www.publicspeakingproject.

org

origins of public speaking

chapter 2

By: Peter A. DeCaro, Ph.D.

University of Alaska, Fairbanks, AK

introduction
The art of public speaking was
practiced long before the Greeks wrote chapter objectives chapter outline
about it in their treatises more than After reading this chapter, you should be  Introduction
2,500 years ago. For Greek men, it was able to:  Ancient Greece
a way of life, a way of being, just like o The Rise of Democracy
football and baseball are to us today. o The Nature of Rhetoric
1. Identify the historical events that
o Dialectics and Logic
We attribute today’s field of led up to democracy and
o The Rhetorical Approach
communication to the ancient Greeks recognize persuasion and public
 The Roman Republic’s Adoption
because they were the first to speaking as art forms in Athens,
of Rhetoric
systematize the art of public speaking, Greece.
o Cicero’s Influence
which they called “rhetoric.” 2. Describe the nature of public
o Quintillion’s Influence
speaking in Athens during the 5th  The Middle Ages
The art, or use of public speaking, is century B.C. and the role it o St. Augustine
quite different today than when it was played in a democratic society. o Christianity
practiced by the Greeks, and then the 3. Apply Plato’s approach to  The Renaissance
Romans. Theirs was a time that didn’t dialectics and logic. o The Humanists
have multimedia -- television, radio, 4. Explain Aristotle’s descriptions of o The Rationalists
internet, movies, newspapers, and the rhetoric and public speaking.  The Modern Period
like -- for getting their messages to the 5. Describe the Roman Republic’s o The Epistemological Tradition
masses. Instead, the Greeks and adoption of rhetoric to public o The Belles Lettres Movement
speaking.
Romans informed, praised, or persuaded o The Elocutionary Movement
6. Elucidate Cicero’s influence on  Conclusion
people the old fashion way -- through the Roman Republic and public
discourse -- otherwise known as the oral  Review Questions and Activities
speaking.
tradition. That meant speaking face to  Glossary
7. Describe the relevance of
face with their audience. Quintillion’s influence on the  References

What we know today as the art of Roman Empire, rhetoric, and

public speaking.
public speaking has undergone a
8. Recognize the impact that St.
number of changes since the days of Augustine, Christianity, and the as the field of communication
Pericles, Cicero, and Quintilian. Public Middle Ages had on rhetoric and transitioned from one era to another, so
did “Speech is power: speech
speaking brought us through the Middle public speaking. the understanding of public
Ages, experienced a rebirth as a result 9. Clarify the roles that the is to persuade, to convert,
speaking.
of the Renaissance, redefined to conquer Renaissance, Rationalism, and
and explain the known and unknown, the Humanists had on the rebirth to compel”
interpreted to perform theatrics, and of rhetoric and public speaking. -Ralph Waldo Emerson
finally, along this historical path from 10. Explain the role that Classical God, that all-powerful
rhetoric and the advent of
the ancient Greeks and Romans, the art
psychology in the 18th and 19th
Creator of nature and
of public speaking was reinvented to
accommodate the electronic age of the
centuries, known as the Modern architect of the world, has
twentieth and twenty-first centuries. 11.
Period, had on public speaking.
Describe the influence of the
impressed man with no
So what is public speaking? Has it Elocutionary Movement on public character so proper to
really changed since the days of the speaking. distinguish him from other
Greeks and Romans, St. Augustine, and 12. Describe the restoration of public
Descartes? No, the concept of public speaking in the United States. animals, as by the faculty of
speaking hasn’t changed; it has speech.
basically remained the same. However, ~ Quintilian
This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-Noncommercial-No Derivative Works 3.0 United States License. To view a copy of this license, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-
nd/3.0/us/ or send a letter to Creative Commons, 171 Second Street, Suite 300, San Francisco, California, 94105, USA.
PDF documents prepared by Lisa Schreiber and Donna Painter Graphics.
Chapter 2 Origins of Public Speaking www.publicspeakingproject.org

