Pamela Vizner Oyarce

Moving Image and Sound: Basic Issues and Training

Professor Ann Harris
November 29, 2012

The last beats of analog: The MII videotape

Introduction

This paper will address the history, technology and preservation issues of the

Panasonic MII videocassette format. In order to understand the context in which this

technology was developed, it is necessary to describe and explain some other

contemporary technologies, as well as historic facts related to people and enterprises

involved in this complex process. The history of the MII format began with its parent

format, the M, which was created to compete in the market with the Betacam videotape

format. But the battle did not end there; Betacam SP would appear, continuing the

struggle to leading the market in the professional field. The days of standards and

agreements were over, and, not much time later, the digital formats would start gaining

ground in the broadcast market, leading to the final obsolescence of the analog formats

including MII tapes.

Finding information about this particular technology is not an easy task. Even in

the world of audiovisual preservation this format is somewhat unknown. In some cases

the information I could gather are only small mentions in a paper or journal, therefore

the process of writing this paper has been somewhat of a puzzle. I hope that this paper

contributes to the knowledge of this forgotten, but not-so-old format, and also to the

knowledge of the market’s recent history. This can lead us, as audiovisual archivists,to

VIZNER – MII VIDEOTAPE 1

a better understanding of the birth of digital technology as well as knowing how to deal

with the preservation of this obsolete format.

The market before MII videocassettes

In order to fully understand how matters combined to finally lead to the

development of the MII (sometimes M-II or M2) videocassette tape, we must go back to

the beginning of the 1980’s. In the professional market,the U-matic 1videocassette was a

widely used standard: JVC, Matsushita and Sony agreed to share the market. 2First

intended for the consumer market, the U-matic ended up being used in the professional

field. 3 However, image quality was not its strength, and other technical and practical

issues needed to be solved. The industry was looking for a solution and that solution

was brought by Sony.

The Sony Betacam 4is a half-inch analog videotape format launched in 1981-it did

not take long before it became a wide standard for field recording. This was not only

because of the enhanced video quality – accomplished by the use of component video

recording, the same system used by MII videotape - but also because its size was

considerably smaller 5 making it very suitable for field recording using camcorders. 6

These features allowed this format to replace the previous U-matic format in the

broadcast industry.

1
Texas Commission on the Arts: Videotape Identification and Assessment Guide, 2004, pg. 10.
2
Lardner, James, Fast Forward, Chapter 10: Divorce, Japanese style, pg. 136.
3
Marlow, Eugene, Secunda, Eugene, Shifting time and space, Chapter 6: The home video market, 1991,
pg. 109.
4
Texas Commission on the Arts, pg. 17. Description of Betacam and Betacam SP tapes.
5
The Betacam videocassette was developed in two different sizes: large cassettes were used in decks for
editing and small cassettes were used in cameras.
6 Newcomb, Horace, Encyclopedia of Television Vol. 1: Betacam, 2004, pg. 250.
2 VIZNER – MII VIDEOTAPE
 The answer would not be long in coming. The Matsushita’s response to Betacam

videocassettes was the M format, developed in a combined effort with RCA and

launched in 1982. Just as its competitor, the M format was developed as a component

video recording system. The main differences were the loading system and the way in

which the component signal was recorded. The M format got its name because of the

M-loading system used to thread the tape around the drum - which contains the reading

heads – emulating an M, as an opposite to the U system used by U-matic. This loading

Figure 1: The different tape threading systems Bensinger,

Charles, The Video Guide, Video-Info Publications, 1981, pg. 146.

system was the same used by VHS; in fact, the tape used for this system was the same

asVHS but the recording process was different 7.Although the mechanical system

needed to thread the tape using the M-loading is much more simpler, it has some

drawbacks foremost of which is that the tape has to absorb much more stress when

passing through the guides, therefore increasing tape wear. Thus, In order to diminish

tape stress in fast forward andrewind modes the tape needed to be unthreaded,

7http://www.videointerchange.com/video-history.htmM Format.
VIZNER – MII VIDEOTAPE 3
increasing the time between these modes and playback and also not allowing the

implementation ofa picture search mechanism 8.

