Gabriel Lee

Period #3

Chapter 12 Outline

Meaning and Characteristics of the Italian Renaissance

People that lived between 1350 -1550 thought that they had witnessed a rebirth of the
Greek and Roman civilizations. The period between the end of the Roman Empire and their own
era was titled the “Middle Ages,” which was characterized by a lack of classical culture. In 1860,
Swedish historian Jacob Burckhardt published The Civilization of the Renaissance in Italy,
which created the modern concept of the Renaissance. He portrayed Italy as the birthplace of the
modern world. He believed that the distinguishing features were the revival of antiquity, the
“perfecting of the individual”, and secularism (“worldliness” of the Italians). Burckhardt missed
the depth of religious sentiment and instead exaggerated the secularism and individuality of the
Renaissance. Contemporary scholars disagree with Burckhardt in that the Renaissance was a
sudden cultural break from the Middle Ages. This is because there was much continuity in
economic, political, and social life between the two periods. By the middle of the fourteenth
century, northern Italy was mostly comprised of city-states. This was due to northern Italy’s
commercial preeminence and political evolution. The city-states became the centers of political,
economic, and social life. From the increased wealth, a new spirit of secularism arose.
During the fourteenth century, the Black Death had claimed many, political disorder
destabilized the countries, and economic recession had left many poor. The Renaissance became
an age of recovery. During this time, Italian intellectuals gained interest in the Greco-Roman
culture of the ancient Mediterranean world. Individuality became a key characteristic of the
Italian Renaissance. However, most of the adoption of Greco-Roman culture was done by the
wealthy upper class, not the peasants.

The Making of Renaissance Society

Economic Recovery
Trade routes during the Italian Renaissance expanded north along the Atlantic Seaboard.
Because of this, the Hanseatic League became increasingly powerful.

Expansion of Trade
During the 13th Century, North German towns formed a commercial and military
association known as Hansa, or the Hanseatic League. They soon monopolized the Northern
European market in many products. However, the silting of the port of Bruges in the 15th Century
marked the beginning of the end for the Hanseatic League. While Hansa was declining, the
Italians, the Venetians in particular, maintained a wealthy empire. The National Territorial States
eventually out-competed the Italian city-states and the Hanseatic League.

Industries Old and New

The economic depression of the 14th Century also affected many manufacturing patterns.
However, by the 15th Century, the Florentine wool industry began to recover. Luxury industries
began to expand, and new industries such as Metallurgy, Printing, and Mining began to rival the
textile industry. Rulers used deeds to mines as collateral for loans. Entrepreneurs developed large
mining operations. The expanding mining industries lead to the development of firearms.

Banking and the Medici

In the 15th Century, the Medici expanded from cloth production into commerce, real
estate and banking. Soon, the Medici became the biggest bank in Europe. They were also the
principal bankers for the papacy. However, at the end of the century, poor leadership and bad
loans caused the sudden decline of the Medici. In 1494, the French seized the Medici’s property
and expelled them from Florence.

Social Changes in the Renaissance

Society became divided mainly into three estates. First, the clergy who had power
because the people believed that they should be guided to spiritual ends. Second were the
nobility, whose privileges were based on the principle that they as nobles provided security and
justice for society. The peasants and townspeople were last.

The Nobility
In much of Europe, the nobles’ incomes were declining while the cost of maintaining
nobility kept rising. By 1500, the aristocracy was going the reconstruction. The nobles only
constituted about 2-3% of the population but dominated it. In 1528, Italian writer Baldassare
Castiglione published The Book of the Courier. It became the handbook for European nobles for
hundreds of years. It contained three basic attributes: 1) Nobles should be born with many
fundamental endowments such as impeccable character, grace, and other talents. 2) Nobles
should cultivate certain achievements such as serving in the military, high education, and having
an artistic ability like music. 3) Have terrific manners and be courteous. The overall aim of the
noble was to serve his prince in an effective and honest way.

Peasants and Townspeople

The peasants constituted about 85-90% of the population except in highly urbanized areas
of Northern Italy and Flanders. The economic crisis of the 14th century caused the decline of the
manorial system. It had already been weakened by the introduction of a money economy in the
12th Century because lords thought it easier to pay peasants than have serfs.
The patricians were in the wealthiest estate due to wealth from capitalistic enterprises in
trade, industry, and banking. Shopkeepers, artisans, guild members, and guild masters came
second. Property-less workers and the unemployed came below them. They made up 30-40% of
the population.