This chapter is meant to give you, the structures of Attica (a peninsula jutting constitute a surge in Athenian
reader, an accurate and detailed history into the Aegean Sea), with the city of democracy.
of how the art of public speaking came Athens located at its center. The In 593 B.C. Draco’s laws were
into existence beginning with the citizens of Athens were known as reformed by Solon, an Athenian
ancient Greeks and Romans. We will Athenians, and were among the most legislator, who introduced the first form
learn how the Greeks came to develop prosperous of people in the of popular democracy into Athens.
the art and then were followed by the Mediterranean region. Solon’s courts became the model for the
Romans who codified and refined Romans and centuries later for England
public speaking. After the fall of the Speech is the mirror of action. and America. Murphy and Katula
Roman Empire, we will see how public ~ Solon (1995) argued: “It is with Solon’s
speaking was kept alive by just a few reforms that we mark the unalterable
individuals until the Renaissance, when impulse toward popular government in
documents, or extants (which are It was in the Homeric Period, also
known as “The Age of Homer,” western civilization” (p. 7). The
treatises and writings that survived Athenian period of democratization
history), were discovered in Italy, and between 850 B.C. and 650 B.C., that an
evolution in forms of government from included legislative as well as judicial
the approaches, both scientific and reform.
Humanistic, that defined the art of monarchy to oligarchy, and tyranny to
public speaking came about. Finally, eventual democracy, began in ancient It was during the reign of Pericles,
we visit the latter part of the 19th and Greece. Homer was the major figure of from 461 B.C. to 429 B.C., that Athens
20th centuries to understand ancient Greek literature and the author achieved its greatest glory. Some of
contemporary public speaking. of the earliest epic poems, the Iliad and these accomplishments included the
the Odyssey. In the year 630 B.C., the installation of a pure democracy to
last tyrant of Attica, Ceylon, seized the maintain, a liberalized judicial system to
Acropolis, which was the seat of include poor citizens so that they could
government in Athens, and established serve on juries, and the establishment of
himself as the ruler of all Attica. He a popular legislative assembly to review
didn’t rule for long. Ceylon was annually all laws. In addition, he
overthrown within weeks by farmers established the right for any Athenian
and heavily armed foot soldiers known citizen to propose or oppose a law
as hoplites. Many of Ceylon’s during assembly. Pericles’
followers were killed, and the few that achievements far exceeded those
escaped death fled into the mountains. mentioned. Because of his efforts,
Thus, Athenian democracy was born. Athens became the crossroads of the
In 621 B.C., the citizens of Athens world - the center of western civilization
commissioned Draco, who was an elder - and with it came the need for public
citizen considered to be the wisest of the speaking.
ancient greece
Greeks, to sort their laws into an
the rise of democracy
organized system known as
In order to understand what
codification, because until that time,
contemporary public speaking is, we
they simply remained an oral form of
first must understand the genesis of
custom and tradition and weren’t
public speaking. We begin with the
written like the laws of today. Draco
Greeks and rhetoric. Rhetoric, as
was concerned only with criminal
defined by Aristotle, is the “faculty of
offenses, which until this time had been
discovering in the particular case all the
settled through blood feud (an eye-for-
available means of persuasion”
an-eye type of revenge between
(Kennedy, 1963, p.19). For the Greeks,
families) or rulings by the King. Draco
rhetoric, or the art of public speaking,
established courts, complete with juries,
was first and foremost a means to
to hear cases of homicide, assault, and
persuade. Greek society relied on oral
robbery. By conforming the codes for “Persuasion is the civilized substitute
expression, which also included the
criminal offenses into standards of for harsh authority and ruthless force,”
ability to inform and give speeches of
practice, Draco began the tradition of wrote R.T. Oliver (1950, p.1). Oliver
praise, known then as epideictic (to
law, where cases were decided on said that the recipients of any persuasive
praise or blame someone) speeches.
clearly enunciated crimes and penalties discourse must feel free to make a
The ability to practice rhetoric in a
determined by statute rather than by the choice. In a free society it is persuasion
public forum was a direct result of
whims of the nobility. His laws helped that decides rules, determines behavior,
generations of change in the governing
2-2
Chapter 2 Origins of Public Speaking www.publicspeakingproject.org

and acts as the governing agent in defined as a debate intended to resolve a

human physical and mental activities. conflict between two contradictory (or
In every free society individuals are polar opposites), or apparently
continuously attempting to change the contradictory ideas or elements
thoughts and/or actions of others. It is a logically, establishing truths on both
fundamental concept of a free society. sides rather than disproving one
Ian Harvey (1951) suggested that the argument. Both rhetoric and dialectic
technique of persuasion is the technique are forms of critical analysis.
of persuading free people to a pattern of Among the most significant thinkers
life; and persuasion is the only possible of the fifth century B.C. were the
means of combining freedom and order. traveling lecturers known as sophists.
That combination successfully achieved They were primarily teachers of
is the solution to the overriding political excellence who dealt with
problems of our time. Rhetoric practical and immediate issues of the
(persuasion), public speaking and day, and whose investigations led in
democracy are inextricable. As long as many instances to a philosophical
there is rhetoric, and public speaking to relativism. Unlike Socrates and Plato,
deliver that message, there will exist the sophists believed that absolute truth
democracy; and as long as there is was unknowable and perhaps
democracy, there will exist rhetoric and nonexistent, especially in the sphere of
public speaking. forensics and political life, where no
city dominated by the orator. Athens universal principles could be accepted.
I believe that the will of the witnessed the birth of what we know Courses of action had to be presented in
people is resolved by a strong today as rhetoric. persuasive fashion. Unlike the sophists,
leadership. Even in a To say that rhetoric played an Socrates taught that truth was absolute
important role in Greek and Roman life and knowable and that a clear
democratic society, events would be an understatement. The distinction should be made between
depend on a strong leadership significance of rhetoric and oratory was dialectic, the question and answer
with a strong power of evident in Greek and Roman education. method of obtaining the one correct
George Kennedy (1963) noted that answer, and rhetoric, which does not
persuasion, and not on the rhetoric played the central role in seem interested in the universal validity
opinion of the masses. ancient education. At about the age of of the answer but only in its
~ Yitzhak Shamir fourteen, (only) boys were sent to the persuasiveness for the moment. Plato
school of the rhetorician for theoretical developed this criticism of rhetoric to
the nature of rhetoric instruction in public speaking, which such an extent that he is the most
Pericles’ democracy established the was an important part of the teaching of famous and most thorough-going of the
need for training in public speaking. the sophists. Public speaking was basic enemies of rhetoric. Plato preferred the
Greek assemblies debated old and new to the educational system of Isocrates philosophical method of formal inquiry
laws on a yearly basis. The courtrooms (the most famous of the sophists); and it known as dialectic.
that Solon reformed now bristled with was even taught by Aristotle” (p.7).
litigation. Pericles’ juries numbered In making a speech one must
between 500 and 2,000 people, so dialectics and logic study three points: first, the
speaking at a public trial was similar to It is important to note that rhetoric means of producing
speaking at a public meeting. And to and oratory are not the same, although
speak at a legislative assembly required we use rhetoric and oratory
persuasion; second, the
serious, highly developed, and refined synonymously; nor are rhetoric and language; third, the proper
debate, because at stake generally were dialectic the same. Zeno of Elea (5th arrangement of the various
issues of peace and war. Murphy and century B.C.), a Greek mathematician
Katula (1995) stated that the Athenian and philosopher of the Eleatic school, is
parts of the speech.
citizens realized that their very future considered to be the inventor of ~ Aristotle
often depended on their ability to speak dialectical reasoning. However, it is
persuasively. Public speaking was an Plato, another Greek philosopher and the rhetorical approach
Olympic event where the winner teacher of Aristotle, and not Socrates, Aristotle wrote that rhetoric is the
received an olive wreath and was that we attribute the popularity of faculty of discovering in the particular
paraded through his town like a hero. dialectical reasoning. Dialectic can be case all the available means of
Thus, Athens became a city of words, a
2-3
Chapter 2 Origins of Public Speaking www.publicspeakingproject.org