On the other hand, the video signal was recorded in both Betacam and M tapes

using chroma components or component video– in opposition to composite video used

by U-matic. The component video has a better image quality than composite video,

because the chroma signals, i.e. the color information, are recorded separately,

therefore preventing interference between them. 9However, M format recorded this

signal simultaneously but separated in frequency (the signals were FM recorded) -

which was only suitable for its use in NTSC systems 10 - while Betacam recorded both

signals in one channel but sequentially. Because the M format used a VHS type tape

and because of the amount of information needed to record component signal, the

recording time was only 20 minutes. The M format was cheaper than Betacam and had

the same image quality but, finally, the M videotapes turned out to be a big commercial

failure. All these facts and the little marketing effort done by the manufacturer finallylead

to an end of this format very soon after its launch. 11

In 1986, Sony developed the Betacam “SP” system – standing for Superior

Performance - an enhanced version of the previous Betacam. This improvement was

achieved by increasing the horizontal resolution to 340 lines and by changing the

chemical formulation of the tape itself from ferric oxide to metal-formulated tape.

Analogously, the MII format was an enhanced version of the M format, although the

differences with its parent format were much more radical.

8
Lardner, pg. 136, 156.
9
Weise, Marcus, Weynand, Diana, How Video Works, 2007, pg. 108-109.
10
Livingstone, Philip, The MII Format, Broadcast Engineering, April 1986, pg. 96.
11
http://www.videointerchange.com/video-history.htm
4 VIZNER – MII VIDEOTAPE
 MII: Technical Features

The MII analog magnetic videocassette was developed by Matsushita Electric

Industrial Co. (Panasonic in the U.S.A. 12) and NHK (Japan Broadcasting Corporation) in

1986 as a response to the Sony’s Betacam SP format. Matsushita and NHK worked

together with Fuji Photo Film to develop an improved metal particle videotape.This type

of tape, since it is much thinner, allows fora longer recording time. 13

The MII format was then ready for the competitive market;it is an analog ½ inch

videocassette with triple-coated metal particle tape and component video recording

system, which allows 90 minutes of recording time. This last feature was one of its

primary strengths as it enabled more recording length in a small size cassette, making it

very suitable for field recording, 14although this tape was also widely used for editing

purposes. 15This quality was not only due to the new tape formula, but also because of

the way in which the color or chroma information was recorded.

Technically, the MII format recorded 6 different tracks: two audio tracks, a control

track, a time-code track – all of them linear - and the video information separated in

chroma (R-Y and B-Y) and luminance (Y). To fit both chroma signals into one, the

systems uses a process called chroma time-compression multiplexing (CTCM). This

compression system reduces the length of both signals to half of the time, therefore

occupying the same amount of time than luminance. As both chroma signals are

generated at the same time in the camera, the B-Y signal is delayed to permit a

12
Matsushita Electric Industrial Co. was the name of this company since 1918. Widely known as
Panasonic, the company adopted this as its corporate name in 2008.
Home Theater Magazine, May 2008, pg. 18.
13
Livingstone, pg. 96.
14
Englefield, Bruce, Hands on with MII, Image Technology, April 1989, pg. 156.
15
Hands on with MII, Image Technology, December 1988.

VIZNER – MII VIDEOTAPE 5

sequential order of the chroma signals to pass through the CTCM system. This process

takes a certain time to happen which, if not corrected, would cause an evident offset of

chrominance and luminance. However, this problem was fixed by adding a 2.5 MHz to

the luminance signal and a 1.25MHz burst to both chroma signals, thus when time-

compressed, all signals are synchronized. 16This whole process allows the tape to

record more informationas compressing both chroma signals uses less space than

recording one after the other as Betacam does. Overall, the advantage of component

video over composite video is that having both signals separated decreases the

chances of interference between them because less encoding and decoding processes

are needed; therefore, many copies can be made without showing too much image

distortion. 17

All of the features described above are the reason why this videocassette can

record 90 minutes. The linear speed of the tape is considerable less than the one used

in other tape formats. The running time is not the only advantage: the MII videotape

allows a faster search in fast modes without causing too much tape wear. 18

The MII tape has other important features to be highlighted. The metal tape

formulation allows for a better S/N ratio and a higher coercivity, as well as longer heads

life because of the smoothness of its surface. The threading path (B-load), which I

mentioned before as different from M type, is described in the articleThe MII Format and

the tape tracks are shown in the figure below:

16
Livingstone, pg. 98, Figure 2.
17
Weise, Weynand, pg. 106.
18
Livingstone, pg. 96
6 VIZNER – MII VIDEOTAPE
 Figure 2: The MII tracks.

Livingstone, Philip, The MII Format, Broadcast Engineering, April 1986, pg. 96, Figure 1.