Slavery in the Renaissance

Slavery had disappeared for the most part by the 11th Century but returned first in Spain
where prisoners were used during the Reconquista. After the Black Death, shortness of workers
caused a big reintroduction of slavery. In 1363, Florence authorized the unlimited importation of
slaves. In Italy, slaves had many uses: concubines, craftworkers, and household work. Slaves
were primarily obtained from the Eastern Mediterranean, the Black Sea, Africa, and Muslims
from Spain. Many Italian merchants became involved in lucrative slave trade. By the end of the
15th Century, slavery had declined for many reasons. Some slaves were freed for humanitarian
reasons. After the Turks conquered the Byzantine Empire, the Black Sea markets were closed to
the Italians. Prices rose, cutting demand. Finally, slaves became known as the “domestic enemy,”
and were considered not worth the effort.

The Family in Renaissance Italy

Family was defined as the extended household of parents, children, and servants. Related
families of ten lived close to one another and sometimes even dominated an entire district. Old
family names demanded great status and respect. The bond between the members of one's family
was one of great security in a dangerous world.

Marriage
Parents often arranged marriages in order to strengthen business or family ties. The
marriages were often reinforced by a legally binding marriage contract, which would include the
dowry. The dowry was an indicator of whether the daughter would be moving up or down in
society. The father-husband figure was the center of the Italian family. He had all the
responsibilities while the wife would have no share of the wealth. The father also had absolute
authority over his children until he died or formally freed them. The change to adulthood cam
when the father went before a judge and formally emancipated the child.

Children
The role of the wife was mainly to bear children, but they also kept the household.
Upper-class women also became pregnant much more frequently than poor women. Childbirth in
the Renaissance was both very painful and deadly. As many as 10% of mothers died during
childbirth. In addition, 50%of merchant children died before the age of 20. Because of this,
upper-class families sought to bear many children in the hope of having a male heir.

Sexual Norms
Due to the arranged marriages, marital relationships were everything from deeply
emotional to purely formal ties. Because of this, extramarital affairs were common during the
Renaissance. There was also usually a great difference in age between the husband and wife, the
wife about 13 years younger than the husband. This further encouraged extramarital affairs.

The Italian States in the Renaissance

By the 15th Century, Italy was divided mainly into 5 political entities: Milan, Venice,
Florence, the Papal States, and Naples.

The Five Major States

North Italy was home to Milan and Venice. In 1477, Francesco Sforza conquered the city
of Milan and became its new duke. Milan became a highly centralized territorial state. They
developed systems of taxation that brought in large revenues for the government. Venice was a
maritime republic that remained a stable political entity. It was governed by a small oligarchy of
merchant-aristocrats. The commercialism of the empire brought in massive revenues and made
Venice an international power. At the end of the 14th Century, Venice began a conquest of a
territorial state in Northern Italy in order to protect its food supply and overland trade routes.
However, Milan and Florence thought that Venice was trying to expand.

Republic of Florence
 Florence dominated the region of Tuscany. By the early 1500s, Florence was governed
by a small merchant oligarchy that manipulated the republican government. In 1434, Cosimo
de’Medici took control of the oligarchy. The Medici kept the appearance of the republic up, but
really ran the government from behind the scenes.

Papal States
The Papal States were located in Central Italy. It was ruled by the popes, hence the name.
However, certain individual cities and territories were able to free themselves of the papal
authority. Renaissance popes directed much time towards regaining control of the Papal States.

Kingdom of Naples
The kingdom of Naples encompassed most of Southern Italy and usually the island of
Sicily. Throughout the Renaissance, Naples remained a backwards monarchy; with the majority
of the population as peasants. A few unruly nobles governed. Naples was not very involved in
the cultural glories of the Renaissance.

Independent City-States
Other than the five major powers, there were a number of independent city-states that
were dominated and ruled by a single powerful family. These areas became brilliant cultural
centers during the Renaissance.

Urbino
Federigo da Montefeltro ruled Urbino from 1444-1482. He was an unusual condottiere by
th
15 Century standards. He was known to be reliable and honest. He was also a great patron of
Renaissance culture, which led to Urbino growing into a well-known cultural and intellectual
center.