persuasion. He cited four uses of personal character that will win the the roman republic
rhetoric: (1) by it truth and justice confidence of the listener; (2) engaging As Athens declined in power, a new
maintain their natural superiority; (2) it the listener’s emotions; and (3) proving force emerged, the Roman Republic.
is suited to popular audiences, since a truth, real or apparent, by argument. The Senate was the only permanent
they cannot follow scientific Aristotle concluded that the mastery of governing body and the only body
demonstration; (3) it teaches us to see the art, then, called for (1) the power of where debate was possible. In order to
both sides of an issue, and to refute logical reasoning (logos); a knowledge debate, one had to know the persuasive
unfair arguments; and (4) it is a means of character (ethos); and a knowledge of art of rhetoric and oratory, or public
of self-defense. For Aristotle, rhetoric the emotions (pathos). speaking.
is the process of developing a persuasive In summary, Plato had opposed
argument, and oratory is the process of Greek rhetoric appeared in republican
rhetoric to dialectic; Aristotle compared Rome in the middle of the second
delivering that argument. He stated that the two: both have to do with things
the “authors of ‘Arts of Speaking’ have century B.C. The teachers of rhetoric
which are within the field of knowledge were Greek, and they taught in both
built up but a small portion of the art of of all men and are not part of any
rhetoric; because this art consists of Greek and Latin. Eventually Roman
specialized science. They do not differ teachers were produced. The
proofs alone - all else is but accessory. in nature, but in subject and form:
Yet these writers say nothing of remarkable thing about Roman
dialectic is primarily philosophical, rhetorical theory, wrote Murphy and
enthymemes, the very body and rhetoric political; dialectic consists of
substance of persuasion” (Book 1, p. 1). Katula (1995), is that it appeared for the
question and answer, rhetoric of a set first time in its fullest form around 90
speech. Both can be reduced to a B.C., with very little direct evidence as
system and thus are properly called to how it developed into its completed
“art.” form. Sometime after Aristotle, writers
refined and identified the subject of
Rhetoric is the art of ruling rhetoric into five parts - Invention,
the minds of men. Arrangement, Style, Memory, and
~ Plato Delivery. These five canons are still a
part of public speaking in education
today. Two Romans stand out as
Aristotle became the primary source quintessential figures of Roman
of all later rhetorical theory. rhetoric, Cicero and Quintilian.
Eventually, the dispute between rhetoric
and philosophy in the time of Aristotle
had ended in a compromise in which cicero’s influence
philosophy accepted rhetoric as a means Marcus Tullius Cicero was born on
to a goal. The rhetoric of not only January 3, 106 BC and was murdered on
Cicero and Quintilian, but of the Middle December 7, 43 BC. His life coincided
Ages, of the Renaissance, and of with the decline and fall of the Roman
modern times, is basically Aristotelian. Republic, and he was an important
Aristotle said that rhetoric has no
special subject-matter; that is, it isn’t
limited to particular topics and nothing
else. He claimed that certain forms of
persuasion come from outside and do
not belong to the art itself. This refers
to, for example, witnesses, forced
confessions, and contracts that Aristotle
said are external to the art of speaking.
He considered these to be non-artistic
proofs. Aristotle identified what he
considered to be artistic proofs which
must be supplied by the speaker’s
invention (the “faculty of discovering”
that Aristotle used in his definition of
rhetoric); and these artistic means of
persuasion are threefold. They consist
in (1) evincing through the speech a

