2020S1 PH1012: Physics A

Basics and Fluids

Dr Ho Shen Yong
Lecturer, School of Physical and Mathematical Sciences
Nanyang Technological University

Week 1
Giancoli Chap 1.4-1.7, 13.1 – 13.7

"The true sign of intelligence is not knowledge but imagination."

- Albert Einstein (1879-1955)

Key things to committed to long term memory

1
 Units and Measurements
The Système International d’Unités (SI), or International System of Units, defines seven
units of measure as a basic set from which all other SI units are derived. The SI base units
and their physical quantities are:
Base quantity SI Base Unit Symbol Example
Human height
length meter m
about 1.5 – 1.8 m
Mass of 1 litre of
mass kilogram kg
water: 1 kg
time second s 1 movie ~ 5000 s
USB charging ~2 A.
electric current ampere A
~0.03 A painful shock.
thermodynamic Singapore Room temp:
kelvin K
temperature ~300 k
amount of substance mole mol 1 mol of carbon ~ 12 g
Common candle flame
luminous intensity candela cd
~ 1cd
More information can be found on
http://physics.nist.gov/cuu/Units/units.html http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SI_base_unit

Other quantities, called derived quantities, are defined in terms of the seven base
quantities via a system of quantity equations. The SI derived units for these derived
quantities are obtained from these equations and the seven SI base units.

For example,
area square meter m2
volume cubic meter m3
speed, velocity meter per second m/s
meter per second
acceleration m/s2
squared
wave number reciprocal meter m-1
mass density kilogram per cubic meter kg/m3
current density ampere per square meter A/m2
magnetic field strength ampere per meter A/m
amount-of-substance
mole per cubic meter mol/m
concentration
2
 Units and Measurements

For ease of understanding and convenience, 22 SI derived units have been given special
names and symbols (taken from http://physics.nist.gov/cuu/Units/units.html):
(units that will be used in this course are in bold)

Expression Expression
in terms of in terms of
Derived quantity Name Symbol other SI units SI base units
plane angle radian (a) rad - m·m-1 = 1 (b)

solid angle steradian (a) sr (c) - m2·m-2 = 1 (b)

frequency hertz Hz - s-1

force newton N - m·kg·s-2

pressure, stress pascal Pa N/m2 m-1·kg·s-2

energy, work, quantity of heat joule J N·m m2·kg·s-2

power, radiant flux watt W J/s m2·kg·s-3

electric charge, quantity of electricity coulomb C - s·A

electric potential difference,
volt V W/A m2·kg·s-3·A-1
electromotive force
capacitance farad F C/V m-2·kg-1·s4·A2

electric resistance ohm 𝛀 V/A m2·kg·s-3·A-2

electric conductance siemens S A/V m-2·kg-1·s3·A2

magnetic flux weber Wb V·s m2·kg·s-2·A-1

magnetic flux density tesla T Wb/m2 kg·s-2·A-1

inductance henry H Wb/A m2·kg·s-2·A-2

Celsius temperature degree Celsius °C - K

luminous flux lumen lm cd·sr (c) m2·m-2·cd = cd

illuminance lux lx lm/m2 m2·m-4·cd = m-2·cd

activity (of a radionuclide) becquerel Bq - s-1

absorbed dose, specific energy
gray Gy J/kg m2·s-2
(imparted), kerma
dose equivalent (d) sievert Sv J/kg m2·s-2

catalytic activity katal kat s-1·mol

(a) The radian and steradian may be used advantageously in expressions for derived units to distinguish between
quantities of a different nature but of the same dimension; some examples are given in Table 4.
(b) In practice, the symbols rad and sr are used where appropriate, but the derived unit "1" is generally omitted.
(c) In photometry, the unit name steradian and the unit symbol sr are usually retained in expressions for derived units.
(d) Other quantities expressed in sieverts are ambient dose equivalent, directional dose equivalent, personal dose

equivalent, and organ equivalent dose.

3
 Vector and Scalar Quantities

The physical quantity is either a vector or a scalar. (Next time you may also learn
about tensors but it is beyond the scope of this course.)

Scalars are quantities that are fully described by a magnitude (or numerical value)
alone. Vectors are quantities that are fully described by both a magnitude and a
direction.

Examples of scalar quantities:

Mass, time, volume, temperature, speed, electric potential.

For scalar quantities, you can add, subtract and do basic arithmetic numerically just as
you do with numbers.

Example of vector quantities:

Velocity, acceleration, force, torque, electric field, magnetic field.

For vector quantities, you can only combine the vectors as shown below

If a coordinate system is provided,

𝑉 = 𝑉1 + 𝑉2 ;

𝑉𝑥 = 𝑉1𝑥 + 𝑉2𝑥 ;
𝑉𝑦 = 𝑉1𝑦 + 𝑉2𝑦

There are also two types of vector products:

a. dot (or also known as scalar) product
b. cross (or also known as vector) product

We will discuss these in greater details in the subsequent lectures.

4
 Units and Measurements

The 20 SI prefixes used to form decimal multiples and submultiples of SI units are given
below:
Factor Name Symbol Factor Name Symbol

1024 yotta Y 10-1 deci d

1021 zetta Z 10-2 centi c

1018 exa E 10-3 milli m

1015 peta P 10-6 micro µ

1012 tera T 10-9 nano n

109 giga G 10-12 pico p

106 mega M 10-15 femto f
103 kilo k 10-18 atto a
102 hecto h 10-21 zepto z
101 deka da 10-24 yocto y
www.scaleofuniverse.com
Exercise:

1. Convert 678978 g to kg; 0.000343 m to mm.

2. Convert 28 m/s to km/hr.

3. Convert 178 cm2 to m2.

4. Convert 2.48 g/cm3 to kg/m3.

Mastering Physics
5
 Greek Alphabet
Lower case Capital Name Common use in Physics
Angular acceleration; Linear expansion Coefficient;
α A alpha
Alpha particle (helium nucleus); Fine Structure Constant
Beta particle — high energy electron
β B beta
Sound intensity
Gamma ray (high energy EM wave); Ratio of heat capacities (in
γ Γ gamma
an ideal gas); Relativistic correction factor
Δ="Change in"
δ Δ delta
δ="Infinitesimal change in"
ϵ E epsilon Emissivity; Strain; Permittivity; EMF
ζ Z zeta (no common use)
η H eta Viscosity; Energy efficiency
θ Θ theta Angle (°, rad); Temperature

The lower case ι is rarely used, while 𝐼 is sometimes used for the
identity matrix or the moment of inertia. Note that 𝜄 is not to be
ι I iota
confused with the Roman character 𝑖 ; 𝑖 (which has a dot and is
much more widely used in mathematics and physics).

κ K kappa Spring constant; Dielectric constant

Wavelength; Thermal conductivity Constant
λ Λ lambda
Eigenvalue of a matrix; Linear density
Coefficient of friction; Electrical mobility; Reduced mass;
μ M mu
Permeability
ν N nu Frequency
ξ Ξ xi Damping cofficient
o O omicron -
Product symbol Π
π Π pi
Circle number π := 3.14159...
ρ P rho Volume density; Resistivity
Sum symbol ; Boltzmann constant
σ Σ sigma
Electrical conductivity; Uncertainty; Stress; Surface density
τ T tau Torque; Time constant; Tau particle (a lepton);
υ Υ upsilon mass to light ratio
ϕ Φ phi Magnetic/electric flux; Angle (°, rad)
χ X chi Rabi frequency (lasers); Susceptibility
ψ Ψ psi Wave function
Ohms (unit of electrical resistance)
ω Ω omega
ω Angular velocity

Source: https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Physics_Study_Guide/Greek_alphabet

6
 Homogeneity of Units

Given an equation
𝐶
𝐴+𝐵+ +𝐸×𝐹 =𝐺
𝐷
𝐶
The units of 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐷 , 𝐸 × 𝐹 and 𝐺 must be the same.
Mathematical functions can only operate on pure numbers with no physical units. For
example, cos 𝜃, here 𝜃 has no units (rad is not a physical unit). Other examples include
ln 𝑥 and 𝑒 𝑥 . Here, 𝑥 must be a number with not units.

Example

Newton’s law of gravitation states that the mutual force of attraction between two objects
of masses 𝑀1 and 𝑀2 separated by a distance 𝑟 is given by
𝐺𝑀 𝑀
𝐹 = 𝑟12 2
where 𝐺 is the universal gravitational constant. Deduce the SI unit of 𝐺.

Example

An equation often used in fluid mechanics, known as Bernoulli’s equation is given by

1
𝜌𝑣 2 + 𝜌𝑔𝑧 + 𝑃 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
2
Here, 𝑣 is velocity in m/s. The unit for density 𝜌 is in kg/m3 and the unit for acceleration
of free fall 𝑔 in m/s2 . What are the units for the variables 𝑧 and 𝑃?

7
 Visualizing Physical Quantities and Units

1 litre – about 1 kg

𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 1 𝑚3

Weight of 1 apple ~ 1 N

Knight Fig 15.2

100 𝑚 𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑢𝑡 10 𝑠 ⇒ ~10 𝑚/𝑠 ≡ 36 𝑘𝑚/ℎ

8
 Atomic Structure

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rutherford_model
Matter is made up of atoms. Each atom is made of protons and neutrons which
forms its core – the nucleus with electrons moving round it.

Mass (kg) Charge (C)

Proton 1.6726 × 10−27 +1.602 × 10−19

Neutron 1.6749 × 10−27 0

Electron 9.109 × 10−31 -1.602 × 10−19

In an electrically neutral atom, the number of electrons is the same as the number of
protons. The size of the nucleus is about 10−15 m and the size of the atom is about
10−10 m.

9
 ∘
Δ𝑙 = 𝛼𝑙𝑜Structure
Atomic 10−6 Liquid
Δ𝑇 = 12of×Solid, 𝐶 200𝑚 20∘ 𝐶 − (−30)∘ 𝐶
and Gases
= −12.0 × 10−2 𝑚
On a microscopic scale, the arrangements of molecules
in solids (a), liquids (b), and gases (c) are quite different.
Particles in a solid are tightly packed, usually in a regular pattern.
They vibrate (jiggle) but generally do not move from place to
place.

Particles in liquid state are close together with no regular

arrangement. They liquid vibrate, move about, and slide past each
other.

Particles in a gaseous state are well separated with no regular

arrangement. They vibrate and move freely at high speeds.

Liquids and solids are often referred to as condensed phases

because the particles are very close together.

http://www.chem.purdue.edu/gchelp/liquids/character.html

Brownian Motion Giancoli Fig 17.2

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brownian_motion

Thermal Expansion (from perspective of a fixed central atom)

http://web.mit.edu/mbuehler/www/SIMS/Thermal%20Expansion.html

Mass and Weight

Mass is the measure of inertia of an object, sometimes understood as the quantity
of matter in the object. In the SI system, mass is measured in kilograms.
Mass is not weight.
Mass is a property of an object. Weight is the force exerted on that object by
gravity. The gravitational field strength near the surface of Earth 𝑔 = 9.81 𝑁/𝑘𝑔.
For example, if the mass of an object is 5 kg, then its weight is 5 × 9.81 = 49.05𝑁.
Weight is a force and a vector. It has both magnitude and direction.
If you go to the Moon, whose gravitational acceleration is about 1/6 g, you will
weigh much less. Your mass, however, will be the same.
10
 Metals

http://www.texasgateway.org/resource/chemical-bonding-metallic-bonds

11
 ∘
Δ𝑙 = 𝛼𝑙𝑜 Δ𝑇 = 12 × 10−6 𝐶 200𝑚 20∘ 𝐶 − (−30)∘ 𝐶
Density
= −12.0 × 10−2 𝑚
The density ρ of a substance is its mass per unit volume:

The SI unit for density is kg/m3. Density is also

sometimes given in g/cm3; to convert g/cm3 to kg/m3,
multiply by 1000.
Water at 4°C has a density of 1 g/cm3 = 1000 kg/m3.
The specific gravity of a substance is the ratio of
its density to that of water.

