper f
orm anact )andcont ext( whatmakesanut t
erancet rueor
appropri
ate).I
tisthecontextthatdetermineswhet heranut t
eranceisquali
fiedtoactin
aparti
cularsit
uat i
on.Therearecer t
ainconditi
onsgi ventojusti
fyt
ruthf
ulnessorf al
sit
y
ofanutterance;theyarecall
edfelici
tycondit
ionort r
ut hcondi
ti
on.Thesecondi ti
onsare
gi
venbyJ.R.Sear l
e.
i
.Thespeakermustbet hepersont hatisqual i
fiedt omakecer tainutteranceina

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parti
cularoccasi on fort he ut terance t o hav e ef
fect
.The par ti
cipants mustbe
appropriat
epeopl eandt heci r
cumst ancesmustbeappr opri
atealso.
i
i.Al lt
hepar ti
cipant
smustcar r
youtt heconv enti
onalprocedurecareful
lycomplet
ely
whi l
etheli
stenershouldcar ryoutt heappr opriateacti
onafterthespeech.
i
ii.Allt
hepar ti
cipant
smusthav ewhatt heyar erequir
edtohav ebyconv enti
onbefore
theycanper f
orm speechact s.
i
v .Theparti
cipantsshoul dber eadyt odowhat evertheyarerequir
edtodo.
I
ft heseconditi
onsaref ulfi
l
led, speechact scant hentakeplace.

Ther earet hreemaj oract spr oposedbyAust i

nandSear le:locut ionary,il
locuti
onaryand
perlocutionaryact s.Schi ffri
n( 1994)decl arest hat :
Allutterancesper form speechact st hatarecompr isedofa
locuti
onar yact( thepr oducti
onofsoundsandwor dswi th
meani ngs) ,ani llocut i
onaryact( thei ssuingofanut terance
withconv entionalcommuni cativef orceachi ev ed“insay i
ng” ),
and a per locutionar yact( the act ualef fectachi ev ed “ by
say i
ng”).(51)
Kempson( 1977)cor r
obor at eswi t
hthem wi thhi sv i
ewt hat,“aspeakerut ter
ssent ences
withapar ti
cularmeani ng( l
ocut ionaryact)andwi thapar t
icularf orce( i
ll
ocut i
onaryact)
i
nor dertoachi ev eacer tainef fect(perlocut i
onar yact )ont hehear er”(51).Thet woof
them hav eaconv ergentpoi ntont het hreespeechact sper for medbyt hespeaker
throughut teranceswhi char e:
Locut i
onar yact:pr oduct i
onofameani ngful utterance,
I
llocutionaryact :anut terancei ssuedwi thconv enti
onal communi cati
v eforceachieved,
Perlocutionaryact : t
heact ual effectachievedbyt heut teranceespeci all
yont hehear er
.

Semi ot
ics
Thet er
m semi ot
icsor i
ginatedf r
om aGr eekwor dsemei oti
koswhichisconcer
nedwi t
h
theobservati
onsi gns.Theadj ecti
vesemi oti
cwascoi nedbyt heEngli
shphil
osopher,
JohnLocke,i nt heear lysevent eenthcentury(Dar amola2001:161).Semioti
csisa
disci
pli
nethatdealswi ththest udyandanal y
sisofsi gnsandsymbolsfoundinal
lforms
ofcommuni cati
on,t hati s,language bot h spoken and wr i
tt
en,gestur
es,clot
hing,
bil
lboar
ds,human and ani malbehav i
our.CharlesSanderPi erceand Ferdi
nand de
Saussurecont ri
butedt osemi ot i
csati tsformat i
onst age.Theterm semiol
ogywas
coinedbydeSaussur e, whichhecal ledthestudyoflifeofthesi
gninsociet
y.

Semi oti
csist hest udyofcommuni cat
ivepowerofsi gnsandcodes.Iti
sanother
approacht odi scoursebecausehumanl anguageisasy st
em ofsignsandcodes.
Int
erlocutor
sof tencommuni cat
ethr
oughspecialcodesshar
edbycertai
ngroupasa
secretfrom thosewhoar enotmember softhegroup.Thegr
oupmembersareabl
et o

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anal
yzet
hecodesandi
nter
prett
hemessage.

