INTRODUCTION AND REVIEW DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

CONIC SECTION
The path of a point which moves so that its distance from a fixed point is in a constant ratio to its
distances from a fixed line is called a conic section, or simply a conic.
The fixed point is called the focus of the conic, the fixed line the directrix, and the constant
ratio the eccentricity. In Fig 7.1, if F is the focus, DD’ the directrix, and P a point on the conic, then
FP
=e
LP

FP = e(LP ) eqn (7.1)

where e denotes the eccentricity.

Fig 7.1 would still be true if the point P were in the position P’, symmetric to P with respect to
the line FM. Hence the line through the focus perpendicular to the directrix is a line a symmetry
for the curve. It follows that the line through the focus parallel to the directrix intersects the
curve in two points: the chord Q1Q2
joining these points is called the latus rectum, or right chord.
The conic sections fall into three classes, as follows (Fig.7.2):

if e < 1, the conic is an ellipse;

if e = 1, the conic is a parabola;
if e > 1, the conic is a hyperbola.
THE PARABOLA
The parabola is the locus of a point moves so that its distances from a fixed point and a
fixed line are equal. The fixed point and the line are called the focus and directrix of the parabola
respectively.
Derivation of the formula:
Consider any point P(x,y) on the locus (Fig. 7.1b) and draw PL perpendicular to the
directrix. Then from the definition of a parabola, we have

FL = PF

( x − a) 2 + y 2 = a + x

( x − a) 2 + y 2 = ( a + x) 2

x 2 − 2ax + a 2 + y 2 = a 2 + 2ax + x 2

y 2 = 4ax eqn (7.2)

The chord through the focus and perpendicular to the axis is called the latus rectum of a
parabola. Substituting x = a in eqn (7.2), we find y = ± 2a; hence the length of the latus rectum is
4a. The vertex is at origin and the parabola opens to the right.
The standard form of the equation of the parabola
1.) with vertex at origin
2
y = 4ax the parabola opens to the right eqn (7.2)

y 2 = −4ax the parabola opens to the left eqn (7.2a)

x 2 = 4ay the parabola opens upward eqn (7.2b)

x 2 = −4ay the parabola opens downward eqn (7.2c)

2.) with vertex is the point (h,k)whose axis is horizontal and vertical

( y − k ) 2 = 4a( x − h) the parabola opens to the right eqn (7.3)

( y − k ) 2 = −4a( x − h) the parabola opens to the left eqn (7.3a)

( x − h) 2 = 4a ( y − k ) the parabola opens upward eqn (7.3b)

( x − h) 2 = −4a ( y − k ) the parabola opens downward eqn (7.3c)

 The general equation of the parabola

y 2 + Dx + Ey + F = 0 eqn (7.4)

x 2 + Dx + Ey + F = 0 eqn (7.5)

Examples:
1.) Write the equation of the parabola with vertex at origin and the focus at (4,0). Graph the
parabola and label completely.
Solution:
Eqn (7.2) applies here. The distance from the focus to the vertex is 4 and hence a = 4.
Substituting this value for a, we get y 2 = 16 x . The graph is drawn in figure below.

2.) Find the equation of the parabola with latus rectum joining (- 2, - 1), (6, - 1).
Solution:
Latus Rectum, LR = 4a
4a = 8
a=2
Vertex at (2,1): eqn (7.3c) applies

( x − 2) 2 = −8( y − 1)

x 2 − 4 x + 4 = −8 y + 8

x 2 − 4x + 8 y − 4 = 0

Second equation:
Vertex at (2,- 3): eqn (7.3b) applies

( x − 2) 2 = 8( y + 3)

x 2 − 4 x + 4 = −8 y + 24

x 2 − 4 x − 8 y − 20 = 0

3.) Reduce the equation of the parabola given by y 2 − 4 y − 12 x − 15 = 0 to standard form, the
parabola and label completely.
Solution:

y 2 − 4 y − 12 x − 15 = 0

y 2 − 4 y = 12 x + 15

y 2 − 4 y + 9 = 12 x + 15 + 9

( y − 3) 2 = 12( x + 2)

Vertex, V (- 2, 3)
LR = 4a = 12
a=3
 CIRCLE
A circle is the locus of a point which moves at a constant distance from a fixed point. The
fixed point is the center and the constant distance the radius. The radius is a line segment
connecting the center and a point of the curve.