Giancoli Prob 15.3

The dimensions of a piece of gold is 56 cm ×
28 cm × 22 cm. What would the mass be?

Giancoli Prob 13.5

A bottle has a mass of 35.00 g when empty and
98.44 g when filled with water. When filled with
another fluid, the mass is 89.22 g. What is the
specific gravity of this other fluid?

35.00 g 98.44 g 89.22 g

𝜌𝑋
𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑐 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣 = =
𝜌𝑤

12
 ∘
× 10−6
Δ𝑙 = 𝛼𝑙𝑜 Δ𝑇 = 12Three 𝐶 200𝑚
Basic Forces 20∘ 𝐶 − (−30)∘ 𝐶
= −12.0 × 10−2 𝑚
Weight 𝑾 is the force exerted on an object by gravity. Near the surface of the
Earth, where the gravitational field is nearly constant, the weight of an object
of mass 𝑚 is:
𝑊 = 𝑚𝑔
where
𝑔 = 9.8 𝑚/𝑠 2

𝑊 = 𝑚𝑔
This force acting on the ball at the
point of contact is known as the
‘Normal Force’ 𝑭𝑵 . It is a force due
to contact and acts perpendicular to
the surface.

𝑊 = 𝑚𝑔

When the ball is in equilibrium, an

equal and opposite normal force
𝐹𝑁 is acting downwards on the
ground.

Force is a vector. It has a magnitude and direction.

13
 ∘
Δ𝑙 = 𝛼𝑙𝑜 Δ𝑇 = 12 × 10−6 𝐶 200𝑚 20∘ 𝐶 − (−30)∘ 𝐶
Normal Force
= −12.0 × 10−2 𝑚
• The force exerted on an object that is pressing
against a surface is in a direction perpendicular
to the surface.
• The normal force is the force exerted by a
surface (the agent) against an object that is
pressing against the surface.

The book in the diagram has a mass of 1.2 kg

and is resting on the table top. Calculate the
normal force exerted by the table top on the
book.

Tension Force
When a string or rope or wire pulls on an object, it exerts a contact force that we
call the tension force.
• The direction of the tension force is always in the direction of the string or
rope.
• The direction of the tension is always pointing away from the object.

A 7kg block hanging from the ceiling via a cord. What

is the tension in the cord?

7 kg

14
 −6 ∘
𝐶 200𝑚 20∘ 𝐶 − (−30)∘ 𝐶
Δ𝑙 = 𝛼𝑙𝑜 Δ𝑇 = 12 × 10Pressure
= −12.0 × 10−2 𝑚
Pressure is defined as the force per unit area.

Pressure is a scalar; the units of pressure in the SI system are pascals:

1 Pa = 1 N/m2.
Giancoli Table 13.2

Question: The dimensions of a piece of gold is 56 cm × 28 cm × 22 cm. It is

placed flat on a table top. What is the lowest pressure that it can exert on
the table top?

15
 ∘
Δ𝑙 = 𝛼𝑙𝑜 Δ𝑇 = 12Pressure
× 10−6 𝐶in 200𝑚
Fluids 20∘ 𝐶 − (−30)∘ 𝐶
Giancoli= 13 × 10−2 𝑚
−12.0
Chap

For a fluid at rest, the force due to the fluid

pressure always act perpendicular to any solid
surfaces it touches.
Pressure is the same in every direction in a static
fluid at a given depth; if it were not, the fluid
would flow.
For a fluid at rest, there is also no component
of force parallel to any solid surface—once
again, if there were, the fluid would flow.

The pressure at a depth h below the surface of the

liquid is due to the weight of the liquid above it. We
can quickly calculate:

Example

Some divers can dive to a depth of 20m without scuba diving tanks. What is the
pressure experienced by a diver who is diving at 20 m under seawater?
(Here, we assume that the density of seawater to be 1000 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3 and
𝑔 = 10𝑚/𝑠 2 for simplicity.)

How many times is this compared to the atmospheric pressure?

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=x
JHJsA7bYGc&t=5s
16
 Atmospheric Pressure

This relation is valid for any liquid

whose density does not change with depth.
At sea level the atmospheric pressure is about
1.013 x 105 N/m2; this is called 1 atmosphere
(atm). Another unit of pressure is the bar:
1 bar = 1.00 x 105 N/m2.
Standard atmospheric pressure is just over 1 bar.
This pressure does not crush us, as our cells
maintain an internal pressure that balances it.

Knight Fig 15.9

At sea level the atmospheric pressure can

balance the pressure due to a column of
mercury of height 760 mm.

Most pressure gauges measure the pressure

above the atmospheric pressure—this is called
the gauge pressure. The absolute pressure is
the sum of the atmospheric pressure and the
gauge pressure.

17
 ∘
Δ𝑙 = 𝛼𝑙𝑜 Δ𝑇 = 12 × 10−6 𝐶 200𝑚 20∘ 𝐶 − (−30)∘ 𝐶
Exercise:
= −12.0 × 10−2 𝑚
The mercury in the tube is in equilibrium and the height difference between the
mercury level in the two limbs is 6.0 cm. Determine the gas pressure in the tank.
Density of mercury is 13 600 kg m-3.

