EBE 2408

Chapter 2: Building Materials

2. BUILDING MATERIALS

2.1 Choice of Structural Materials

The factors that should be considered in choosing materials for a construction of job include:
1. Type and function of the building and specific characteristics required of the materials used
(i.e., great strength, water resistance, wear resistance, attractive appearance, etc.).
2. Economic aspects of the building in terms of original investment and annual cost of
maintenance.
3. Availability of materials in the area.
4. Availability of the skilled labour required installing some types of materials.
5. Quality and durability of the different types of materials.
6. Transportation costs.
7. Selection of materials with properties, dimensions and means of installation that are
compatible.
8. Cultural acceptability or personal preference.

The specific characteristics in (1) above include:

1. Strength – property of material that constitutes stresses and strains created. Knowledge is
prerequisite for structural design.
2. Durability – materials are considered durable if they retain strength and other properties for a
considerable period of time. It varies with the material and service conditions, a material may
be durable for some service but not for others.
3. Hardness – associated with resistance to surface indentation.
4. Toughness – capacity of material to resist fracture under service loading.
5. Resilience – property of material that enables it to absorb impact loads without passing the
elastic limit. Measured for some materials as maximum amounts of energy per unit volume that
can be stored on stress and can be recovered when the stress is removed.
6. Wear resistance – a material should resist wear by abrasion (rubbing, friction).
7. Workability – measures ease with which a material can be worked or shaped.
8. Resistance to corrosion – degree with which a material resists chemical combinations with
other materials it comes in conduct with.
9. Thermal characteristics – the property of interest is resistance to heat transfer. Thermal
capacity may also be important in buildings that are heated or cooled.
10. Dimensional changes – dimensions constantly change. The changes may not always be
harmful but could lead to failure.
11. Imperviousness – refers to resistance of material to passage of liquids. Some ‘impervious’
materials will pass moisture in form of vapour or through capillary or hygroscopic action. Some
impervious materials are needed for roof and exterior wall coverings and occasionally for floor
covering, and in wet location, basement walls.
12. Ease of cleaning – material should be easy to clean. Dense hard surfaces are normally
resistant to penetration by dirt.
13. Aesthetics – appearance should be appreciated.
14. Acoustic properties – sound properties from vibrating implement.

2.2 Types of Building Materials

The different types of building materials used for construction of farm structures include: concrete,
earth, stone, timber, metal, glass, plastic, rubber, bituminous product, paint, and glass fibre.

a) Concrete
Composed of cement, sand (fine aggregates) and ballast (coarse aggregates) mixed with water.
The cement-paste binds the particles in aggregate together. The strength of cement-paste depends
on the relative proportions of water-cement ratio; a more dilute paste being weaker. In addition, a
higher proportion of cement-paste in the aggregates makes a stronger concrete. The quality of
concrete should meet needs for strength, durability and other properties specified either in terms of
mixed proportions or performance. Mixed proportions have been specified as nominal volumetric
proportions (e.g., 1:3:6, 1:3:5, 1:2:4 of cement, sand, ballast). The performance need most usually
specified is compressive strength at 28 days.

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Properties of concrete
Concrete is associated with high strength, hardness, durability, imperviousness and mouldability. It
is a poor thermal insulator, has high thermal capacity, it is not flammable and has good fire
resistance, but seriously looses strength at high temperatures.

Compressive strength depends on:

 Proportions of water-cement ratio (i.e., weight of water/weight of cement), as shown in Figure
2.1. This ratio should not be greater than 0.4:1.
 Cement–aggregate ratio (e.g., a 1:2:4 ratio is stronger than a 1:3:8 ratio).

Figure 2.1: Variation of concrete strength with water-cement ratio.

The water/cement ratio varies with climate, humidity, and porosity of the material and protection
from rain and sun. Average for the tropics = 0.55. When sharp aggregate is used, it may be
necessary to add more water to achieve good workability. More cement may also be added to get
good compaction.

A cube test is used to determine the compressive strength of concrete. Cubes measuring 15 cm
and cured for 28 days under standardized temperature and humidity are crush in a hydraulic press
and the crushing force recorded. The resulting characteristic strength values for concrete grades
such as C7, C10, C15, and C20 are 7.0, 10.0, 15.0 and 20.0 N/mm 2, respectively. The nominal
mixes corresponding to the various concrete grades, and their suggested uses are as shown in
Table 2.1.