2-4
Chapter 2 Origins of Public Speaking www.publicspeakingproject.org

participant in many of the significant subject. Cicero considered oratory to be

political events of his time. He is the highest form of intellectual activity
The mind is exercised by the
considered to be the greatest of the and an instrument indispensable for the variety and multiplicity of the
Roman orators, and was, among other welfare of the state. In addition, he subject matter, while the
things, a lawyer, politician, and combined the three functions of the
philosopher. orator to the three levels of style. He
character is molded by the
In Cicero’s Rome the government was able to provide his colleagues with contemplation of virtue and
eventually came under the control of a a broad interpretation of Atticism, and vice.
he revived the best of the Greek
well-trained ruling class. Legal training
theoreticians and practitioners of
~ Quintilian
became an integral part of this ruling
class. Roman rhetoric provided rules oratory. It can be said that Cicero was
for all forms of oratory; however, legal an idealist. As a student of Greek During the hundred years plus which
speaking became the primary emphasis rhetoric, he encouraged his elapsed between the death of Cicero and
of textbooks. contemporaries to practice the same the birth of Quintilian, education had
ideals, ethics and standards of the past. vastly spread all over the Roman
Cicero is noted for writing the De His primary focus was to adapt Hellenic Empire, with rhetoric as the most
Inventione when he was about twenty (ancient Greece) doctrine to the needs of important part of education. But by
years old. It is important because it Rome. During Cicero’s time, Rome had Quintilian's time (Gwynn, 1926), the
gives us insight into the general nature become a place where the free popular trend in oratory was not rhetoric
of rhetorical instruction in the first expression of ideas was no longer in the traditional sense, rather it was
century B.C. And later in life, as a more tolerated. The government had been called "silver Latin," a style that favored
mature individual, he wrote the De corrupted. ornate embellishment over clarity and
Oratore, which he compared and precision. During this time rhetoric was
contrasted to the De Inventione. primarily composed of three aspects: the
Cicero’s contributions to the theory of theoretical (contemplating new
oral discourse included the belief that rhetorical methods), the educational
the orator must have a firm foundation (teaching students the five canons), and
of general knowledge. Cicero believed the practical (courtroom and political
that the perfect orator should be able to speeches).
speak wisely and eloquently on any
subject with a dignified, restrained Quintilian’s Institutio Oratoria may
delivery. Corbett (1965) wrote that be read as a reaction against this trend;
“Cicero felt that the perfect orator had it advocated a return to simpler and
to be conversant with many subjects. In clearer language. Gwynn (1926) wrote
order to invent his arguments, the that Quintilian adopted Cicero’s oratory
perfect orator must have a command of prowess as the model for this return to
a wide range of knowledge” (p. 542). rhetorical tradition; because during the
Cicero despised the shallowness of previous century, Cicero’s far more
orators who depended exclusively on concise style was the standard.
perfect diction and elegant words that Quintilian disliked the excessive
lacked substance. His ideal person was ornamentation popular in the oratory
the philosopher-statesman-learned style of his contemporaries (silver
orator who used rhetoric to mold public quintilian’s influence Latin). Quintilian believed that
opinion. Marcus Fabius Quintilianus (A.D. deviating from natural language and the
35-95) was a celebrated orator, natural order of thought in pursuit of an
It is not by muscle, speed, or rhetorician, Latin teacher and writer over-elaborate style created confusion in
who promoted rhetorical theory from both the orator and his audience.
physical dexterity that great
ancient Greece and from the height of Much of this work dealt with the
things are achieved, but by Roman rhetoric. His work on rhetoric, technical aspects of rhetoric and the
reflection, force of character, the Institutio Oratoria, is an exhaustive Institutio Oratoria stood -- along with
and judgment. volume of twelve books and was a Aristotle’s Rhetoric and Cicero’s
major contribution to educational theory writing -- as one of the ancient world’s
~ Marcus Tullius Cicero and literary criticism. Many later greatest works on rhetoric. According
rhetoricians, especially from the to Barrett (1987), he organized the
Cicero firmly held that oratory was Renaissance, derived their rhetorical practice of oratory into five canons:
more than legal pleadings or a school theory directly from this text. inventio (discovery of arguments),

2-5
Chapter 2 Origins of Public Speaking www.publicspeakingproject.org

dispositio (arrangement of arguments), was “finding the available means of the middle ages
elocutio (expression or style), memoria persuasion.” Quintilian challenged this St. Augustine
(memorization), and pronuntiatio definition because he felt that Aristotle The Middle Ages (400-1400 A.D.)
(delivery). This thorough presentation had omitted the fact that anyone, not followed the Second Sophistic
reflects his extensive experience as an just the learned, can persuade. To movement, wrote Foss, Foss and Trapp
orator and teacher, and in many ways Quintilian, rhetoric was “the good man (1991), and during this period, rhetoric
the work can be seen as the culmination speaking well” (Honeycutt, 2007). became aligned with preaching, letter
of Greek and Roman rhetorical theory. Quintilian’s system of rhetorical writing, and education. As Christianity
education aimed at the creation of the grew in power, rhetoric was condemned
ideal Roman orator: a virtuous, as a pagan art; many Christians believed
efficient, courageous, eloquent man. that the rhetorical ideas expressed by the
His goal was to prepare an orator- pagans of classical Greece and Rome
philosopher-statesman who could should not be studied and that one’s
combine wisdom with persuasion for belief in Christian truth brought with it
the sake of regulating the state. It was the ability to communicate that truth
this insistence on the intellectual and effectively. St. Augustine had been a
moral training of the aspiring orator that teacher of rhetoric before converting to
made Cicero and Quintilian the two Christianity in A.D. 386, and is
most potent classical influences on considered to be the only major thinker
rhetorical education in England and on rhetoric associated with the Middle
America. Ages. Rhetoric played a role in
education in the Middle Ages as one of
From the death of Quintilian (about the three great liberal arts. Along with
A.D. 100) until the fall of the Roman logic and grammar, rhetoric is
Empire (A.D. 410), very little was considered part of the trivium of
contributed to the rhetorical doctrine. A learning, similar in function to the
Greek cultural movement in the second West’s three R’s of reading, writing and
and third centuries A.D. (although some arithmetic today.
sources place this movement during the
fourth and fifth centuries A.D.) called
the “Second Sophistic,” was centered in
Quintilian emphasized the value of Athens (Barrett, 1987). However, the
rhetoric as a moral force in the art of oratory focused more on excessive
community. “My aim,” said Quintilian, performance (delivery) and professional
“is the education of the perfect orator” speech making rather than the art of
(I. Pref. 8). Since the function of the intellectual development. There isn’t a
orator is to advance the cause of truth total gap between Quintilian and
and good government, Quintilian said medieval rhetoric. This period
he must by definition be a good man produced works by Victorinus, who
morally and not just an effective wrote a systematic commentary on
speaker. According to Gwynn (1926) Cicero’s rhetoric, Aquila Romanus,
this was a revolutionary doctrine in the Fortunatianus, and Sulpitius Victor.
development of rhetoric: Aristotle saw They are mentioned because they reflect
rhetoric as morally neutral, a human the type of rhetorical education common
tool whose moral character resided in to the third and fourth centuries and
the speaker not the art. Quintilian saw provide a bridge between classical and
rhetoric as a means for a better self- medieval rhetoric.
governing society; to make moral
goodness integral to oratory.
How does Quintilian’s perspective on A thing is not necessarily true
Christianity
rhetoric compare to Plato, Aristotle, and because badly uttered, nor The clearest bridge to the Middle
Cicero? Plato defined rhetoric as a false because spoken
philosophy rather than an art, an Ages, according to Murphy and Katula
unnecessary tool. Plato was concerned magnificently. (1995), is found in the De doctrina
christiana of Saint Augustine (354-430
more with the truth than Quintilian, ~ Saint Augustine A.D.). Augustine divided his work into
while Aristotle believed that rhetoric