Δℎ = 6.0 𝑐𝑚

Dams

http://www.australiangeographic.com.au/topics/science-environment/2011/01/to-dam-or-
not-to-dam/

18
 ∘
Δ𝑇 = 12 × 10−6 𝐶 200𝑚 20∘ 𝐶 − (−30)∘ 𝐶
Δ𝑙 = 𝛼𝑙𝑜13.16
Giancoli Example
= −12.0 × 10−2 𝑚
A house at the bottom of a hill is fed by a full tank of water 5.0 m deep and
connected to the house by a pipe that is 110 m long at an angle of 58° from the
horizontal. Determine the water gauge pressure at the house.

Example
In which of the following is the gas pressure the highest?

Mastering Physics 19
 Upthrust
The density of iron is 7.86 g cm-3. The density of sea water to be 1.10 g cm-3. Can
iron float in sea water?

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=05WkCPORlj4&t=1s

When an object is partially immersed in a fluid, it will experience an upward force.

When the object is immersed further in a fluid, the upward force will increase
correspondingly until it is fully immersed. This force is known as upthrust. It
originates from the pressure difference between the bottom (larger pressure) and
top side of the object.

Archimedes' Principle

Any object, wholly or partially immersed in a fluid, is buoyed up by a force

equal to the weight of the fluid displaced by the object.

Remarks:
1. Volume of object submerged in the fluid=Volume of fluid displaced;
2. Knowing the displaced volume Vsubmerged and density rfluid of the fluid, we can
compute the weight of fluid which gives the upthrust:

𝑈𝑝𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑢𝑠𝑡 = (𝜌𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑉𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑚𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑑 ) 𝑔

From here, we can derive the law of flotation: A floating object displaces its own
weight of fluid. For example, if an object weighs 1.2 N, for it to float, it has to be
able to displace at least 1.2 N of fluid, i.e. giving an upthrust equivalent to 1.2 N.

[email protected]
20
 ∘
Displacement 𝛼𝑙𝑜 Δ𝑇 = 12 × 10−6 𝐶 200𝑚 20∘ 𝐶 − (−30)∘ 𝐶
Δ𝑙 = Can
= −12.0 × 10−2 𝑚

https://www.youtu
be.com/watch?v=s
w66gzBD9fE&t=4s

∘
Δ𝑙 = 𝛼𝑙𝑜 Δ𝑇 = 12 × 10−6 𝐶 200𝑚 20∘ 𝐶 − (−30)∘ 𝐶
Boats (taken from×Knight)
= −12.0 10−2 𝑚
The hull of a boat is really a
hollow shell, so the volume of
water displaced by the shell is
much larger than the volume of
the hull itself. The boat sinks
until the weight of the displaced
water exactly matches the boat’s
weight. It is then in static
equilibrium and floats.

21
 Test your understanding

A piece of material with density 0.70 g cm-3 is partially immersed in oil

with density 0.85 g cm-3.

i. What is the volume of oil displaced by the block of material?

ii. What is the weight of oil displaced by the block of material?

iii. What is the upthrust acting on the block due to oil?

iv. If someone use his finger to push the block further down into the
liquid, how would answer (i) to (iii) change?

22
Example

If the duck displaces 0.25 𝑚3 of water (assuming

density 𝜌 = 1.00 𝑔/𝑐𝑚3 ), calculate the upthrust
acting on it. Since it is floating, deduce the weight
of the duck.

Question (Young and Freedman Q12.30)

Identical sized lead and aluminum cubes are
suspended at different depths in a large vat of water
(density of lead is higher).

a) Which cube experiences a greater buoyant force?

b) For which cube is the tension in the string

greater?

Mastering Physics
23
Knight (2) Example 15.8

A 10 𝑐𝑚 × 10 𝑐𝑚 × 10 𝑐𝑚 block of wood with density

700 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3 is held underwater by a string tied to the
bottom of the container. What is the tension in the
string?

Giancoli Example 13-12

What volume V of helium is needed if a balloon is to lift a

load of 180 kg (including the weight of the empty balloon)?
[Density of Helium = 0.179 Kg / m3.]

Mastering Physics 24
 Gradients and Areas Under Graphs (Basics) Part 1

Two of the very important mathematical skills in Physics are:

a. to compute the gradient of a graph;

b. to compute the area under a graph;

These two mathematical operation becomes difficult when the graph is not a
straight line and we will have to rely on aspects of Calculus (differentiation and
integration). However, let us start from something simple first.

Example 1:

𝑦 a. Calculate the gradient of the line.

(2, 𝑦1 ) b. What is the equation of this line?
𝜃 (4,5) c. What is the value of 𝑦1 ?
(1,4) d. What is the value of 𝜃?

Example 2
Compute the gradient of these lines

𝑦 𝑦 𝑦
(1,4)
(5,2)

A line parallel 𝑥 A line parallel 𝑥 𝑥

to the x-axis to the y-axis

25
 2020S1 PH1012: Physics A
Basic Thermal Physics

Dr Ho Shen Yong
Lecturer, School of Physical and Mathematical Sciences
Nanyang Technological University

Weeks 1 & 2
Giancoli Chap 17.1-10 (exclude 17.5), 19.10

"Enthusiasm spells the difference between mediocrity and accomplishment."

- Norman Vincent Peale (1898 – 1993)

Key things to committed to long term memory

26
 Temperature

Temperature is the measure of the degree of `hotness’ or `coldness’ of a system.

However, this description is not objective and we a more scientific and objective
definition. Temperature is a scalar quantity.
Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics:
If systems A and B are each in thermal equilibrium with a third system C, then A
and B are in thermal equilibrium with each other.

Remarks:

1. Zeroth law defines the concept of temperature.

2. When two systems are in thermal equilibrium, the net heat flow between the
two systems is zero. We can say that they have the same temperature.
Temperature and thermometric properties:

Unlike mass, length and time etc, there is no direct way of quantifying
temperature as it is a property of collective microscopic behaviour. We have to
rely on other measurable physical properties that vary with temperature to
determine temperature indirectly.