6.1.1 FORMULAS
y
1. STANDARD FORMS:
h r
c(h,k)
k
a.) Center (h,k): (x – h)2 + (y – k)2 = r2 x
o

b.) Center (0,0): x2 + y2 = r2 r

x
where r = radius c(0,0)

2. GENERAL EQUATION: x2 + y2 + Dx + Ey + F = 0

Examples:
1.) Write the equation of a circle with center (0,3), radius 7.

Solution:

From standard form: center (h,k): (x – h)2 + (y – k)2 = r2

x2 + (y – 3)2 = (7)2
x2 + y2 – 6y + 9 = 49
x2 + y2 – 6y – 40 = 0 general equation of the circle
2.) Find the center and radius of the circle, x2 + y2 + 6x – 4y – 12 = 0
Solution:
x2 + y2 + 6x – 4y = 12

rearranging the same variables:

x2 + 6x + y2 – 4y = 12

by completing squares:
x2 + 6x + 9 + y2 – 4y + 4 = 12 + 9 + 4
(x + 3)2 + (y – 2)2 = 25
center, C(–3,2) radius, r = 25 = 5
A.) THE ELLIPSE

An ellipse is the locus of a point which moves so that the sum of its distances from two
fixed points is constant. Each of the fixed points is called a focus (plural foci) and the line joining
them the principal axis.
 Fig. 8.1

Derivation of formula:
Consider rectangular coordinates with x and y axis, origin at O which is midway between
foci (Fig. 8.1). We denote the distance between foci by 2c, and coordinates F’(- c,0) and F(c,0).
Now, if we let the sum of the sum of the distances from a point P(x,y) of the ellipse to the foci be
2a, then
PF '+ PF = 2a
( x + c ) 2 + y 2 + ( x − c ) 2 + y 2 = 2a
transposing and squaring both sides,
(x + c) 2 + y 2 = 2a − ( x − c) 2 + y 2
( x + c ) 2 + y 2 = 4a 2 − 4 a ( x − c ) 2 + y 2 + ( x − c ) 2 + y 2
x 2 + 2 xc + c 2 = 4 a 2 − 4 a ( x − c ) 2 + y 2 + x 2 − 2 xc + c 2
4 xc = 4a 2 − 4a ( x − c) 2 + y 2
cx − a 2 = − a ( x − c ) 2 + y 2
squaring again,
(cx − a 2 ) 2 = (− a ( x − c) 2 + y 2 ) 2
c 2 x 2 − 2a 2 cx + a 4 = a 2 [( x − c ) 2 + y 2 ]
c 2 x 2 − 2a 2 cx + a 4 = a 2 ( x 2 − 2 xc + c 2 + y 2 )
c 2 x 2 − 2a 2 cx + a 4 = a 2 x 2 − 2a 2 cx + a 2 c 2 + a 2 y 2
a 4 −a 2 c 2 = a 2 x 2 − c 2 x 2 + a 2 y 2
a 2 (a 2 − c 2 ) = x 2 (a 2 − c 2 ) + a 2 y 2
From ∆ BOF (fig. 8.1.1)
a 2 = b 2 + c 2 or b2 = a 2 − c2

dividing both by a 2 b 2
a 2b2 = x 2b2 + a 2 y2
x2 y2
1= +
a2 b2
x2 y 2
+ = 1 eqn (8.1)
a2 b 2

Fig.8.1.1
 From figure (Fig.8.1.1) the ellipse is symmetric with respect to both axes. When y = 0,
then x = ± a, and when x = 0, y = ± b. Hence the ellipse cuts the x-axis at V’(- a,0) and V(a,0) and
puts the y-axis at B’(0,- b), and B(0, b). The segment V’V = 2a is called the major axis of the
ellipse and the segment B’B=2b is the minor axis. The ends of the major axis are called the vertices.
The intersection of the axes of the ellipse is the center. The chord through a focus and perpendicular
to the major axis is called a latus rectum. Substituting x = c in eqn (8.1) and using the relation
b2 − b2
c 2 = a 2 − b 2 , we solved the coordinates of the two latus rectum are (−c, ), (−c, ) . These
a a
2b 2
shows that the distance of each latus rectum is . The major axis is larger than the minor axis
a
because b 2 = a 2 − c 2 < a 2 , and therefore b < a . We notice also that the foci are on the major axis.
If we put the foci of an ellipse on the y-axis at (0, −c) and (0, c) the equation will be become

y 2 x2
+ = 1 eqn (8.1a)
a2 b 2

The standard form of the equation of an ellipse whose center is the point (h,k) is