Saussur econsi der ssi gnr elat i

onasdy adic,t hati s,ther elationshipbet weent hesi gn
andt heconcept .Thi smayal sobecal ledsi gni fierandsi gni fied.Thesi gnifi
eri sthesi gn
givenwhi lethesi gnifiedi st her eferentoft hesi gn.Thet hreeobj ectsofsemi osisar ethe
sign,i tsobj ectandi tsi nterpr etant .Thei nt erpr etantst andsbet weent hesi gnandi ts
objectbecausehei st heonewhoanal yzest hesi gnt orelat ei ttot heappr opr i
ateobj ect
i
nt hephy sicalent ity.Pi ercebel ievest hatsi gnscanbecat egor izedi ntot hreecl assesi n
relati
ont ot heirobj ect st hought her elationshi pi sar bitrary( Eco1984:136,Hookway
1985,Mal mkj ærandAnder son1991:400) .Theyar ei coni c,i ndexi calandsy mbol i
c
relati
onshi ps.
Iconicr elationshi pi sast raightf orwar dr elat i
onshi pbet weenani conandt heobj ectit
denot es.Ani coni sasi gnwhi chr ef erst ot heobj ecti tdenot esei t
heri nf i
gure,shape,
colour ,appear anceandot herchar act er i
stics.Forexampl e,shapeofamanr epr esents
humanbei ng.
Indexi calr elationshi pi swhenonet hingdenot esanot hert hingent irely,butt her eisa
relati
onshi pofef fectbet weent hesi gnandt heobj ect.Thegat her edcl oudi sani ndexof
expect ationofr ain.Smokei sal soani ndexoff ire.
Sy mbol i
cr elationshi pi spur elyar bit
r ary.Ther ei sno cl earr elationshi p bet ween a
symbolandi tsobj ecti nr eall ife.Itispur elyconv ent i
onal .Sy mbol sar et okensoft ypes
nott heexactt hi ngs.
Traf f
icl ighti sconv ent ionallyr elatedt oitsmeani ngwher e‘ red’means‘ stop’;‘yell
ow’
means‘ ready ’and‘ gr een’means‘ go’.Sy mbol sar enoti nt erpretabl ei nsacr osanct
manner .Col ourr edt hatmeansst opi nt raf fi
cl ightmaymeandangerorl ovei not her
cont ext s.Signsar eint erpretabl eaccor dingt osoci alconv ent ions.

Ethnogr aphyofcommuni cati

on
Ethnogr aphyi sabr anchofant hropologywhi chdeal swithdescr ipt
ivestudyofliv i
ng
cult
ur es.Itdoesnotwor konexi sti
ngdat aorbasedont heout comeofpr evious
resear ches.Itbreaksnewgr ound,getsf reshdatathroughparticipantobservat
ionsand
i
nterviews,andgener atesnew theoryt oexplorehow peoplet hink,beli
eveandbehav e
witheachot herinlocalti
meandspace( LongmanDi cti
onaryofLanguageTeachi ngand
AppliedLi nguist
ics.Thi
rdediti
on2002) .
Iti
sappl i
cabletol i
ngui
sti
cstudyint hear eaoflanguagelearni
nganduset oref
ertot he
obser vati
on and descr i
pti
on ofnat urallyoccurri
ng language,f orexampl e,between
mot herandchi l
despeciall
ywhereast rongcul t
uralel
ementi si
nv olvedintheresearch.

Et
hnographyofcommunicat
ionisanappr
oachtodiscour
seanal
ysi
stostudyt
heplace
ofl
anguageincult
ureandsociety
.Itwasdevel
opedbyHy meinhisseri
esofpapers
wri
tt
enint he1960and1970s( Hyme1974a:20).I
tisanapproachthati
sbasedon