One such property is the volume of liquids. Other examples include the lengths of
metals, resistance of metals, difference of e.m.f.s (thermocouple), pressure of a
fixed volume of gas and colour of chemicals.
Thus, we have a measurable property P that varies with temperature T:
P(T) = A + BT + CT2 + …
Or sometimes, the change of the property DP varies,
DP(T) = A + BDT + …

27
 Gallery of Thermometers
Properties Range / Response /
Accuracy
Mercury in glass thermometer
Text pg 422, Fig 14.1
a) -39oC to 357oC (can be
Relies on variation of volume of increased with modifications).
mercury with temperature. b) Slow response (relatively
Mercury is opaque and easily large heat capacities).
seen; good conductor of heat; c) Typically 0.1oC. (Non-
does not stick to glass. uniform bore, expansion of
V = Vo (1+ bDT) glass.) Affects temp of object
it is measuring.

Platinum Resistance thermometer

a, c) Extremely accurate from
Rely on the fact that the -200oC to 1200oC.
electrical resistance of metals b) Relatively large heat
are temp dependent. Platinum capacities so takes longer
has temp coef of resistance; high time to come in thermal
melting pt (1773oC). equilibrium with surroundings
– slow response.
http://www.rdfcorp.com/ R (T) = Ro (1 + a T + bT2)

Thermocouple Can set cold junction in

ice/water ( 0oC ).
a) Using several combinations
of metals can get
from -269oC to 2300oC.
Two fine wires of different b) Small heat capacity – fast
metals – e.m.f E in millivoltmeter response and can measure
depends on temp diff at junction temp even at embedded pt.
http://www.hcs77.com/Barnant_dualog.htm E(T) = aT + bT2 c) Accurate over wide range.

Constant Vol Gas thermometer

Seldom used any more as
Kept at constant vol, the thermometers - used to
pressure of the gas varies with define meaning of temp.
temp. For ideal gas, PV = nRT. Used as standard reference
All other thermometers depend for temp.
critically on the nature and purity a) About -271oC to 1100oC
of materials used. Under the b) Very slow response (large
right conditions, behaviour of vol of gas used).
Young (College) pg 422, Fig 14.1
gas thermometer is independent c) Accurate over a wide
of gas. range 28
Calibration of Thermometers; Fixed points

In order to establish a temperature scale, it is

necessary to make use of fixed points. At each
fixed point, a single temperature corresponds to a
particular physical phenomena that can be easily
and accurately reproduced. At the fixed points,
the temperature of all thermometers agree.

Three such fixed points are:

1. Ice point – temp at which pure ice and water
co-exist in equilibrium at atmospheric
pressure. (0 oC ;~101 kPa)

2. Steam point – temp at which pure water an

steam co-exist in equilibrium at atmospheric
pressure. (100 oC ;~101 kPa)

3. Triple point of water – temp at which pure

ice, water and water vapour can exist
together in equilibrium. (273.16 K, 0.01 oC; http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ther
611.73 Pa) mometer#mediaviewer/File:Ther
mometer_CF.svg

Giancoli Prob 17.6

In an alcohol-in-glass thermometer, the alcohol column has length 11.82 cm at
0.0°C and length 21.85 cm at 100.0°C. What is the temperature if the column has
length (a) 18.70 cm, and (b) 14.60 cm?

29
 Calibration of Thermometers; Fixed points

Triple point of water – temp at which pure ice, water and water vapour can exist
together in equilibrium. (273.16 K, 0.01 oC; 611.73 Pa)

Giancoli pg 483 Fig 18.5: Giancoli pg 483 Fig 18.6:

Phase diagram for water Phase diagram for 𝐶𝑂2

Remarks:
1. The triple point is special as there is only one pressure at which all three
phases of water can be together where ice/water and water/steam can co-
exist over a wide range of pressure.
2. The S.I. unit for temperature is Kelvin (K).
3. The degree Celsius (oC) is related to the Kelvin scale
q (oC) = T (K) – 273.15
a temperature change of 1 K is equal to a temperature change of 1 oC.

Google Homework: What is difference between Centigrade and Celsius scale?)

Youtube homework: Watch “Science! - Cyclohexane at the Triple Point”

https://www.youtube.com/
watch?v=MP6MVLWuNZQ

30
 Thermometers and Temperature Scales

Centigrade Scale:

It is based on the 1) ice point (0 oC) and the 2) steam point (100 oC). All other
temperatures are determined by interpolation and extrapolation. For
example, for the mercury-in-glass thermometer, the positions of the mercury
is marked off at ice point and steam point. Then, the interval between these
two marks is divided into one hundred equal marks. With this simplification,
we can write
𝑃 𝑇′ − 𝑃(0) 𝑃 100 − 𝑃(0)
=
𝑇′ − 0 100 − 0
for some thermometric property P(T) at temperature T (oC).

To find the corresponding temp T’ for property P(T’), we write

′
𝑃 𝑇 ′ − 𝑃(0)
𝑇 = × 100
𝑃 100 − 𝑃(0)
In reality, the mercury does not expand uniformly so there is a slight
deviation from the correct temperature . This applies similarly to other
thermometers.

31
Example [Muncaster, Ex 13.1]

A particular resistance thermometer has a resistance of 30.00 W at ice point,

41.58 W at the steam point and 34.59 W when immersed in a boiling liquid.
A constant gas thermometer gives readings of 1.333 x 105 Pa, 1.821 x 105 Pa
and 1.528 x 105 Pa at the same three temperatures. Calculate the
temperature at which the liquid is boiling

a) On the scale of the gas thermometer;

b) On the scale of the resistance thermometer.