( x − h) 2 ( y − k ) 2
+ =1 eqn (8.1.b) for horizontal major axis
a2 b2
( y − k ) 2 ( x − h) 2
+ =1 eqn (8.1.c) for vertical major axis
a2 b2

The general equation of an ellipse is

Ax 2 + Cy 2 + Dx + Ey + F = 0 eqn (8.1.d)

Examples:
1.) Find the equation of an ellipse with foci at (0, ± 3) and a vertex at (0, ± 5).
Solution:
The location of the foci shows that the center of the ellipse is at the origin. The major
axis is along y – axis. From Figure a = 5, c = 3
From the relation:
b 2 = a 2 − c 2 = (5) 2 − (3) 2 = 16
b=4
therefore the equation is
y2 x2
+ =1
25 16

25x2 +16y2 – 400 = 0

The general equation of the ellipse is 16 x 2 + 25 y 2 − 128 x − 150 y + 381 = 0 . Reduce the equation to
standard form and draw the figure.

Solution:

16 ( x 2 − 8 x ) + 25 ( y 2 − 6 y ) = − 381

16( x 2 − 8 x + 16) + 25( y 2 − 6 y + 4) = −381 + 16(16) + 25(4)

16( x − 4) 2 + 25( y − 3) 2 = 100

or

( x − 4) 2 ( y − 3) 2
+ =1
25 4
4
 25
since > 4 , the major axis is horizontal
4

5 25 3
a= b = 2 c = a2 − b2 = −4 =
2 4 2
Center, C(4,3)

3 11
F= 4+c = 4+ =
2 2
3 5
F' = 4 − c = 4 − =
2 2
5 13
V = 4+a = 4+ =
2 2
5 3
V' = 4 − a = 4 − =
2 2
2.) Determine the equation of the ellipse with major axis horizontal and passing through the points (-
1,3) and (3,2). Draw the figure.
Solution:

Standard equation of the ellipse , center at origin & major axis along x:

x2 y2
+ =1
a2 b2
at (- 1,3)

(−1) 2 (3) 2
+ 2 =1
a2 b
1 9
2
+ 2 =1
a b

b 2 + 9a 2 = a 2 b 2 eqn (1)

at (3,2)

(3) 2 (2) 2
+ 2 =1
a2 b
9 4
2
+ 2 =1
a b
 9b 2 + 4a 2 = a 2 b 2 eqn (2)

equate eqn (1) & eqn (2)

b 2 + 9a 2 = 9b 2 + 4a 2

8b 2 = 5a 2

5 2
b2 = a eqn (3)
8
Subst eqn (3) in eqn (1)

5 2 5
a + 9a 2 = a 2 ( a 2 )
8 8

5 + 72 2 a 2 2
( )a = (a )
8 8
77
a2 =
5
5 77
b2 = ( )
8 5
77
b2 =
8
Therefore the equation of the ellipse is

x2 y2
+ =1
77 77
5 8

5 x 2 + 8 y 2 = 77

center, C(0,0)

77 77
vertices V ( ,0) ,V’ (− ,0)
5 5

77 77 231
Foci: c = a2 − b2 = − =
5 8 40

231 231
F( ,0) ,F’ (− ,0)
40 40
 77 77
Ends of minor axis: B (0, ) ,B’ (0,− )
8 8
77
2b 2 2( 8 ) 385
Ends of Latera Recta: LR = = =
a 77 4
5

231 385 231 385

L1 (− , ), R1 ( − ,− )
40 8 40 8

231 385 231 385

L2 ( , ), R2 ( ,− )
40 8 40 8

C. THE HYPERBOLA
A hyperbola is the locus of a point which moves so that the difference of its distances
from two fixed points is constant. Each of the fixed points is called a focus (plural foci) and the
line joining them the principal or main axis.

Derivation of formula:
Consider rectangular coordinates with x and y axis, origin at O which is midway between
foci (Fig. 8.2). We denote the distance between foci by 2C, and coordinates F’(- c,0) and F(c,0)
and the difference of the distance between a point of the hyperbola and the foci by the positive
constant 2a.
Then
F ' P − FP = 2a
or
F ' P − FP = −2a
depending on the location of the point P(x,y) of the hyperbola is to the right or left of the y-axis.
F ' P − FP = ±2a
or ( x + c ) 2 + y 2 − ( x − c ) 2 + y 2 = ±2 a
(x + c) 2 + y 2 = ±2a + (x − c) 2 + y 2
cx − a 2 = ± a (x − c) 2 + y 2
(c 2 − a 2 ) x 2 − a 2 y 2 = a 2 ( c 2 − a 2 ) and b 2 = c 2 − a 2
b 2 x 2 − a 2 y 2 = a 2b 2
x2 y 2
− =1 eqn (8.2)
a2 b 2