The Role of Women

In smaller, Renaissance courts, women played a much larger role. While the ruler was
gone, his wife would govern until he returned. The most famous of the ruling Renaissance
women was Isabella d’Este. She and her husband, Francesco Gonzaga, the marquis of Mantua,
had a court which became an important center of art and learning in the Renaissance. She was
responsible for amassing one of the finest libraries in all of Italy. She also ruled after her
husband’s death and was known as a great negotiator.

Warfare in Italy
The Italian states brought into use a political practice for balance of power. In 1454, the
Italian states signed the Peace of Lodi which ended almost 500 years of war and ensured peace
for the following 40 years. An alliance system was created, but failed because the Italian states
failed to effectively cooperate or have a common foreign policy. The growth of powerful
monarchial states became a problem for the Italians. Italy became a battlefield for the Spanish
and French monarchies. In 1494, the duke of Milan invited the French to intervene in Italian
politics. French King Charles VIII marched with an army of 30,000 and occupied the Kingdom
of Naples. The other Italian states called upon the Spanish for help. The sack of Rome in 1527
put a temporary end to the Italian wars. From then on, the Spaniards dominated Italy. Although
some Italians help a sense of national pride, the states were too loyal to themselves to conceive
of any kind of unification. Italy would achieve unification and nationhood in 1870.

The Birth of Modern Diplomacy

Modern diplomacy is a product of the Italian Renaissance. Ambassadors were only used
on a temporary basis, and regarded themselves as servants of Christendom, not just their
particular employers. During the Renaissance, there were many small states whose security was
threatened by neighboring states. In order to survive, Italian states began to send residential
diplomats to neighboring states to work out useful information. The conception of the purpose of
the ambassador also changed. The ambassador was simply an agent of the territorial state that
sent him, no longer a servant of Christendom. He could use any method that would be politically
beneficial to the state.

Machiavelli and the New Statecraft

Niccolo Machiavelli gave the best expression to the Renaissance preoccupation with
political power. He entered the service of the Florentine republic in1498 as a diplomat. Since
Italy had been invaded in1494, Machiavelli was active during a dark time in Italy’s history. In
1512, the Spanish defeated the French and the Medici were reestablished in Florence. Staunch
republicans like Machiavelli were exiled. Forced to give up his beloved political power,
Machiavelli wrote books, including The Prince.

The Prince
Machiavelli’s political ideas stemmed from two major sources: his preoccupation with
Italy’s political problems and his knowledge of ancient Rome. The Prince focused on the
acquisition and expansion of political power and how to maintain order in his time. Machiavelli
believed that a prince’s attitude towards power should be based on an understanding of human
nature. He thought that political activity should not be restricted by moral considerations.

The Intellectual Renaissance in Italy

Individualism and Secularism were two large characteristics of the Italian Renaissance.
The most important literary movement associated with the Renaissance is humanism.

Italian Renaissance Humanism

Humanism was an intellectual movement that focused on grammar, rhetoric, poetry,
moral philosophy or ethics, and history. The main importance of literary preoccupations was
evident in the professional status or occupants of occupations of humanists. They often gave
lectures or held permanent positions as professors in secondary schools and universities. It was a
largely secular occupation branch, as most humanists were laymen as opposed to members of the
clergy.

The Emergence of Humanism

Petrarch is known as the father of Italian Renaissance humanism. He took up a literary
career as opposed to being a lawyer and spent time befriending the governing bodies of different
city-states. He was the first to classify the Middle Ages as a period of darkness. He introduced an
emphasis on pure classical Latin for humanism.
Humanism in Fifteenth-Century Italy
 Civic humanism arose in Florence at the beginning of the 15th Century when humanism
became tied in with civic spirit and pride. Intellectuals usually led a life of solitude, but in
Florence intellectuals began to redefine their roles. Leonardo Bruni, a humanist and chancellor of
Florence, wrote a biography of Roman Cicero called The New Cicero. It stated that the role of
an intellectual was to live an active life for one’s state. Civic humanism reflected the values of
urban society and the Italian Renaissance. The humanists began to put the humanities into
service for the state. There was also a growing interest in the classical Greek civilization.
Lorenzo Valla published a great work called The Elegances of the Latin Language. The chief
purpose of the book was to purify Medieval Latin and restore it to its proper position over the
vernacular. It created a new literary standard for authors.