Betacam SP v/s MII

After discussing the technical features of MII videotapes the question that arises:

is the MII technology better than Betacam SP? The answer is very simple-neither of

them was better than the other. Both videotapes are metal-formulated, both systems

use component video, both tapes are roughly the same size and both were used to fulfill

the same tasks. They just basically are not the same technology,both work under

different standards and SMPTE (Society of Motion Picture and Television Engineers), at

that time, was never able to decide which one was the best to be adopted as

component standard.

VIZNER – MII VIDEOTAPE 7

 The main difference between Betacam SP and MII was the signal used as

reference for luminance and chrominance. For 100% luminance MII system used a

signal of 700mV, while Betacam SP used 714mV. Analogously, for 100% chrominance

MII used 934 mV peak to peak, while Betacam SP used 648mV p-p 19.

Finally, what really determined the success of the Betacam SP videocassette

over MII was marketing. The Sony and Matsushita marketing strategies are discussed

in detail below.

Cassettes and playback equipment

The MII cassettes were developed in two different sizes. The large one was very

close to the size of VHS cassettes, and the small ones are around 3.6 by 5 inches. 20

They were also available in different durations, from 10 to 90 minutes long. The product

name of the tape provided this information very easily: M10S was a small MII 10

minutes cassette, and the M90L was a MII 90 minutes large cassette. 21

The first equipment designed to work with MII videocassettes was the Panasonic

AU Series, with the AU-600 as the first prototype. The AU-600 was an editing/playback

machine. The AU-400 was the Camera Recorder, a very light and small equipment;

both are proof of the portability of this format. An example of both systems is pictured

below.

19
Epstein, Steve, CAV Standards, Broadcast Engineering, May 1999, pg. 62.
20
http://www.video99.co.uk/MII_to_dvd_transfers.html
21
http://orders.mediadistributors.com/Library/InfoManage/Items.asp?category=187
8 VIZNER – MII VIDEOTAPE
 Figure 3:
Left: Panasonic AU-600. http://www.videointerchange.com/video-history.htm.
Right: Panasonic Camcorder AU-400. http://www.bcs.tv/store/model_detail.cfm?id=10054

Other machines followed, like the AU-620, AU-640 and AU-650, which, in general

terms, allowed real time monitoring, use of big and small size cassettes without the use

of adaptor, built-in TBC (Time-base Corrector), time code generator, 4 audio channels,

Dolby-C Noise Reduction and separate edition for audio and video. 22

Other models of the AU series are the AU-W Series 23, only used for playback;

other companies, such as JVC also manufactured similar machines. Recognizing these

machines is actually very easy- all the playback machines for this format have the

distinctive logo “MII” (as shown in the picture above) on the front.

However, as this technology was designed to be used in the professional field,

there are no “cheap” or home playback decks. Some of them can still be found in the

second-hand market but they are rare and often very expensive.

22
http://www.broadcaststore.com/store/model_detail.cfm?id=11871
23
http://www.oldvcr.tv/collection/index.html?Mode=View&Brand=Panasonic&Model=AU-W33H&Ref=3

VIZNER – MII VIDEOTAPE 9

 The Market

As mentioned above, the commercial marketplace played an important role in the

final success or failure of the video formats at that time. Since both formats, Betacam

SP and MII, were similar in image quality and practical issues, a judge – the market, not

a very impartial member of the equation, by the way – needed to decide the future of

videocassettes in the professional field.

After the creation of U-matic videocassette, JVC, Matsushita and Sony, the big

companies behind the VCR market, came to an agreement to consider U-matic as the

standard for broadcast use. 24 But differences were around the corner; friendliness was

no longer going to be reigning for either the home market or for the professional field,

although companies tried to overcome their differences.