2-6
Chapter 2 Origins of Public Speaking www.publicspeakingproject.org

four books. The first three deal with Magnus, Joseph Webber, Ben Jonson,
“sign,” or “that which is used to signify William Shakespeare, Thomas More,
something else” (Robertson, 1958). For Descartes, Hobbes, Locke, Hume, and
example, language was for Augustine a Kant. This emergence also produced
set of conventional signs which human the great discoveries of Copernicus,
beings agree to show each other to Galileo, Kepler, and Newton. In
convey ideas and feelings. He posited architecture it brought about the revival
that the world itself is a sign of God. of the classical style. And in the fine
Augustine argued that human beings arts it inspired new schools of painting
needed to know the nature of signs in in Italy, such as Raphael, Leonardo,
order to understand the language of the Bellini, Michael Angelo, Giorgione, and
Bible, and then needed to understand the Flemish school in the Netherlands.
rhetoric in order to explain the Christian The Renaissance is the name of the
message, and then teach it to others. He great intellectual and cultural movement
believed every Christian was obligated of the revival of interest in classical
to spread Christ’s message (e.g. culture that occurred in the 14th, 15th,
Matthew 18:20), thus, rhetoric became and 16th centuries. The Renaissance
an obligation to every Christian. began in Italy as a major revolt against
His influence prevailed, and the an intellectually barren medieval spirit,
Christian Church adopted the and especially against scholasticism, in
Ciceronian rhetoric as a guide to favor of intellectual freedom. A hunger the basis of the Humanistic education
preachers. Saint Augustine is developed for all things classical. curriculum. The most important
sometimes called “the last classical man Greek scholars were encouraged to influences on Petrarch were Cicero and
and the first medieval man.” With travel to Italy. Florence became the Augustine. He took from Cicero the
respect to rhetoric, Foss et al., (1991) cradle of classical revival. Latin classics principles of composing Latin and much
stated that this is certainly true, and it is were in demand. Libraries were built. of his philosophy; and from Augustine
possible to see him an agent of And schools for the study of Greek and he derived his ideas about the
communication from one age to another. Latin in their classic forms were opened relationship of the human to the divine.
in Rome and other major cities. Throughout the Renaissance, the single
most important author, classical or
otherwise, during the entire Humanist
the humanists movement is Cicero.
The second period of the Renaissance
produced a continued passion for Love is the crowning grace of
classical study, which was later coined humanity, the holiest right of
“Humanism” in 1808 by a German the soul, the golden link
educator, F.J. Niethammer, to describe a
program of study distinct from scientific which binds us to duty and
and engineering educational programs. truth, the redeeming principle
Of all the practices of Renaissance that chiefly reconciles the
Europe, nothing is used to distinguish
the Renaissance from the Middle Ages heart to life, and is prophetic
more than Humanism as both a program of eternal good.
and a philosophy. ~ Petrarch
The Humanists began by
rediscovering lost Latin texts, rather
Interested in the human world as
than searching for classical Greek
constructed through language, rather
extants. The two most important
than the natural world, the Humanists
classical authors of the Renaissance
the renaissance focused on the human
were Cicero and Quintilian, not
The end of the Middle Ages was epistemologically. They emphasized
Aristotle or Plato. Petrarch spearheaded
witnessed by the birth of the the world of human culture and
the rediscovery of Cicero; and one of language, believing in the power of the
Renaissance (1400-1600), and with it the texts he found, the Brutus, a
the rise of Humanism, a movement that word not only because it gives those
handbook on rhetoric, became one of
brought such thinkers and writers as with a command of it special advantage
the most important books in the
Petrarch, Francis Bacon, Albertus in daily interactions, but because of its
Renaissance. Quintilian later became
2-7
Chapter 2 Origins of Public Speaking www.publicspeakingproject.org