Humanism and Philosophy

During the late 15th Century, a great interest I the philosopher Plato emerged. The ruler of
Florence, Cosimo de’Medici commissioned Marsilio Ficino to translate Plato’s dialogues. Ficino
dedicated his life to the translation of Plato and the exposition of the Platonic philosophy known
as Neoplatonism. In two major works, he combined Christianity and Platonism into one system.
His Neoplatonism consisted of the Neoplatonic hierarchy of substances and a theory of spiritual
love. The hierarchy of substances was like a chain of life from plant (the lowest form) to God
(the highest form). The spiritual love was that common humanity was bound by love.

Renaissance Hermeticism
Hermeticism emerged from the Florentine intellectual environment as well. Cosimo
de’Medici ordered the translation of Corpus Hermeticum, which contained two kinds of writings.
One talked about the occult sciences, while the other focused on philosophy and theological
beliefs. Some of the writings stressed pantheism, or the belief that divinity is embodied by
everything. For some Renaissance intellectuals, the revival of Hermeticism offered a new
outlook on human life. They believed that humans were originally pure, and could return to that
state if they purified their soul. One of the most prominent magi, or purified person, in the late
15th Century was Giovanni Pico della Mirandola. He published the very famous Oration on the
Dignity of Man. In it, he combined all of the common “nuggets of universal truth” of past
philosophers.

Education in the Renaissance

Humanists believed that human beings could be changed dramatically by education.
Vittorino da Feltre founded a very famous school in Mantua which taught based on the works of
classic authors. Pietro Paolo Vergerio published a treatise called Concerning Character. It had a
profound effect on the education of the “liberal studies.” Vittorino’s school also stressed physical
education. He thought one should have a sound mind and sound body. Although some lower
class children were provided free education, most schools were primarily geared for the elite
upper class families. Women were also fairly uneducated during this time. However, some
women became humanists and established their own literary careers. The humanist education
was thought to be a practical preparation for life. The goal was to create citizens who could
participate in the civic life of their communities

Humanism and History

 Humanism also had a strong impact on the writing of history. Humanists divided the past
into ancient world, dark ages, and then their own age. They also secularized the writings of
history. They eliminated the role of miracles because they thought that they had found a new
approach to sources. More attention was paid to the political and natural occurrences of the past.

Guicciardini
At the beginning of the 16th Century, Francesco Guicciardini wrote History of Italy and
History of Florence. He analyzed pat events and passed the analyses on as lessons. From past
experiences, he had gained the ability to analyze events well.

The Impact of Printing

Printing was one of the most important technological advances of the Renaissance. It
replaced wood-block printing. The new technology allowed for movable metal type printing.
Johannes Gutenberg used the movable metal type printing to create the world’s first true
movable type book, called the Gutenberg Bible. Printing presses were established throughout the
Holy Roman Empire in the 1460s, and soon spread to the rest of Europe. Venice became a major
printing center by 1500. By 1500, more than 1,000 printers had created about 40,000 titles.
About 50%of these books were religious. The development of printing encouraged the
acquisition of knowledge. It also helped spread new ideas quickly during the Renaissance.

The Artistic Renaissance

Renaissance painters sought to imitate nature. The new artistic standards reflected a new
attitude of mind in which human beings became the focus of attention.

Art in the Early Renaissance

Massacio in Florence took up the work of Giotto in that they were searching for
naturalism. From his work in the Brancacci Chapel, a new realistic style of painting was born.
His works provided a model for later generations of Florentine artists. From this, two styles of
painting developed in the 15th Century. The first explored the mathematical aspect of painting
exploring techniques such as perspective. In the works of Paolo Uccello, figures became stage
props in order to show off a mastery of perspective. The second aspect explored was the
investigation of movement and anatomical structure. The realistic portrayal of the human body
nude became a preoccupation of Italian Renaissance artists. During the late 15th Century, a new
sense of invention emerged in Florence. The achievements made by the Florentine artists were
matched by the new advances in sculpture and architecture. Donato di Donatello studied the
sculptures in Rome, then went to Florence and made many famous works including the statue of
David. Filippo Brunelleschi accompanied Donatello to Rome and went to Florence with him. His
first project was building a dome for the Cathedral of Florence (the Duomo). The Medici also
commissioned him to build the Church of San Lorenzo. He made the interior different from most
cathedrals by adding classical columns, rounded arches, and a coffered ceiling. Portraiture was
reflected in early Renaissance art where patrons were painted into the corners of sacred pictures.
By the mid fifteen-hundreds, artists were accurately portraying facial features while also
revealing something about the subject’s personality.