The U-matic format was too big in size and too expensive for the home market,

therefore a new format was needed, 25Every company could agreed on that, however,

the arguing began with the development of home market videocassettes, where VHS

and Betamax prototypes were shown to analyze their technical features to determine

weaknesses and strengths in order to determine which format was more suitable for

home use.They all knew that a smaller videocassette was needed, but they could never

agree on technical details; some of them thought that the M-loading system was better

because it was simpler than the U-loading, but others did not agree arguing that the M-

loading provoked more tape stress. Ultimately, each company would follow their own

beliefs therefore declaring the well known “format war”, which was finally won by VHS. 26

24
Foisi Nmungwun, Aaron, Video Recording Technology, 1989.
25
Marlow, Secunda, pg. 109.
26Foisi Nmungwun, Chapter 7.
10 VIZNER – MII VIDEOTAPE
 Let’s go back to the professional battleground for a moment. U-matic was

certainly more portable and easy to use than Type C tape.The former format was

already a standard-what was the problem then? The truth about U-matic is that the

technology had some important disadvantages. Everybody agreed that Type C

videotapes had a better image quality, therefore the manufacturers needed to find a

small size videocassette, as U-matic or smaller; and a higher quality image, as Type C

or better, but the companies were no longer working together in this task. However,

some commercial alliances started, though they would not translate into one standard

and several video formats were launched at the time.

Television agreements 27

The format war continued, not only in the home market but also in the

professional field. In order to make a successful market introduction the manufacturers

had to make alliances with the major broadcast companies. The first alliance was, as

named before, between Matsushita and NHK, who were looking for a new, cheaper,

high quality format to replace all the type C one inch-tapes. This alliance turned out to

be successful as Matsushita responded with the MII videocassette and NHK had a

format that was less then half of the price of a full-equipped type C recorder with a

comparable image quality.

However, Matsushita’s idea was not only to lead the Japanese market but the

global market as well, therefore they needed to make some international alliances and

turned their heads towards the U.S. In February of 1986 a paper by NHK described its

27
Abramson, Albert, The History of Television 1942 to 2000, Chapter 12, 2003. All facts and notes in this
section are explained in this book.
VIZNER – MII VIDEOTAPE 1
1
role in the development of the Panasonic M-II format showed at the 20th Annual SMPTE

Television Conference in Chicago.

But the contest was fierce and by that time the Betacam SP format was already

in the market and Sony had its own partners. Ampex, Philips, Bosch and Thomson had

signed an agreement to produce Betacam SP tapes citing the following reason:

“Sony’s sales of Betacam had already reached 25,000 units with 5,000 to 6,000
sold in the USA alone”. 28

Matsushita was not going to surrender and by April of 1986 they already had an

agreement with NBC to buy MII machines. The station made this decision based on the

experience presented by NHK. NBC kept using this equipment for a couple of years;

however, other TV stations went another way. CBS and ABC decided to use Sony’s

Betacam SP for the following reasons:

“Ed Johnson, director of engineering for ABC, admitted that the decision was
made 80 percent for business reasons and 20 percent for technical reasons.
Sony had “featured a better network pricing deal than Panasonic”. Sony was
always ready to cut its price in order to make a deal…” 29

Some people believe that Panasonic did not do enough marketing in order to

increase the product’s popularity and probably the decisions made at that time were not

the best, considering the fierce campaign Sony has rolled out. However, I believe that

the analog video was living its final years, at least in the professional market, and that

the digital era was finally what made this technologies disappear.

28
Abramson, pg. 210.
29
Ibid, 213.
12 VIZNER – MII VIDEOTAPE
 The digital era

Although some may argue different reasons forthe quick disappearance of this

format, I believe that the MII format was displaced by the digital systems. Even before

the MII format was launched the professional industry was already discussing the use of

digital technology. As a matter of fact, in the early 1980s some standards included

digital features, such as the ITU-R Recommendation BT.601, published in 1982, which

states the recommendations for digital encoding of video. 30

The first all-digital television production was shown at the 127th Technical

Conference of the SMPTE in October-November 1985. 31 Nonetheless, some technical

and practical facts were needed to convince professional users of the advantages of

this technology. At this time, digital recording was a novelty, and thus not enough for the

industry to adopt it without any prove of reliability. But that proof would not take too

much longer to appear. In that same year the D-1 broadcast quality format was

approved by the SMPTE and published as a standard in 1986. 32 This standard was

based in the BT.601 ITU-R Recommendation and has the following features:

uncompressed component video, YCbCr encoded at 4:2:2, PCM audio tracks, ¾ inch

videocassette. It could also be used for PAL and NTSC standards.