Table 2.1 Suggested use for various concrete grades and nominal mixes
Grade Nominal mix Use
C7 1:3:8 Strip footings; trench fill foundations stanchion bases; non-reinforced
C10 1:4:6 foundations; oversite concrete and bindings under slabs; floor with very
1:3:6 light traffic
1:4:5
1:3:5
C15 1:3:5 Foundation walls; basement walls; structural concrete; walls, reinforced
C20 1:3:4 floor slabs; floors for dairy and beef cattle, pigs and poultry; floors for in
1:2:4 grain and potato stores, hay barns, and machinery stores; septic tanks,
1:3:3 water storage tanks; slabs for farmyard manure; roads, driveways,
pavings and walks; stairs
C25 1:2:4 All concrete in milking parlours, dairies, silage silos and feed and drinking
C30 1:2:3 troughs; floor subject to severe wear and weather or weak acid and alkali
C35 1:1.5:3 solutions; roads and pavings frequently used by heavy machinery and
1:1:2 lorries; small bridges; retaining walls and dams; suspended floors, beams
and lintels; floor used by heavy, small-wheeled equipment (e.g., lift
trucks); fencing posts, pre-cast concrete components

Ingredients
(i) Cement–ordinary Portland cement is often used. It is sold in 50 kg (37 litres capacity). Store
cement in a dry place (protected from ground moisture), and for one to two months only.

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(ii) Aggregate–fine aggregate <5 mm; coarse aggregate >5 mm. The properties of the aggregates
should be as follows:
 Should be hard, clean, and free of salt and vegetable matter.
 Normal densities (excludes voids) of aggregate (sand and stone) are 2600–2700 kg/m3,
and for cement is 3100 kg/m3.
 Bulk density (includes voids)–nominal values for coarse aggregate are 1500–1650 kg/m3.
 In reinforced concrete the coarse aggregate must be able to pass between the
reinforcement bars; 20 mm being normally regarded as maximum size.
 Stock piles of aggregate should be stored on a hard surface to avoid soily aggregates.
Cool the aggregates before use.
(iii) Water–the water to be used for making concrete should be free from impurities such as solids,
organic matter, salts, etc.
 If seawater is used the strength of concrete will be reduced by 15%.
 Use cool water.
 Only enough water should be added to enable concrete to be compacted.
 The amount is specified by weight and is state as a fraction of cement used.

Slump Test
It gives an approximate indication of the workability of the wet concrete mixture. This consist of a
truncated cone (Figure 2.2) placed on a non-porous tile filled with concrete in 76 mm layer, each
layer being pounded 25 times with a 16 kg pounder. The mould is then removed and the slump
measured. Concrete slump for various uses are presented in Table 2.2.

Figure 2.2: Concrete slump test.

Table 2.2 Concrete slump for various uses

Consistency Slump Use Method of
compaction
High workability 0.5–0.333 Construction with narrow passages and/or complex Manual
shapes. Heavily reinforced concrete.
Medium 0.33– All normal uses. Non-reinforced and normally Manual
workability 0.167 reinforced concrete
Plastic 0.167– Open structures with fairly open reinforcement, Manual or
0.083 which are heavily worked manually for compaction mechanical
like floors and pavings. Mass concrete.
Stiff 0.083–0 Non-reinforced or sparsely reinforced open Mechanical
structures like floors and pavings, which are
mechanically vibrated. Factory pre-fabrication of
concrete goods.
Damp 0 Factory pre-fabrication of concrete goods. Mechanical
or pressure

Batching
Batching is used in the measurement of dry materials. Do not measure quantities by a shovel, as
this is wasteful and inaccurate. Use a gauze box worked out using a 50 kg bag of cement. Thus, for
1:2:4 mix using a bag of cement, the box would measure:

Volume of cube = 2 x 37/1000 = 0.074 m 3; each side will measure = 0.420 m (420 mm)

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Mixing
Mixing is done either by hand using either shovels (spades) or using mixers. There is need for
thorough mixing.