The Artistic High Renaissance

 By the end of the 15th Century, a new artistic environment had emerged. The final stage
of Renaissance art was called the High Renaissance. The shift was marked by an increasing
interest in the importance of Rome as a new cultural center for the Italian Renaissance. The High
Renaissance was dominated by three major artists: Leonardo da Vinci, Raphael, and
Michelangelo. Leonardo was a transitional figure into the High Renaissance. He even dissected
human bodies in order to gain a better understanding of human anatomy. He stressed the need to
advance past realism and move to the idealization of nature. Leonardo’s Last Supper is a perfect
example of how a three-dimensional image is translated through a two-dimensional medium.
Raphael was a successful painter from an early age using works where he attempted to achieve
an ideal of beauty that far surpasses human standards. Michelangelo was accomplished in
painting, sculpting and building. He was influenced by Neoplatonism, which is obvious in his
work in the Sistine Chapel in Rome. In his religious work Creation of Adam, the figures are
meant to be a reflection of divine beauty. Michelangelo also sculpted David, which further
displays his search for ideal beauty. In architecture, the work of Donato Bramante was at the
forefront of the High Renaissance. He took up residence in Rome, where he designed a small
temple that was on the supposed site of Saint Peter’s martyrdom. In this temple, he recaptured
the grandness of ancient Rome. Pope Julius II later commissioned him to build a new basilica for
Rome. This eventually became Saint Peter’s.

The Artist and Social Status

The Renaissance artists started their careers as apprentices to masters in craft guilds.
Therefore, artists were viewed as artisans. By the end of the 15th Century, artists were cast as
heroes who were celebrated for their creativity. As the respect for artists grew, so did their social
status. They mingled with intellectuals and political people.

The Northern Artistic Renaissance

The artists of the North placed an emphasis on illuminated manuscripts and wooden
panel painting for altarpieces. Because of the limited space, each figure was designed with a high
amount of detail. The most influential school of art in the North was in Flanders. Jan van Eyck
used oil paint for the first time, which allowed him to make great detail. The northern artists tried
to imitate nature by empirical observation of visual reality and the accurate portrayal of details.
They also emphasized the emotional intensity of religious feeling. However, by the end of the
15th Century, the northern artists were beginning to be visually influenced by the Italian artists.
Albrecht Durer was a northern artist who was greatly affected by Italian art. He painted
Adoration of the Magi, which was a combination of northern and Italian styles.

Music in the Renaissance

Guillaume Dufay was a great composer who used secular music for the Mass as opposed
to Gregorian chants. The idea that music was made chiefly in service to God was extinguished as
Europe took up more secular songs. The major form of music in Italy and France was the
madrigal. The madrigals were poems set to music that were written for multiple voices. Through
this, composers tried to convey the literal meaning of the poem through the music.

The European State in the Renaissance

During the second half of the 15th Century, European states attempted to reestablish
monarchial governments. These new rulers were referred to as the “new monarchies.”
The Growth of the French Monarchy
The Hundred Years’ War left France desolate and unorganized. The war also enflamed a
national pride against a common enemy that the kings could use to reestablish the monarchy. The
King Charles VIII used the war as an excuse to strengthen the power of the throne. King Louis
XI made great advances in making France a territorial state. H secured a constant source of
revenue for the government by placing a taille in place. However, the nobles were still
independent of him. His supposed vassal Charles the Bold attempted to create a middle kingdom
between France and Germany. Louis opposed this and when Charles died in battle with the
Swiss, Louis added part of Charles’s possessions to his own. Three years later, he took control of
three more areas. Many believe that Louis actions led to France having a strong central
monarchy.