Manufacturers would not wait longer and in the 64th Annual NAB Convention

(Dallas, April 1986) Sony presented the new digital video recorder, the DVR-1000,

which used the D-1 recording system. However, this new recorder had some

drawbacks. This new equipment was very expensive – about $120,000 at that time –

30
Wood David, Rec. ITU-R BT.601 - the bridge that joined the analogue and digital worlds, available at
http://www.itu.int/ITU-R/index.asp?category=information&link=rec-601&lang=en
31
Abramson, pg. 209.
32
Ibid, 215.
VIZNER – MII VIDEOTAPE 1
3
and the fact that uncompressed component video was used forced the use of a very big

bandwidth, therefore a higher bit rate. 33

In 1987 Ampex presented the new D-2 format, a cheaper alternative that,

according to the manufacturer, had a better performance in post-production tasks. Aside

from the price – which was around $75,000- Ampex claimed that this new machine

could generate up to 20 copies without noticeable degradation. Although it is still an

uncompressed video format, the bit rate was decreased by the use of composite

video. 34

Panasonic quickly replied and in 1988 they launched the D-3 video recording

format. It was also a composite uncompressed video format that used the same tape

transport as the MII analog video format. Unlike the D-1 and D-2 this tape was ½ inch

wide and because of its smaller size it was suitable for many different applications,

especially for field recording. Panasonic also claimed that this format would diminish the

overall costs because of its lower tape consumption 35.

Although at that time analog tapes were still used, it was very clear that the

professional and broadcast marketplace was quickly moving towards the digital formats.

In the particular case of Panasonic, by the early 1990s the company was still marketing

the MII videotapes but their presence in the broadcast industry was not strong, so they

started to search for another format that would facilitate some television applications,

such as newsgathering, and they started focusing on their new format: DVCPRO. 36

33
Abramson, 210 - 211
34
Ibid 221 – 223.
35
Ibid, 224.
36
Kerschbaumer, Ken, Realizing Sony’s Vision, Broadcasting & Cable, May 14, 2001, pg. 54.
14 VIZNER – MII VIDEOTAPE
 MII Preservation Issues

As a magnetic recording medium, the MII videotape has the same degradation

problems as VHS or Betacam, such as sticky-shed syndrome, tape physical damage or

lose of content due to bad storage or handling conditions. Therefore, as a general rule,

these tapes must be kept in a controlled environment and all the components – such as

cases and playback machines, if you have them, must be constantly cleaned and

correctly maintained. 37

However, I would say that one of the main concerns about the preservation of

this format is obsolescence. While some machines can still be found and some vendors

still work with them, they are not easy to get. As a result of the format war explained

above, the playback machines are not always compatible with multiple formats, and the

rare existence of MII videotapes in archives would never justify purchasing a

corresponding playback machine.

Moreover, in terms of content, the MII tapes where used for field recording and

video editing. While some materials found in these tapes can be copies, it is most likely

to find original footage or original editions. Most of their provenance is broadcast or

production. Therefore, if you have several of these tapes it might be a good reason to

look for the playback machine, or finding a vendor to make a transfer, because it is very

likely that you have a unique material in your hands. In particular, the broadcast station

NBC still has MII videotapes in their archives, but, at the time of this writing, I could not

find any more details about their content.

37
Wheeler, Jim. Videotape Preservation Handbook, 2002, pg. 8.
VIZNER – MII VIDEOTAPE 1
5
 On the other hand, given the fact that in the broadcast field was very common to

reuse the tapes, you might find some MII tapes in very bad conditions of with wear or

signal loss, thus in these cases tape inspection and environmental control are critical to

prevent further damage.

16 VIZNER – MII VIDEOTAPE

 Works Cited:

1. Abramson, Albert. The History of Television 1942 to 2000. McFarland and Co.,
Jefferson N.C., 2003.
A book focused in explaining the broadcast industry’s history. It shows the
manufacturers decisions and how they affected the way technical and practical activities
were made.

2. Kerschbaumer, Ken. Realizing Sony’s Vision.Broadcasting & Cable, May 14 2001,

pg. 54.
This is an article that shows the vision of a high executive about his experience when
the new digital audiovisual market was born.

3. Kotter, John P. Matsushita Leadership: lessons from the 20th Century’s most
remarkable entrepreneur. Free Press, New York, 1997
This book is somehow a biography of Matsushita but relate to his businessman point of
view. It shows some interesting ideas he had about the audiovisual market and how he
addressed them.

4. Lardner, James. Fast Forward: Hollywood, the Japanese, and the onslaught of the
VCR. Norton, New York, 1987
This book explains in detail some important decisions the companies made about
VCR’s market and why they made them. Although it is a very old book, it is a very fresh
view of the audiovisual market in the late 80’s.