32
 Ideal Gases
The Mole Concept
One mole of substance consist of 𝑁𝐴 = 6.022 × 1023 elementary units (atoms or
molecules depending on the substance). This is the same as number of atoms in
12 g of carbon-12. The number 𝑁𝐴 = 6.022 × 1023 𝑚𝑜𝑙−1 is known as Avogadro’s
constant.

How many molecules are there is 15 g of O2 gas? [1 mole of O2 is 32 g, i.e. relative

molecular mass, R.M.M. of O2 is 32.]

Gas Properties and Behaviour

What are some of the physical properties that we

can measure for a fixed amount of gas confined
in a container as shown on the right?

How do these physical properties relate to the collective

microscopic behavior of gas atoms / molecules?

33
 Gas Law

http://phet.colorado.edu/en
/simulation/gas-properties

Try the simulation for yourself. For a fixed amount of gas at constant temperature
𝑇, the pressure 𝑝 of the gas is inversely proportional to the volume 𝑉 of the gas:
1
𝑝∝ (Boyle′ s Law)
𝑉

For a fixed amount of gas at constant pressure 𝑝, the volume 𝑉 of the gas is
proportional to the temperature 𝑇 of the gas:
𝑉 ∝ 𝑇 (𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑙𝑒𝑠′ 𝐿𝑎𝑤)

For a fixed amount of gas at constant volume 𝑉, the pressure 𝑝 of the gas is
proportional to the temperature 𝑇 of the gas:
𝑝 ∝ 𝑇 (𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝐿𝑎𝑤)

For a fixed n moles of ideal gas, its pressure p (Pa, N m-2), volume V (m3) and
temperature T (k) follow the ideal gas equation

𝑝𝑉 = 𝑛𝑅𝑇 (𝐼𝑑𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝐺𝑎𝑠 𝐿𝑎𝑤)

where R = 8.314 J/ (mol K) is the gas constant.

34
 Ideal Gas Equation
For a fixed n moles of ideal gas, its pressure p (Pa, N
m-2), volume V (m3) and temperature T (k) follow
the ideal gas equation

𝑝𝑉 = 𝑛𝑅𝑇

where R = 8.314 J/ (mol K) is the gas constant.

Remarks:
1. No real gases obey the ideal gas equation.
However, the ideal gas equation is a good
description for real gases at low densities, low
pressures and high temperatures – Giancoli pg 508 Fig 19.7:
microscopically, the gas molecules are far apart Gas in a Piston
and their interactions negligible except during
elastic collisions.
2. Some basic assumptions about behaviour of
gas molecules in subsequent analysis:
• large number of molecules, moving in
random directions with a variety of speeds
• molecules are far apart, on average
• molecules obey laws of classical mechanics
and interact only when colliding
• collisions are perfectly elastic
• the volume occupied by the gas molecules
is small compared to the size of the
container

3. Thus, we have the familiar gas laws :

a. pV = constant [Boyle’s Law];
b. V/T = constant [Charles’ Law];
c. p/T = constant [Pressure Law]

4. This is a good point to Introduce a new

temperature scale, the kelvin scale. If we
imagine that the temperature of the gas is
reduced, the volume will also be reduced. So
the question is, where the volume be equal to
zero at some temperature if the gas does not
liquefy /solidify? Giancoli pg 464 Fig 17.14:
Celsius scale and Kelvin Scale –
5. 𝑇/𝐾 = 273.15 + T /∘ 𝐶 where the number 273.15 comes from.

35
 Thermometers and Temperature Scales

Constant volume gas thermometer; Kelvin Scale

For a fixed mass of gas at constant volume, we have
𝑝 = 𝑛𝑅𝑉
𝑇.
This suggests that the pressure p of a gas behaving ideally is a good thermometric
property. The relation is linear and does not depend on the properties of the
selected gas. The operational mathematical statement representing a real gas
behaving as an ideal gas is
lim
𝑃𝑡𝑟 →0

Kelvin Scale

The Kelvin scale uses the triple point of water (273.16 k) as the upper fixed point.
The lower fixed point is defined to be at temperature zero (also known as absolute
zero). Thus, where tr indicates the triple point of water
𝑝𝑡𝑟 = 𝑛𝑅 𝑉
𝑇𝑡𝑟 ;
And for pressure p at an unknown temperature T’,
𝑝 = 𝑛𝑅 𝑉
𝑇′ .
Combining the equations, we can write
𝑃
𝑇 = 273.16 𝐾 lim
𝑃𝑡𝑟 →0 𝑃𝑡𝑟
where lim indicates that the real gases behaviour ideally in the low pressure
𝑃𝑡𝑟 →0
limit. It also gives the principle guiding how the measurement should be taken and
raw data should be interpreted.

Gas Thermometer

Giancoli Fig 13.1

36
 Constant Volume Gas Thermometer
Essentially, we are applying Charles’ law in the constant gas thermometer. This
thermometer is used to set reference temperatures for other thermometers.

Giancoli pg 470 Fig 17.17:

Measuring the temperature of boiling water using different
Gas Thermometer gases and at diminishing pressures, lim .We note that at
𝑃𝑡𝑟 →0
Giancoli Fig 13.1 the number of moles of gas used is very small, the
Δ𝑙 =
thermometers readings converge at one value, regardless
of the type of gas used – they all behave close to ideal.
Young and Freedman Prob 17.8

A constant volume gas thermometer registers an absolute pressure corresponding

to 325 mm of mercury when in contact with water at triple point temperature.
What pressure does it read when placed in contact with water at normal boiling
point?

Water at 273.16 K,
triple point temperature
Δ𝑙 =
Water at boiling point

37
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=n0xAQXL905c&t=4s
Giancoli Example 17-10
Determine the volume of 1.00 mol of any gas, assuming it behaves like an ideal gas, at
STP (Standard temperature and Pressure: 𝑇 = 0∘ 𝐶, 𝑃 = 1 𝑎𝑡𝑚 = 1.013 × 105 𝑃𝑎).