England: Civil War and a New Monarchy

The Hundred Years’ War had also affected the English. The cost of the war in the final
years had strained the English economy. Soon after, the War of Roses broke out, which resulted
in a new Tudor dynasty. Henry VII worked to establish a strong central monarchy. He stopped
the private wars between nobles by seizing the right to own a private army. England did not
possess a standing army, so the King relied on trusted nobles to support him for certain things,
and then the army would disband afterwards. In addition, Henry created the Court of Star
Chamber, which operated without a jury and allowed torture to extract information. Henry also
used diplomacy to avoid war, so that he wouldn’t have to use so much money. Because of this,
the middle class and gentry could give less money to taxes, and therefore supported the
monarchy. Henry built a strong monarchy for England’s future generations.

The Unification of Spain

During the Middle Ages, a number of Christian Kingdoms emerged from the conquest
across the Iberian Peninsula. The kingdoms were Castile, Aragon, Muslim-ruled Granada, and
Navarre. One major step in the unification of the kingdoms was the marriage of Isabella of
Castile and Ferdinand of Aragon. They worked to strengthen the royal government. In Castile,
the royal council was stripped of aristocrats and was replaced with lawyers that believed the
monarchy embodied the state. They reorganized the military in order to replace the undisciplined
feudal levies. They understood that the Catholic Church was a major source of wealth and
power, so they gained from the pope the right to select important clergy officials in Spain.
Through this, they made the clergy a royal instrument of power. They pursued a strict policy of
religious unity. From this, the Spanish Inquisition was put into effect. Soon, to be Spanish was to
be Catholic.

The Holy Roman Empire: The Success of the Habsburgs

Unlike the other European countries, the Holy Roman Empire failed to create a strong
monarchy. After1438, the Holy Roman Emperor position belonged to the Habsburg dynasty.
Much of their success stemmed from their well-executed dynastic marriages as opposed to
through military options. The marriage of Emperor Fredrick III’s son to the daughter of Charles
the Bold won him the land of Franche-Comte, Luxembourg, and a large part of the lowlands.
This acquisition made the Habsburg dynasty an international power. Maximilian I, his son,
attempted to centralize the administration by constructing institutions common to the whole
empire. Opposition from the German princes, however, stopped it. Even though he failed in this,
his grandson, through a series of unsuspected deaths became the heir to Habsburg, Burgundian,
and the Spanish. Because of this he was one of the leading monarchs of his time.

The Struggle for Strong Monarchy in Eastern Europe

In eastern Europe, the rulers tried to achieve centralization, but ran into many obstacles.
One, for example, was the warring between the different religious groups. A lot of Polish history
revolves around the battle for power between the crown and the landed nobility. However, in the
late 15th Century, the nobles were able to take control. They reduced the peasantry to serfdom in
1511 and established the right to elect kings. Unfortunately, the Polish kings were unable to form
a strong central authority. Bohemia, Poland’s neighbor distrusted the Germans, so they decided
to associate with their northeastern Slavic neighbors. However, the Hussite Wars led to more
dissention and eventually civil war broke out. Due to a weak monarchy, the Bohemian nobles
increased their authority at the expense of both the crown and the church. German missionaries
converted Hungary to Roman Catholicism. The church became prosperous and wealthy bishops
became independent political figures. King Matthias Corvinus broke the power of the wealthy
lords and replaced them with a well-organized bureaucracy. He was a patron of the humanities
and made Hungary’s a court of brilliance and learning. After his death, however, weak rule
returned and his work was largely undone. Since the 13th Century, Russia had been under the
control of the Mongols. Gradually, the princes of Moscow gained wealth from their connections
to the Mongol khans. Under Ivan III, the principality of Moscow was created. This along with
other Russian principalities was annexed and Ivan used the dissention to throw out the Mongols.

The Ottoman Turks and the End of the Byzantine Empire

The advancing Ottoman Turks posed a threat to eastern Europe. After the sack of
Constantinople in 1204, the Byzantine Empire, which had served as a buffer between the Middle
East and the Latin West, was severely weakened. Although the Palaeologous dynasty made an
effort to reestablish the empire, the threat from the Turks ultimately doomed them. In the 13th
Century, the Turks began a conquest starting in northeastern Asia Minor and sweeping through
the Byzantine Empire. In 1389, the Turks defeated the Serbs at the Battle of Kosovo. However,
Bosnia, Albania, and the rest of Serbia were not admitted into the empire until 1480. In 1453, the
Turks invaded Constantinople and took the Byzantine Empire. In the 15th and 16th Centuries, the
Turks moved to pressure the eastern European countries.