Bulking
When sand or fine aggregate is damp it normally swells or bulges (bulks). The proportions are
adjusted daily to allow for this. Bulking varies with weather. A factor of 25% is used in calculations
for humid conditions. For example, using a 50 kg bag of cement and normal mix of 1:2:4 by
volume, the sand would increase in bulk from 2 to 2.5. Sand that is either very wet or very dry does
not bulk.

Compaction
Dry materials can be take-up approximately 50% more space before being mixed with water into
concrete. This has to be allowed for when estimating quantities. The volume of finished concrete
should be multiplied by 1.5. Place concrete in a mould in layers not deeper than 15 cm as soon as
the mixing is over, and compact it before the next layer. Compaction may be normal (for mixes with
high and medium workability) or mechanized using mechanical vibrators (for stiffer mixes). A ram
(tamper) is used for less workable mixes.

Curing
Concrete will set in three days but the chemical reaction between water and cement continues
much longer. Hence, there is need of watering the concrete (curing) for at least 7 days. Strength
and impermeability increases and the surface harden against abrasion. Start curing as soon as the
surface is hard enough to avoid damage, but not later than 10 to 12 hours after casting.

Casting of Concrete
Concrete can be cast in situ or precast. Precast concrete is concrete that has been prepared for
casting, cast and cured in a location which is not its final destination. The distance travelled from
the casting site may only be a few metres, where on-site precasting methods are used to avoid
expensive haulage (or VAT), or maybe a thousand kilometres, in the case of high-value-added
products where manufacturing and haulage costs are low. A precast concrete element is, by
definition, of a finite size and must therefore be joined to other elements to form a complete
structure. A precast concrete structure is an assemblage of precast elements which form a three-
dimensional framework capable of resisting gravitational and wind (or earthquake) loads.

Precast and Mixed Concrete Solution

In many circumstances, precast concrete is the only economical and practical solution. If the
designer is unwilling to consider precast concrete as a total solution, the result of this is the so-
called ‘mixed/ solution. Precast prestressed concrete can be used for long-spanning slabs, whilst
vertical supports are in structural steelwork, tubular steelwork, cast in situ concrete and structural
timber, respectively.

The key to success using any form of mixed or precast concrete solution is to be able to offer the
client, architect and consulting engineer a solution that is:
a) Buildable
 Construction sequence is sensible enabling other trades to dovetail into programmes
 Construction is safe and temporary stability is guaranteed
 Economic cranes are used
 Labour is skilled
b) Cost-effective
 Building components cost-per-structural capacity is comparable to that of other materials
 Overall building costs are competitive
 Production is quality-assured
 Solution uses factory-engineered concrete
 Destructive load testing or non-destructive testing assurances are given
c) Fast to erect
 Although the precast manufacturing period may be several weeks, once started,
construction proceeds rapidly
 Following trades (bricklayers, electricians, joiners) move in quickly
 Handover or possession can be phased

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 Clear heights and floor zones are satisfied

 Service routes are not interrupted
 Bema and column sizes are satisfied, and the bracing positions
 Decorative concrete, both internally and externally, may be exploited

Material Estimates for Concrete

Example 2.1
Calculate the amount of materials needed to construct a rectangular concrete floor 7.5 m by 4.0 m
and 70 mm thick. Use a normal mix of 1:3:6. A 50 kg bag of cement is equivalent to 37 litres. Bulk
densities of sand and ballast are 1450 kg/m3 and 1600 kg/m 3, respectively. Assume 30% decrease
in volume when mixed, and 5% waste.
Solution
Total volume of concrete required = 7.5 m × 4 m × 0.07 m = 2.1 m3
Adjusted total volume of ingredients due to 30% decrease in volume when mixed, and 5%
waste = 2.1 + (2.1 × 0.35) = 2.835 m3

Volume of ingredients is proportional to number of parts in normal mix =1 + 3 + 6 = 10 parts

However, cement does not affect the volume, hence, 9 parts of sand and ballast are used.
Cement required = 2.835 × 1/9 = 0.315 m3 (315 litres)

Sand required = 2.835 × 3/9 = 0.945 m3 (945 litres)

Ballast required = 2.835 × 6/9 = 1.89 m3 (1890 litres)
Number of bags of cement required = 315/37 = 8.5 bags, hence buy 9 bags
Weight of sand required = 0.945 × 1.45 = 1.37 tonnes
Weight of ballast required = 1.89 × 1.6 = 3.02 tonnes.