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anthr opologyandl inguist i
cs.I tai mst oanal y zepatternsofcommuni cati
onaspar tof
culturalbehav i
ourwhi chi ncludesr ecogni ti
onofdi versitypossi bi
lit
yi ncommuni cat i
ve
pract i
cesandr ealizati
onofsuchpr acticesaspar tofoursoci o-cult
ur alknowl edgeand
behav i
our.Itcr eatesauni fiedi ntegrat edf ramewor ki nwhichcommuni cati
onhasa
cent r
alr oleinbot hant hropol ogi calandl i
nguisti
cst udies(Schi ffri
n1994:138) .I tis
concer nedwi tht hest udyofway sofspeaki ngi nculturalcont exts.Iti soft heopi nion
thatspeaker s ofa l anguage do notonl yhav e grammat icalcompet ence oft hei
r
l
anguage,butal soascul turalmember s,t heyhav ecommuni cat i
vecompet ence.Att he
same t ime,t hey shar e cul turalknowl edge oft he r ul
es abouthow t oi nteract
appr opriatel
y i n ev er y si tuat i
on ( van Di jk 1997: 25) . The et hnogr aphers of
communi cat
ionanal yzecommuni cati
v epat ternsbyusi ngthemet hodofpar ti
cipant
obser vationinor dertodi scov erhowmember sofacul tureknowhowt omake, andhow
tocommuni catet hei nterpret ationoft hesenset heymakei nt heirr elationshipthrough
l
anguage.I n a nut shel l
,et hnogr aphyofcommuni cation i
nv estigates t he place of
l
anguagei ncultureandsoci et y,andr ef l
ectst hefactt hatculturei tselfencompasses
totali
tyofknowl edgeandpr act icesi nsoci ety
.

Conv er sat ionanal ysis

Conv er sat ionisor alorspokendi scour sewhi chcanber ecor dedf orf urtherst udi es.Itis
natur allyoccur r
ingut ter ancesamongpar t
icipant sinasoci alset t
ingwhi chf ollow t he
socialr ulesofor gani zingcommuni cation.Itisact ualsoci alt al
k.Conv er sati
onanal ysis
i
sanappr oacht odi scour sef rom soci ologywhi chseekst odi scov ert hemet hodst hat
member sofasoci etyuset opr oduceasenseofsoci alor der,andconv ersat ioni sa
sourceofmuchofoursoci alor der( Schiffri
n1994:232) .Itisal so cal ledt alki n
i
nteract ion.Itwasi nt roducedbySchegl off,SacksandJef fersoni nt heear ly1970s.I tis
concer nedwi ththepr obl em ofsoci al order,thati s,howl anguagecr eatessoci al cont ext,
andhow soci alcont extcr eatesl anguage.I tisanappr oacht odi scour set hatl ays
emphasi s on cont ext ,and t he rel evance ofcont extis on t ext.I tconsi der s how
participant s in a conv ersation const ruct sy st emat i
c sol utions t o r ecur rent
organi zat ionalpr oblemsoft alk,andt hesol utionscomet hrought hecl oseanal ysisof
the sequent ialpr ogr essi on oft alk( Schiffri
n 1994:273) .The basi c pr emi ses of
conv er sat i
onanal ysisar ei.Languagei saf orm ofsoci ali nter
act i
on;i i.conv er sational
struct uresar er ule-gov erned.I tposi tst hatv erbali nteractionsar ebot hst ruct urall
y
organi zedandcont ext uall
yor iented.I tist hedut yoft heanal yst st oel uci datet he
struct uresanddet ermi nehowt heyar einterrelated( Herit
age1984) .

Therearemechani smstohelpint
heorgani
zati
onofconv ersati
on.Oneofthem ist
urn-
taki
ng,whichist hemethodofall
ocati
ngfloorinconver
sat i
on.Aper sonspeaksata
ti
mei nconver
sationandallowsot
herstospeakwhenhist urnisoverbygiv
ingacue.It
i
st he basic charact
eri
sti
c ofnormalconversat
ion which can be done eit
herby

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appoi ntingthenextspeakerort henextspeakerj ustt aket hef l
oorwi t
houtbei ng
appoi nted,ort hecur rentspeakercont inuesi fthenextspeakerr efusestotakethefloor
(Coulthar d 1985:59,Sacks,Schegl of fand Jef ferson 1974:704) .Anotherone i s
adjacencypai rwhi chi sauni tofconv ersationt hatcont ainst wout t
erancesinadjacent
producedbydi f
ferentspeaker swher et heyt akeonet urnaf teranotherinasequence.
Thesequencemaycont ainquest i
onandanswerpai r
,gr eeti
ngandr esponsepai r
,
requestandaccept anceorr ej ecti
onpai r,apologyandaccept ancepairandsoon.Each
sequenceoft heconv ersationhasanopeni ng,exchangeandcl osing.Thereisal so
i
nser tionsequencewhi chi sasequenceoft ur nsthati ntervenest hefi
rstandthesecond
partsoft headj acencypai r.Itisusedasadel ayt acti
cswhenpeopl edonotwantt o
provideadi rectr esponset oanel i
cit
at i
onunt i
ltheyar esur eofwhatt osay .Thereis
alsoar epai
rmechani sm empl oyedwhent herei saner r
ori ncommuni cat
ion.Theremay
alsobeov erlappingwhi chmustbeav oided.