The Church in the Renaissance

The Council of Constance was able to end the Great Schism in 1417 with ease, but had
much more trouble dealing with heresy and reform.

The Problems of Heresy and Reform

Heresy was not a new problem to the church. However, two new movements sprung up-
Lollardy and Hussitism- posing new threats to the church.

Wyclif and Lollardy

 Oxford theologian John Wyclif created English Lollardy. He was disgusted with church’s
corruption, so he attacked it. He thought that the bible should be one’s personal authority on
God, so he proposed that bibles be translated so they could be read by every Christian. He
attracted many followers which were later named Lollards.
Hus and the Hussites
A marriage between the royalty of England and Bohemia caused Lollard ideas to spread
into Bohemia. John Hus, a chancellor at the University of Prague, had ideas and Czech reform
followers that were reinforced by the Lollardy. In Bohemia, the church, being one of the largest
landowners, was already under criticism. Also, some clergymen were German, which further
contributed to the reform movement. The Council of Constance deceived John Hus when they
invited him to share his ideas with the council. Instead he was arrested, the burned at the stake in
1415. This caused a revolutionary upheaval in Bohemia. Thus began the Hussite Wars in the
Holy Roman Empire until a truce was created in 1436.

Reform of the Church

The attempt to reform the church was even less successful than trying to eliminate
heresy. Decrees passed down by the Council of Constance proposed that a legislative body be
put in place above the popes, but the decrees alone were not enough. The popes would not agree
with the Council’s decrees, therefore nothing would happen. Starting in 1417, Popes began
slowly eliminating the conciliar movement. By the middle of the 15th Century, the pope’s power
and authority had been reasserted. Even though they had gained power, the moral leadership of
the popes had declined severely.

The Renaissance Papacy

The term “Renaissance Papacy” refers to the line of popes from the end of the Great
Schism in 1417 to the beginning of Reformation in the 16th Century. The chief role of the papacy
is governing the Catholic Church as a spiritual leader. Besides this, they also had temporal
preoccupations as heads of church. Pope Julius II actually led armies against his enemies. This
disgusted the pious Christians, who viewed the pope as their spiritual leader. The popes also
furthered their territorial aims through the use of nepotism. They had to use nepotism because the
dynasty system only applied to the monarchy. The Renaissance popes were also great patrons of
the Renaissance culture. Because of the Popes, Rome became a big cultural center in the 16th
Century. Julius II only supported the culture as a matter of policy. He tore down the Basilica of
Saint Peter, ands put up the new Saint Peter’s Basilica in its place. His successor, Leo X, was a
true patron of the arts. He became a deeply involved participant. Because of him mainly, Rome
became the literary and artist center of culture for the Renaissance.
 Chapter 12 Questions and Vocabulary

1. The characteristics of the Italian Renaissance were an adoption of the Greco-Roman

culture, the urbanization of Italy, the development of city-states as cultural centers, a new
spirit of secularism and patriotism, and an age of recovery from the disasters of the 14th
Century. It differed from the 12th Century Renaissance in that the 12th Century dealt with
things like justice and Christian faith. There was more faith in the pope at that time.
2. During the Italian Renaissance, an interest in the humanities emerged and was shown in
art, music and architecture. However, this was not a huge change from the medieval
trends. This was because the humanists and artists used a combination of medieval and
Greco-roman styles in their works.
3. Italy developed politically into five major powers: the Papal States, Naples, Florence,
Venice, and Milan. Through diplomacy, Machiavelli saw statecraft firsthand in his
journeys to Germany and France. The concept of modern diplomacy itself was a large
development by the Italians that the Europeans later used. Machiavelli wrote The Prince
after being exiled from Florence. He wrote it about the
4. Humanism refers to the study of the humanities, or liberal arts- grammar, rhetoric, poetry,
ethics, and history. The humanists were people who studied and taught the humanities.
The goals of the humanists were to educate the public so that the average citizen could
participate in everyday society in a positive way. They achieved these goals to an extent.
Some humanists took up careers as professors at universities and taught the humanities.
Others just gave lectures on occasion.
5. One distinct characteristic of Renaissance artists was that they tried to capture the human
form in a realistic and exact way. At first, the goal for artists was to search for naturalism,
but it failed. Human beings became the focus of artistic standards. Just as the human was
being stressed in art, a sense of individualism and humanism arose in society and in
politics. Also, as a new spirit of secularism arose, the art became less religious as well.