5. Livingston, Philip. The MII Format.Broadcast Engineering, April 1986, pg. 96 – 104.
A very detailed article about the technical features of MII videocassettes.

6. Newcomb, Horace.Encyclopedia of Television,Vol. 1 and 4. Fitzroy Dearborn, New

York, 2004
A 4 volumes book that addresses al kind of issues related to television, from famous
shows to technical details.

7. Marlow, Eugene, Secunda, Eugene, Shifting time and space: The history of
videotape,1991.
A book that addresses issues concerning video uses and market, especially dedicated
to home and consumer market.

8. Bensinger, Charles, The Video Guide, Video-Info Publications, Santa Bárbara, CA,
2nd Ed., 1981.
This book gives information about how some types of video systems work and how to
use them, from connections to maintenance.

9. Weise, Marcus, Weynand, Diana, How Video Works, Focal Press, Burlington, MA,
2nd Ed., 2007.
VIZNER – MII VIDEOTAPE 1
7
This book explains all details related to the video technology from a scientific point of
view. It is very good source of information about engineering and concepts and it also
has very good illustrations.

10. Home Theater Magazine, May 2008.

This particular issue has a small report about the facts and reasons why Matsushita
officially adopted the Panasonic name.

11. Foisi Nmungwun, Aaron, Video Recording Technology: Its impact in media and
home entertainment, Hillsdale, NJ, 1989.
This book explains and gives some facts about the home video industry, especially
oriented to the statistics related to that matter.

12. Texas Commission on the Arts,Videotape Identification and Assessment Guide,

2004. Available at: http://www.arts.texas.gov/video/pdf/video.pdf Last Accessed
November 23, 2012.
This document describes in detail the different video formats. Although the MII
videotape is not on this list, it provides information about previous and contemporary
formats and also about the digital formats that followed.

13. Wheeler, Jim. Videotape Preservation Handbook, 2002. Available

at: http://www.amianet.org/resources/guides/WheelerVideo.pdfLast accessed
November 23, 2012.
A publication that addresses magnetic videotape preservation and handling.

14. Epstein, Steve, CAV Standards, Broadcast Engineering, May 1999, pg. 62.
This publication offers a very complete comparative table between the Betacam SP, MII
and NTSC and EBU systems. It also explains what happens when composite and
component systems interact within an electric chain.

15. Englefield, Bruce, Hands on with MII, Image Technology, April 1989, pg. 156.
This article discusses the suitability of MII videotape in field recording, using the
example of a course given by Ewart Needham, Director of Production Thames T.V. in
1988 in England.

16. Hands on with MII, Image Technology, December 1988.

Advertisement, brief description of an editing course using MII videorecorders given by
Ewart Needham in England.

17. Wood David, Rec. ITU-R BT.601 - the bridge that joined the analogue and digital
worlds, available at http://www.itu.int/ITU-R/index.asp?category=information&link=rec-
601&lang=en Last accessed November 23, 2012.
This article is about the importance of the ITU-R Rec. 601 standard for the transition
from analog to digital video.

18 VIZNER – MII VIDEOTAPE

18. http://www.videointerchange.com/video-history.htmLast accessed November 23,
2012.
This website has a list of several video formats. Several rare formats are listed,
therefore it is a good source of information for researches in the first stage of
investigation and it also gives some information about preservation issues related to the
formats listed on it.

19. http://www.oldvcr.tv/collection/index.html?Mode=View&Brand=Panasonic&Model=A
U-W33H Last accessed November 23, 2012
This website has very good photographs of an MII W Series deck, including the
machine’s interior and back board.

20. http://www.broadcaststore.com/store/model_detail.cfm?id=11871 Last accessed

November 23, 2012.
This website has a short brochure of the Panasonic AU-640 playback and recording
deck.

21. http://www.bcs.tv/store/model_detail.cfm?id=10054Last accessed November 23,

2012.
This website has a short brochure of the Panasonic AU-400 camera recorder.

22. http://www.video99.co.uk/MII_to_dvd_transfers.html Last accessed November 23,

2012.
This website has a good photograph of both the L and the S size MII videocassette.

23. http://orders.mediadistributors.com/Library/InfoManage/Items.asp?category=187
Last accessed November 23, 2012.
This website has a list of the different types of MII videotapes.

24. http://www.itu.int/ITU-R/index.asp?category=information&link=rec-601&lang=enLast
accessed November 23, 2012.
This website contains an article about

VIZNER – MII VIDEOTAPE 1

9