inherent capacity to disclose to the be concerned with the canons of style is to apply Reason to Imagination for
world of humans. The Italian and delivery only. Ramus’ the better moving of the will” (Dick,
Humanists believed rhetoric, not identification of rhetoric with style 1955, p.100). Bacon, then, advanced
philosophy, to be the primary discipline launched a denigration of invention that the scientific approach to the study of
because it is through language that lasted for centuries (Virtualology.com, rhetoric that would support the three
humans gain access to the world (Foss 2007). trends of modern rhetorical thought.
et al., 1991). René Descartes is one of the most The three trends in rhetoric that
important Western philosophers of the characterized the modern period are -
past few centuries. During his lifetime, epistemological, belletristic, and
Descartes was just as famous as an elocutionist. Epistemology is the study
original physicist, physiologist and of the origin, nature, methods, and
mathematician. But it is as a highly limits of human knowledge.
original philosopher that he is most Epistemological thinkers, such as
frequently read today. He attempted to Bacon, sought to change classical
restart philosophy in a fresh direction. approaches in terms of modern
For example, his philosophy refused to developments in psychology. They
accept the Aristotelian and Scholastic attempted to understand rhetoric in
traditions that had dominated relation to the psychological process
philosophical thought throughout the and contributed to the development of a
Medieval period; it attempted to fully rhetoric premised on human nature.
integrate philosophy with the "new"
sciences; and Descartes changed the
relationship between philosophy and
theology. Descartes believed that in
order to reach certain knowledge, the
foundations of thought provided by
others had to be abandoned. He was
willing to accept only that which would
the rationalists
A second trend in rhetoric also began withstand all doubt. He rejected truths
during the Renaissance -- a trend that established in speech or in the course of
dominated the theories of rhetoric to social or political action. Language
follow. Rationalism, represented by the became only a means of communicating
work of Peter Ramus (1515-1572) and the truth once it was discovered, not a
powerful sphere in which human life
René Descartes (1596-1650), sought
objective, scientific truths that would emerges (Foss, et al., 1991).
exist for all time. Foss et al., (1991)
wrote that, “Not surprisingly, the
I think; therefore I am.
rationalists had little patience for ~ Rene Descartes
rhetoric: while poetry and oratory might
be aesthetically pleasing, they were seen the epistemological tradition
as having no connection to science and the modern period
Dominated by the rationalism George Campbell (1719-1796) and
truth” (p. 8). Richard Whately (1758-1859)
instituted by Descartes and Ramus,
Howell (1956) claimed that Ramus modern rhetoric continued to promote exemplify the best of the
was a French scholar who made rhetoric the importance of science and epistemological tradition. Campbell
subordinate to logic by placing philosophy over rhetoric. Francis authored The Philosophy of Rhetoric
invention and organization under the Bacon (1561-1626) was a prominent (1776). He drew on Aristotle, Cicero,
rubric of logic and leaving rhetoric with figure of the modern period. He was and Quintilian as well as faculty
only style and delivery. Ramus argued concerned with the lack of scholarly psychology and empiricism (experience
that invention should not be an progress during the Middle Ages and of the senses) of his times. Faculty
intellectual process governed by sought to promote a revival of secular psychology attempted to explain human
contingencies, as Aristotle or Cicero knowledge through an empirical behavior in terms of the five faculties of
would have it. He presented invention examination of the world. His the mind - understanding, memory,
as a rhetorical procedure that must definition of rhetoric suggests his effort imagination, passion, and will - and
conform to the theory of logic. He to bring the power of language under Campbell’s definition of rhetoric was
successfully argued that rhetoric must rational control, “. . . the duty of rhetoric directed to these faculties. Campbell

2-8
Chapter 2 Origins of Public Speaking www.publicspeakingproject.org

distinguished three types of evidence -

mathematical axioms, derived through
Gentleness corrects whatever
reasoning; consciousness, or the result is offensive in our manner.
of sensory stimulation; and common ~ Hugh Blair
sense, an intuitive sense shared by
virtually all humans (Foss et al., 1991). the elocutionary movement
The elocutionary movement, the
As one may bring himself to third rhetorical trend of the modern
believe almost anything he is period, reached its height in the mid-
inclined to believe, it makes eighteenth century. Before the
Elocutionary Movement most scholars
all the difference whether we of rhetoric quickly assimilated the Latin
begin or end with the inquiry, elocutio (style) with the English word
“What is truth?” elocution. However, by the eighteenth
century scholars more accurately began
~ Richard Whately to regard elocution as the Latin
pronunciato (delivery). This change in
Richard Whately published Elements association gave rise to the Elocutionary
of Rhetoric in 1828. His view of Movement, a movement that focused
advocacy of the belletristic movement. primarily on delivery. Although there
rhetoric was similar to Campbell’s in its
He was a Presbyterian preacher and are many theorists associated with the
dependence on psychology, but he
occupied the Chair of Rhetoric and Elocutionary Movement, the most
shifted from Campbell by making
Belles Lettres at the University of widely publicized is Thomas Sheridan.
argumentation the focus of the art of
Edinburgh. He had a number of Sheridan was an Irish actor and educator
rhetoric. He is also known for his
publications, but his most well-known of elocution. He wanted to reform the
analysis of presumption [of innocence]
was the Lectures on Rhetoric and educational system of Britain to correct
and burden of proof, which paved the
Belles Lettres, which was based on his the serious neglect of rhetorical
way for modern argumentation and
lectures. Lectures is important because delivery-elocution. This belief not only
debate practices. The epistemologists
it drew on the works of Cicero and involved the voice, but also
combined their knowledge of classical
Quintilian and combined them with the incorporated the entire person with
rhetoric and contemporary psychology
modern works of Addison and Burke to facial expressions, gesture, posture and
to create rhetorics based on an
become one of the first whole language movement.
understanding of human nature. By
guides. Blair’s theories were founded in
doing this, they introduced audience-
centered approaches to rhetoric and
the belief that the principles of rhetoric He steps on stage and draws
evolve from the principles of nature.
pioneered the way for contemporary the sword of rhetoric, and
investigations with audience analysis.
when he is through, someone
is lying wounded and
the belles lettres movement
The second direction rhetoric took thousands of others are either
in the modern period is known as the angry or consoled.
belles lettre movement; the term, in ~ Pete Hamill
French, literally means “fine or
beautiful letters.” This is a departure
from both the rationalists and However, the elocutionists of this
elocutionists because this form of period regarded themselves as
literature valued the aesthetic rhetoricians and their work as rhetoric.
qualities of writing rather than any There were a number of reasons why
informative value it may have. The the movement flourished. During the
scope of what was considered to be eighteenth and nineteenth century an
rhetoric broadened to include all of increasing number of professions
the fine arts of the period, poetry, required the skill of public speaking. As
music, drama, gardening and a result, a needed change from style to
architecture, along with oral delivery developed in response to the
discourse, writing and criticism. poor delivery styles of contemporary
preachers, lawyers, and other public
Hugh Blair is best known for his