1. Renaissance literally means “rebirth,” but it was also the time period between 1350 and
1550 where there was a rebirth of classic antiquity.
2. The house of Medici had expanded from cloth production to commerce, real estate, and
banking in the 15th Century. It became one of the most successful banks of the
Renaissance.
3. Castiglione’s Book of the Courtier served as a handbook for nobles to use. It discussed
how nobles should act and their role in society.
4. Francisco Sforza was a condottieri in Milan, and once the ruler died in1447, he took over
and turned Milan into a highly centralized territorial state.
5. Cosimo d’Medici took control of Florence in 1434, where he successfully ran the
government from behind the scenes for many years.
6. The Papal States were located in central Italy and were under control of the popes. Some
city-states, however, became independent of the papal authority.
7. Isabella d’Este married Francesco Gonzaga and ruled over the court of Mantua while her
husband was away. She was known as a clever negotiator and ruled well both before and
after her husband’s death.
8. Machiavelli’s The Prince was written about the acquisition and expansion of political
power to restore order. Machiavelli had been exiled from Florence when the Medici
returned.
9. Civic humanism arose from the Florentine civic spirit and pride tied in with humanism. It
redefined the role of an intellectual in the urban society.
10. Petrarch fostered the development of Renaissance humanism in the 14th Century. He had
a great interest in forgotten Latin manuscripts, and he passed on his knowledge for future
generations.
11. Renaissance Hermeticism arose when Ficino translated the Corpus Hermeticum from
Greek into Latin. It focused on the occult sciences in one section, then theology and
philosophy in the other.
12. Johannes Gutenberg helped develop the movable metal type printing style, and then
published the Gutenberg Bible. It was the first book published using the movable metal
type.
13. The High Renaissance refers to the late period of Renaissance art. It was dominated by
three artists: Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo, and Raphael
14. Leonardo da Vinci was a great artist and inventor. He was one of the dominating artists
of the High Renaissance.
15. Raphael was a famous painter from an early age. He is well-known for his frescoes in the
Vatican Palace. One of his famous works is School of Athens.
16. Michelangelo was an accomplished painter, sculptor, and architect. He was also one of
the three dominating figures of the High Renaissance.
17. The Sistine Chapel’s David was painted by Michelangelo, who was commissioned by
Pope Julius II. It took four years to complete.
18. The Northern Renaissance consisted of the gothic temples with large stained glass
windows. Because of the limited space, the northern artists placed a lot of detail into their
works.
19. Jan van Eyck was one of the first artists to use oil paint, which allowed him to use much
more color to create more detail.
20. Albrecht Durer was a northern artist who was greatly affected by Italian art styles. His
work Adoration of the Magi is a good example of the northern style combined with that
of Italy.
21. The “new monarchies” were European states’ attempts at creating a strong central
monarchy for their individual state.
22. Louis XI the Spider added property and possessions to his court continually to establish a
strong central monarchy. Henry VII established a royal army for France and created a tax
so the government would receive a constant source of income.
23. The marriage of Ferdinand of Aragon and Isabella of Castile was a big advancement in
the unification of the Iberian states.
24. The Spanish Inquisition was created in an attempt to enforce a single religion policy for
all of Spain. It was you are Catholic or you are not Spanish.
 25. The Habsburgs were a dynasty that had control of the Holy Roman Empire. Their success
was not due to military exploit but rather to their well executed dynastic marriage
arrangements.

Gabriel Lee
Period #3
Chapter 13 Outline

Prelude to Reform
Martin Luther’s reform movement was not the first. The classical learning that was part
of the Italian Renaissance spread to the northern part of Europe and became the Christian or
northern Renaissance humanism movement.

Christian or Northern Renaissance Humanism

Similar to the Italians, the northern humanists learned about the classics, but the North
focused more on the sources of early Christianity, the Holy Scriptures, and the writings of
previous church fathers. They thought that they had found a simple religion that had been
distorted by the theology of the Middle Ages. The North believed that human beings could
reason and improve themselves. Through this they could achieve an inner piety. The Christian
humanists believed in schools, where they brought out new editions of the classics