From the figure 8.2, the hyperbola is symmetric with respect to both axes. The points V’(-
a,0) and V(a,0) are called vertices and the segment V’V is called the transverse axis. The
segment B’(0,- b) to B(0,b) is called the conjugate axis. The intersection of the axes is the center.
The chord through a focus and perpendicular to the transverse axis is called a latus rectum. By
substituting x = c in eqn (8.2) and using the relation c 2 = a 2 + b 2 , we solve the values of latus
− b2 b2 2b 2
rectum to be (c, ) and (c, ) . Hence the length is .
a a a
If the foci are on the y-axis at F’(0,- c) and F(0,c) the equation of the hyperbola is
y 2 x2
− = 1 eqn 8.2.a
a2 b2

The standard form of the equation of the hyperbola whose center is the point (h,k)

( x − h) 2 ( y − k ) 2
− =1 eqn (8.2.b) for horizontal transverse axis
a2 b2
( y − k ) 2 ( x − h) 2
− =1 eqn (8.2.c) for vertical transverse axis
a2 b2

The general equation of the hyperbola is

Ax 2 + Cy 2 + Dx + Ey + F = 0 eqn (8.2.d)

Examples
1.) Draw the graph of 9 x 2 − 4 y 2 − 36 x + 8 y − 4 = 0
Solution
Rearrange the equation & transposing constant:
9( x 2 − 4 x ) − 4( y 2 − 2 y ) = 4
9( x 2 − 4 x + 4) − 4( y 2 − 2 y + 1) = 4 + 9(4) − 4(1)
9( x − 2) 2 − 4( y − 1) 2 = 36
( x − 2) 2 ( y − 1) 2
− =1
4 9
since x – 2 is positive, the transverse is horizontal

a2 = 4 a=2

b2 = 9 b=3
Center, C(2,1)
Vertices (0,1),(4,1)
c2= a2 + b2
c = 4 + 9 = 13
Foci are 2 ± 13 ,1
The equation of the asymptotes are given by
( x − 2) 2 ( y − 1) 2
− =0
4 9
( x − 2) 2 ( y − 1) 2
− =0
4 9
x − 2 y −1 x − 2 y −1
( + )( − )=0
2 3 2 3
 x − 2 y −1 x − 2 y −1
+ =0 − =0
2 3 2 3
3x − 6 + 2 y − 2 = 0 3x − 6 − 2 y + 2 = 0
3x + 2 y − 8 = 0 3x − 2 y − 4 = 0

b2 9
For latus rectum: =
a 2

11 −7
L1 ( 2 + 13 , ) R1 ( 2 + 13 , )
2 2
11 −7
L2 ( 2 − 13 , ) R2 ( 2 − 13, )
2 2

2.) Find the equation of the hyperbola with foci at (- 2,14) and (- 2,4), transverse axis 8.
Solution
Since the abscissa of the foci are equal, the transverse axis is vertical.
( y − k ) 2 ( x − h) 2
The standard equation − =1
a2 b2
Foci :
F1(h,k+c) = (- 2,14)
F2(h,k+c) = (- 2, 4)
therefore h = - 2
k + c = 14 eqn (1)
k-c=4 eqn (2)
Add eqn (1) & eqn (2)
2k = 18
k=9
From eqn (1)
k + c = 14
c = 14 – 9 = 5
Transverse axis, 2a = 8 a = 4
c2 = a 2 + b2
b2 = c2 − a2
b = c2 − a 2
b = (5) 2 − ( 4) 2
b=3
 ( y − 9) 2 ( x + 2) 2
Equation of the hyperbola − =1
16 9
Center C(- 2,9)
Vertices: V(h, k + a) = ( - 2,13)
V’(h, k – a) = ( - 2, 5)
Foci: F (h, k + c) = ( - 2, 14)
F’(h, k – c) = ( - 2, 4)
Ends of conjugate axis
B(h – b, k) = ( - 5, 9)
B’(h + b, k) = (1, 9)
End of Latera Recta
b2
L1 (h − , k + c ) = (−4.25,14)
a
b2
R1 (h + , k + c) = (0.25,14)
a
b2
L2 (h − , k − c) = (−4.25,4)
a
b2
R2 (h + , k − c ) = (0.25,4)
a