2-9
Chapter 2 Origins of Public Speaking www.publicspeakingproject.org

Chapter review questions and activities

review questions
1. What historical events gave rise to Athens establishing democracy for its citizens?
2. Who was Draco, and what did he do in Athens?
3. Under whose reign did Athens enjoy its greatest glory, and why?
4. Who was Plato, and what form of inquiry did he advocate?
5. Who was Aristotle, and what is he most noted for?
6. What did the Romans borrow from the Greeks and how did they improve upon it?
7. Why was Cicero considered to be the greatest Roman orator?
8. What did Quintilian contribute to the art of persuasion?
9. What role did rhetoric play in education in the Middle Ages?
10. The Renaissance gave birth to the Humanists and Rationalists. Can you describe
the differences between the two and name two representatives from each and their
contributions to persuasion?
11. What is the “epistemological tradition” and who best represent this movement?

activities
1. Create two teams of at least three students per team. One team will represent the dialectical approach to
problem solving and the other team will represent the Aristotelian rhetorical tradition. One team will attempt to
explain how a problem is solved and conclusions arrived at through the dialectical approach, the other through
the rhetorical approach. The problem to be solved will be created by student consensus.

2. The Humanists and Rationalists viewed persuasion from differing perspectives. Students should form
teams that represent each perspective, choose an issue, then argue or advocate for their side using each
perspective, and then compare the process of problem-solving to see how they arrived at their conclusions.

3. Review the approaches that Aristotle, Cicero, and Quintilian held toward rhetoric, then identify and
compare and contrast the similarities and differences between them and how these differences advanced the art
of public speaking.

2-11
Chapter 2 Origins of Public Speaking www.publicspeakingproject.org

glossary

Atticism Pericles
An expression characterized by conciseness and Responsible for the installation of a pure democracy to
elegance. maintain popular support, a liberalized judicial system to
include poor citizens so that they could serve on juries,
Dialectic
Dialecticcan be defined as a debate intended to resolve a and the establishment of a popular legislative assembly to
conflict between two contradictory (or polar opposites), review annually all laws. In addition, he established the
or apparently contradictory ideas or elements logically, right for any Athenian citizen to propose or oppose a law
establishing truths on both sides rather than disproving during assembly. Pericles’ democracy established the
one argument. need for training in public speaking.
Philosophical Relativism
Draco
In 621 B.C., the citizens of Athens commissioned Draco, Philosophical relativism is the concept that points of
an elder citizen considered to be the wisest of the Greeks, philosophical views have no absolute truth or validity,
to codify the laws, which had remained an oral form of having only relative subjective value according to
custom and tradition. He began the tradition of law, differences in perception and thought.
where cases were decided on clearly enunciated crimes Renaissance
and penalties determined by statute rather than by the The Renaissance is the name of the great intellectual and
whims of the nobility. His laws helped constitute a surge cultural movement of the revival of interest in classical
in Athenian democracy. culture that occurred in the 14th, 15th, and 16th centuries.
Elocutionary Movement René Descartes
Elocutionary Movement is a movement that focused René Descartes is one of the most important Western
primarily on delivery. It not only involved the voice, but philosophers of the past few centuries. He was also an
also incorporated the entire person with facial original physicist, physiologist and mathematician who
expressions, gesture, posture and movement. attempted to restart philosophy in a fresh direction.
Epistemology Rhetoric
Epistemology is the study of the origin, nature, methods, Rhetoric is the faculty of discovering in the particular
and limits of human knowledge. case all the available means of persuasion.
Marcus Fabius Quintilianus Sophists
Marcus Fabius Quintilianus, also referred to as 5th century B.C. Greek philosophers and teachers who
Quintilian, was a celebrated orator, rhetorician, Latin speculated on theology, metaphysics, and the sciences,
teacher and writer who promoted rhetorical theory and who were characterized by Plato as superficial
from ancient Greece and from the height of Roman manipulators of rhetoric and dialectic
rhetoric. (thefreedictionary.com)

Marcus Tullius Cicero St. Augustine

Marcus Tullius Cicero is considered to be the greatest of St. Augustine had been a teacher of rhetoric before
the Roman orators, and was, among other things, a converting to Christianity in 386, and is considered to be
lawyer, politician, and philosopher. the only major thinker on rhetoric associated with the
Middle Ages.
Oratory
The ability to speak with rhetorical skill and eloquence. Syllogism
A syllogism is a deductive form of argument, proceeding
from a generalization to a specific application. It is a
systematic arrangement of arguments consisting of a
major premise, a minor premise, and a conclusion.
Zeno of Elea
Zeno of Elea was a 5th century B.C. Greek mathematician
and philosopher of the Eleatic school who is considered
to be the inventor of dialectical reasoning.