Giancoli Prob 17.32

In an internal combustion engine, air at atmospheric pressure and a temperature
of about 20°C is compressed in the cylinder by a piston to 1/8 of its original volume
(compression ratio = 8.0 ). Estimate the temperature of the compressed air,
assuming the pressure reaches 40 atm.

38
Giancoli pg 468 Example 17-13: Check tires cold
A car tire is filled to a gauge pressure of 200 𝑘𝑃𝑎 at 10∘ 𝐶. After a drive of 100 𝑘𝑚,
the temperature within the tires rises to 40∘ 𝐶. What is the pressure in the tire
now? (Atmospheric pressure is 101 𝑘𝑃𝑎.)

Since volume is constant,

39
 Thermal Expansion
Linear Expansion
When the temperature of a solid object changes, the change in
length DL is (approximately) proportional to the change in
temperature DT (if it is not too large):
DL = aLoDT and L = Lo (1+ aDT)
where Lo is the original length and a characterizes the length
expansion of a particular material; it is called the coefficient of
linear expansion and has units K-1 or oC-1.

Volume Expansion
When the temperature of an object changes, the change DV in its volume is
(approximately) proportional to the temperature change DT. That is
DV = bVoDT and V = Vo (1+ bDT)
where Vo is the original volume and b characterizes the volume expansion of a
particular material with unites units K-1 or oC-1. The quantity 𝛽 is called the
coefficient of volume expansion. Do you notice an interesting relation between 𝛼
and 𝛽 in the table below?

Giancoli pg 460
Table 17.1
40
Giancoli Prob 17.8
A concrete highway is built of slabs 12 m long (15°C). How wide should the
expansion cracks between the slabs be (at 15°C) to prevent buckling if the range of
temperature is -30°C to 50°C?

∘
Δ𝑙 = 𝛼𝑙𝑜 Δ𝑇 = 12 × 10−6 𝐶 200𝑚 20∘ 𝐶 − (−30)∘ 𝐶 = −12.0 × 10−2 𝑚

Explain 𝜷 ≈ 𝟑𝜶

Consider a rectangular solid of length 𝑙𝑜 , width 𝑤𝑜 , and height ℎ𝑜 . If the

temperature changes by Δ𝑇, its volume changes from 𝑉𝑜 = 𝑙𝑜 𝑤𝑜 ℎ𝑜 to
𝑉 = 𝑙𝑜 1 + 𝛼Δ𝑇 𝑤𝑜 1 + 𝛼Δ𝑇 ℎ𝑜 1 + 𝛼Δ𝑇 .
Thus,
Δ𝑉 = 𝑉 − 𝑉𝑜 = 𝑉𝑜 1 + 𝛼Δ𝑇 3 − 𝑉𝑜 = 𝑉𝑜 [3𝛼Δ𝑇 + 3 𝛼Δ𝑇 2 + 𝛼Δ𝑇 3 ]

Δ𝑉 ≈ 3𝛼 𝑉𝑜 Δ𝑇
To appreciate the approximation, use a numerical value say 𝛼Δ𝑇 = 0.02. We note
that higher power terms of 𝛼Δ𝑇are negligible.
Giancoli Example 17-7: Gas Tank in Sun.
The 70-liter (L) steel gas tank of a car is filled to the top with gasoline at 20°C. The
car sits in the Sun and the tank reaches a temperature of 40°C. How much gasoline
do you expect to overflow from the tank?
∘ −1 ∘ −1
𝛼𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑙 = 12 × 10−6 𝐶 ; 𝛽𝑔𝑎𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 = 950 × 10−6 𝐶

Mastering Physics
41
 Anomalous behaviour of water below 4.∘ 𝑪

Giancoli Fig 17.12

Most substances contract more or less uniformly with temperature decrease as

long as there is no phase change. As seen above, water expands when
temperature is reduced from 4∘ C to 0∘ C.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UukRgqzk-KE&t=5s

42
 Heat Capacities and Latent Heat

Aluminum Wood
Different amounts of thermal energy is required to raise the temperature of
same mass substance by 1 oC or 1 K.

The amount of thermal energy required to raise the temperature of the same
substance by 1 oC or 1 K is dependent on the mass.

1. How much energy is needed to

raise 3.0 kg of Al by 4∘ 𝐶?

2. How much will the temperature

of a piece of 2.0 kg Al change if
1800 J of energy is removed
from it?

43
 −6 ∘
Δ𝑙 =Heat
𝛼𝑙𝑜 Δ𝑇 = 12 ×
Capacities 10Latent
and 𝐶 Heat
200𝑚

The heat capacity (C) of a body is defined as being the heat required to produce a
unit temperature change. Units: J K-1 or J oC-1 .

DQ = C DT

The heat capacity per unit mass of a substance is the specific heat capacity (c). It
is characteristic of the substance of which the body is composed.
Units: J kg-1 K-1 or J kg-1 oC-1 .
DQ = mc DT ; C = mc

Since we are dealing only with temperature changes, the numeric values of C
when expressed in J K-1 is the same as those for J oC-1 . The same applies to c.

The specific latent heat of (l) of fusion (or vaporization, or sublimation) of a

substance is the energy required to cause unit mass of the substance to change
between solid and liquid (or liquid and vapour, or solid and vapour) without
temperature change. Units: J kg-1. How much energy has to be needed
DQ =to
mlmelt 3 kg of ice at 0∘ C?

Example: How much energy has to be needed to melt 3 kg of pure ice at 0∘ C?

44
Giancoli Prob 19.22

An iron boiler of mass 180 kg contains 730 kg of water at 18°C. A heater supplies
energy at the rate of 52 000 kJ/h. How long does it take for the water (a) to reach
the boiling point, and (b) to all have changed to steam? (Please to refer to the
tables in the e-text to obtain the relevant latent heat and specific heats.)

ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑏𝑦 𝑡𝑒𝑎 = ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑐𝑢𝑝

Let final temp = T,

𝑚𝑡𝑒𝑎 𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑎 95∘ − 𝑇 = 𝑚𝑐𝑢𝑝 𝑐𝑐𝑢𝑝 𝑇 − 25∘

𝑇 = 86∘ 𝐶

Example: Circuit melt down [Young (College) pg 452, Ex 14.7]

You are designing an electronic circuit element made of 23 mg of silicon. The

electric current through it adds energy at the rate 7.4 x 10-3 J/s. Specific heat of
silicon is 705 J/(kg K). Assume no heat lost to surrounding. What is rate of
temperature rise?

In one second,

45
Plot of temp vs energy added to 1.0 g of water from -30oC to 120oC
Giancoli pg 456 Fig 17.2:
The atomic picture of solid,
liquid and gaseous phase

From Jewett & Serway Vol 1 Chap 20; Fig 20.3, pg 574

An analysis of heat supplied to 1.0 g of water from -30oC to 120oC

Part A: Ice (-30.0oC to 0.0oC) ; cice = 2 090 J / (kg oC-1 ). [Warming up]
𝐽
𝑄1 = 𝑚𝑖𝑐𝑒 𝑐𝑖𝑐𝑒 Δ𝑇 = 1.0 × 10−3 𝑘𝑔 2090 = 6 0 − −30 ∘ 𝐶 = 62.7𝐽
𝑘𝑔 ∘ 𝐶
Part B: Ice -> Water (0.0oC); Lf, ice = 333 000 J / kg.
[Change of state from solid to liquid]
𝐽
𝑄2 = 𝑚𝑖𝑐𝑒 𝑙𝑖𝑐𝑒 = 1.0 × 10−3 𝑘𝑔 3.33 × 105 = 330𝐽
𝑘𝑔
Part C: Water (0.0oC to 100.0oC) ; cwater = 4 190 J / (kg oC-1 ). [Warming up]
𝐽
𝑄3 = 𝑚𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 Δ𝑇 = 1.0 × 10−3 𝑘𝑔 4190 (100 − 0)∘ 𝐶 = 419𝐽
𝑘𝑔 ∘ 𝐶

Part D: Water -> Steam (100.0oC); Lv, water = 2 260 000 J / kg.
[Change of state from liquid to gas]
𝐽
𝑄4 = 𝑚𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑙𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 1.0 × 10−3 𝑘𝑔 22.6 × 105 = 2260𝐽
𝑘𝑔
Part E: Steam (100.0oC to 120.0oC) ; csteam= 2010 J / (kg oC-1 ). [Warming up]
𝐽
𝑄3 = 𝑚𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 Δ𝑇 = 1.0 × 10−3 𝑘𝑔 2010 (120 − 100)∘ 𝐶 = 40.2𝐽
𝑘𝑔 ∘ 𝐶

46
 ∘
Giancoli Prob 𝛼𝑙𝑜 Δ𝑇 = 12 × 10−6 𝐶 200𝑚 20∘ 𝐶 − (−30)∘ 𝐶
Δ𝑙 =19.21
−2
= −12.0
High-altitude × 10climbers
mountain 𝑚 do not eat snow, but always melt it first with a
stove. To see why, calculate the energy absorbed from your body if you (a) eat 1.0
kg of −10∘ 𝐶 snow which your body warms to body temperature of 37°C. (b) You
melt 1.0 kg of −10∘ 𝐶 snow using a stove and drink the resulting 1.0 kg of water at
2°C, which your body has to warm to 37°C.

Giancoli Prob 19.12

A hot iron horseshoe of mass 0.40 kg just forged, is dropped into 1.05 L of
water in a 0.30-kg iron pot initially at 20.0°C. If the final equilibrium
temperature is 25.0°C, estimate the initial temperature of the hot horseshoe.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lYkTK45bXrI&t=5s
Mastering Physics 47
 ∘
Δ𝑙 = 𝛼𝑙𝑜 Δ𝑇 = 12 × 10−6 𝐶 200𝑚 20∘ 𝐶 − (−30)∘ 𝐶
Heat Transfer:
= −12.0 × 10−2Conduction,
𝑚 Convection and Radiation
(extracted from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heat_transfer)
Conduction is the transfer of energy between objects that are in physical
contact. On a microscopic scale, heat conduction occurs as hot, rapidly moving or
vibrating atoms and molecules interact with neighbouring atoms and molecules,
transferring some of their energy (heat) to these neighbouring particles. In other
words, heat is transferred by conduction when adjacent atoms vibrate against
one another, or as electrons move from one atom to another. Conduction is the
most significant means of heat transfer within a solid or between solid objects
in thermal contact. Fluids—especially gases—are less conductive.

Assuming no heat lost to surrounding.

48
 ∘
Δ𝑙 = 𝛼𝑙𝑜 Δ𝑇 = 12 × 10−6 𝐶 200𝑚 20∘ 𝐶 − (−30)∘ 𝐶
Heat Transfer:
= −12.0 × 10−2Conduction,
𝑚 Convection and Radiation
(extracted from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heat_transfer)
Convection occurs when heat flows by the mass movement of molecules from
one place to another. It may be natural or forced; both these examples are
natural convection.

Giancoli Fig 19.22 Giancoli Fig 19.23

In the above diagrams, convection currents are set up as the heated fluid at
the bottom rises because of reduced density and the heated fluid is replaced
by cooler fluid from above.
Thermal radiation occurs through a vacuum or any transparent medium (solid
or fluid). It is the transfer of energy by means of electromagnetic waves.

Giancoli Fig 19.25

https://imagine.gsfc.nasa.
gov/science/toolbox/emsp
ectrum1.html

49