Int
er actionalsoci oli
ngui stics
Int
er actionalsoci olingui sticsi sani nterpretat i
vel i
ngui sti
cappr oachdev elopedbyJohn
Gumper zt oanal y zer ealt imepr ocessesi nf acet of aceencount ers( Gumper z1982a:
vii
).Heempl oy scont ext ual izationcueswhi char esi gnalli
ngmechani smsofl anguage
and behav iour,bot hv er baland non- verbalsi gns,t hatr elatet he ut terance t ot he
cont extualknowl edge,whi ch cont ributest ot hepr esupposi tionsnecessar yf ort he
i
nfer enceoft hemeani ngoft heut t
er ance( Gumper z1984a:12) .Theappr oachf ocuses
onhowpeopl ef rom di ff erentcul t
uralbackgr oundsmayshar egr ammat icalknowl edge
ofal anguagebutcont ext ual izewhatsomeonesai ddi fferentl
yi nawayt hatdi fferent
messagesar epr oducedf rom i tandunder stood.Hev i
ewsl anguageasasoci allyand
culturall
yconst ructedsy mbolsy st
em t hati si ndi fferentway sr efl
ectmacr o-levelof
socialmeani ng,t hati s,gr oupi dentityandst atusdi fference,andcr eat emi cr
o-lev elof
socialmeani ng,t hati s,whataper soni ssay i
nganddoi ngatapar ti
cul armoment .
Speaker sar emember sofsoci o-culturalgr oups.Themanneri nwhi chweusel anguage
refl
ect sourgr oupi dent i
tyandcont i
nuest or evealwho wear e;whatwewantt o
communi cateandhowwewantt ocommuni cate( Schiffri
n1994:102) .Thef ocalpoi nts
ofGumper zar ecul t
ur e,soci ety,language,t hesel fandcont extualizati
oncuewhi ch
rel
at est oanot hert woconcept s: cont extual presupposi t
ionandsi tuatedinf erence.

Er
v i
ngGof fmanisanot hermaj orcontr
ibutortot heappr oach.Hef ocusesonsoci al
i
nteracti
on which compl ement sGumper zsituated inf
erencei nstead ofanal y
sisof
l
anguage.Hedescr ibeshowl anguageissituatedinpar t
icul
arcircumst ancesofsocial
l
if
e,andhowi taffectsthecircumstances.Whathedoesi sthathepl aceslanguageand
ot
hercommuni cativesignsy stemsinthesamesoci alandinterpersonalcontext
swhich
pr
ov i
det hepresuppositionsthatGumper zfindst obeacr uci
albackgr oundforthe
i
nterpret
ati
onofmeani ng.

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Thepoi ntofconv ergencebet weent het woschol arsist hattheypr ov

ideauni tyto
i
nteracti
onalsocioli
nguisti
csbyshowi ngthei nt
eracti
onbet weensel fandot hers,and
context.Gumper zcontributi
onont hef i
rsthandf ocusesont hecriti
calnatureoft he
i
nterpretat
ionofcontextt othecommuni cati
onofi nf
ormat i
on,andt oanotherper son’
s
understandingofaspeaker ’
sint enti
onanddi scoursestrategy.Goff
mancont r
ibuti
onon
theotherhandf ocusesonhowt heorganizati
onofsoci alli
feprovi
descont ext
sf orboth
theconductofsel fandcommuni cat
ionwi thanotherpersont omakesense.Thet woof
them hav ebeenabl etopr ovideanappr oacht odiscoursewhi chfocusesonsi t
uated
meaning.

Discourseanalysi
shasbeent reatedinthi
schapt
ertofamil
i
ari
zelear
ner
switht he
meaning oft he conceptwi
th certai
ntermi
nol
ogi
es t
hatrel
atetoitand di
ff
erent
approachestothestudyofdi
scourse.

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