2-12
Chapter 2 Origins of Public Speaking www.publicspeakingproject.org

references Protagoras and Meno. Baltimore, Robertson, D.W. (1958). Saint

MD: Penguin Books. Augustine on Christian Doctrine.
Atkins, J.W.H. (1952). Literary Harvey, I. (1951). The Technique of New York: Library of Liberal Arts.
Criticism in Antiquity. London: Persuasion. London: The Falcon Rolfe, J.C. (1963). Cicero and His
Methuen. Press. Influence. New York: Cooper
Barrett, H. (1987). The Sophists: Honeycutt, L. (2007). Square.
Rhetoric, Democracy, and Plato’s http://honeyl.public.iastate.edu/qui Virtualology.com (2007). Retrieve on
Idea of Sophistry. Novato, CA; ntilian/index.html January 26, 2007 from
Chandler & Sharp Publishers. http://www.virtualology.com/rheto
Howell, W.S. (1956). Logic and
Bowra, C.M. (1957). The Greek Rhetoric in England, 1500-1700. ricaltheory/peterramus.com/
Experience. New York: The New New York: Russell & Russell.
American Library
Ijsseling, S. (1976). Rhetoric and photo credits
Campbell, G. (1776). The Philosophy Philosophy in Conflict: An
of Rhetoric. Bitzer, L., ed. (1963). Historical Survey. The Hague: P. 1 The Parthenon by Lisa Schreiber
P. 2 Pericles’ Funeral Oration by Phillip von
Carbondale: Southern Illinois Martinus. Foltz
University Press.
Golden, J.L.; Berquist, G.F.; Coleman, http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Discur
so_funebre_pericles.PNG
Clark, D. L. (1957). Rhetoric in Greco- W.E. (1983). The Rhetoric of P. 3 Parc de Versailles. Isocrates, Pierre Granier
Roman Education. Westport, CT: Western Thought, 3rd ed.. (1684-1688) ; Photo by Coyau
Greenwood. Dubuque: Kendall/Hunt. http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Parc_
de_Versailles,_Rond-
Cooper, L. (1952). The Greek Genius Gwynn, Aubrey. Roman Education Point_des_Philosophes,_Isocrate,_Pierre_Granier_
and Its Influence. Ithaca, N.Y. from Cicero to Quintilian. Oxford: MR1870_04.jpg
P. 4 The School of Athens [Plato and Aristotle]
Corbett, E.P.J. (1965). Classical Clarendon Press, 1926. by Raffaello
Rhetoric for the Modern Student. Inch, E.S.; Warnick, B.; Endres, D. http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Sanzi
o_01_Plato_Aristotle.jpg
New York: Oxford University (2006). Critical Thinking and P. 4 Cicero Denounces Catiline by Cesare
Press. Communication. New York: Maccari (1840 – 1919)

Dick, H.C., ed. (1955). Selected Pearson Education, Inc. http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commo

ns/a/a3/Maccari-Cicero.jpg
Writings of Francis Bacon. New Kennedy, G. (1963). The Art of P. 5 Quintillian by Unknown
York: Modern Library. Persuasion in Greece. Princeton: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Quinti
lian.jpg
Ehninger, D., ed. (1963). Richard University Press. p. 6 Saint Augustine by Sandro Bottecelli
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Saint_
Whately, Elements of Rhetoric. Larson, Charles, U. (1995). Augustine_Portrait.jpg
Carbondale: Southern Illinois Persuasion: Reception and P. 7 Shakespeare by John Taylor ?
University Press. Responsibility. 7th ed. Belmont, http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Shake
CA: Wadsworth Publishing. speare.jpg
Fearnside, W.W. (1980). About P. 7 Friedrich Immanuel Niethammer by
Thinking. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Murphy James J. and Katula, R.A. Unknown
Prenticed-Hall, Inc. http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commo
(1995). A Synoptic History of ns/5/5b/Friedrich_Immanuel_Niethammer.jpg
Freeley, A.J. & Steinberg, D.L. (2005). Classical Rhetoric. 2nd ed. Davis: P. 8 Francis Bacon by Unknown
Argumentation and Debate, 11th Ca. Hermagoras Press. http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commo
ns/6/65/Francis_Bacon.jpg
ed. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Oliver, R.T. (1950). Persuasive P. 8 Renes Descartes by Frans Hals (1649 –
Publishing Co. Speaking. New York: Longmans, 1700)
Green and Co. http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Frans_
Freeman, K. (1963). The Murder of Hals_-_Portret_van_Ren%C3%A9_Descartes.jpg
Herodes. New York: W.W. Norton, Quintilian. (1987). Carbondale: Illinois P. 9 Hugh Blair by John Kay
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Hugh_
Inc. University Press. "Revised and Blair.jpg
Foss, S.K.; Foss, K.A.; Trapp, R. enlarged version of On the early P. 9 Thomas Sheridan by Roger Ingpen
(1991). Contemporary Perspectives education of the citizen-orator, http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Thom
published by Bobbs-Merrill as_Sheridan.jpg
on Rhetoric. Prospect Heights, IL: P. 10 Diogenes brings a plucked chicken to Plato
Waveland Press. Company, 1965." by Anonymous
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Anony
Grimaldi, W.M.A. (1980). Aristotle, Reike, R.D.; Sillars, M.O.; Peterson, mous_-
Rhetoric I: A Commentary: New T.R. (2005). Argumentation and _Diogenes_brings_a_plucked_chicken_to_Plato.jpg
York: Fordham University Press. Critical Thinking. New York: P. 10 Cicero by Unlnown
Pearson Education, Inc. http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Cicero
Guthrie, W.K.C. (1956). Plato, .jpg

2-13