Example 2.2
Assume a 1:2:4 cement-sand-ballast concrete mix by volume using naturally moist aggregates and
adding 60.9 litres of water. What will the basic strength and volume of mix be if 2.5 bags of cement
are used. Additional assumptions include:

Moisture content of sand = 4.5% Solid density of ballast = 2650 kg/m 3

Moisture content of ballast = 1.6% Solid density of cement = 3100 kg/m 3
Bulk density of sand = 1450 kg/m3 Density of water = 1000 kg/m 3
Bulk density of ballast = 1600 kg/m 3
Solution
1. Volume of aggregates in the mix 2. Weight of aggregates
2.5 bags of cement = 2.5 × 37 = 92.5 Sand = 185 × 1450/1000 = 268.3 kg
litres Ballast = 370 × 1600/1000 = 592 kg
Volume of sand = 2 × 92.5 = 185 litres
Volume of ballast = 4 × 92.5 = 370 litres

3. Amount of water contained in the 4. Adjust amounts in the batch for water
aggregate contents in aggregate.
Water in sand = 268.3 × 4.5/100 = 12.1 kg Cement = 125 kg (unaltered)
Water in ballast = 592 × 1.6/100 = 9.5 kg Sand = 268.3 – 12.1 = 256.2 kg
Ballast = 592 – 9.5 = 582.5 kg
Total dry aggregate = 256.2 + 582.5 =
838.7 kg
Water = 60.9 + 12.1 + 9.5 = 82.5 kg

5. Water-cement ratio 6. Solid volume of ingredients in the mix,

Water-cement ratio = 82.5/125 = 0.66 excluding the air voids in the aggregate
Aggregate-cement ratio = 838.7/125 = and cement
6.7 Cement = 125/3100 = 0.040 m3
The water-cement ratio indicates that the mix Ballast = 838.7/2650 = 0.317 m3
has a basic strength corresponding to a C20 Water = 82.5/1000 = 0.083 m 3
mix (see Appendix V1–2: Farm structures in Total = 0.440 m3
Tropical climates, FAO publication, 1986).

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b) Timber
Timber is commonly used building material in many parts of the world because of its reasonable
cost, ease of working, attractive appearance, and adequate life if protected from moisture and
insects.

Characteristics of timber
1. Strength in wood is its ability to resist breaking when it is used in beams and columns. It varies
with timber species, and is affected by moisture content and defects. Strength is also quite
closely related to density.
2. Hardness is the resistance to denting and wear. Hard woods are more difficult to work but are
required for tools, tool handles, flooring and other applications subject to wear, or where a high
polish is desired.
3. Stiffness is the ability of timber to resist deflection or bending when loaded. Stiff timber is not
necessarily very strong. They may resist bending to a point and then break suddenly.
4. Toughness is the ability of timber to absorb considerable energy and deflect considerably
before fracture. Even after fracturing, the fibres tend to hang together and resist separation.
Tough timbers are resistant to shock loading.
5. Warping is the twisting, bending, bowing distortions shown by some timbers. The method of
sawing and curing affects the amount of warping, but some species are much more prone to
warping than others.
6. Nail holding resistance for hard timbers is greater than for softer timbers. However, timbers that
are so hard that they are subject to splitting when nailed lose much of their holding ability. Pre-
boring to 75% of nail size avoids splitting.
7. Workability such as sawing, shaping and nailing is better for soft, low-density timbers than hard
timbers but they usually cannot be given a high polish. Modern glue-laminating techniques
make it possible to fabricate members of any shape and size.
8. Natural decay resistance is particularly important in the warm humid regions. A wide range of
resistance is shown by different species. However, for all species, heartwood (darker centre
area of the tree) is more resistant than the sapwood (lighter outer area of the tree).
9. Paint holding ability differs between woods, and as a rule this should be considered when
selecting materials.

Defects
Defects in timber are the main cause of deterioration and should be noted. They include:
(i) Brittle heart, found near the centre of many tropical trees, makes the wood break with a
brittle fracture.
(ii) Wide growth rings indicate rapid growth resulting in thin-walled fibres with consequent loss of
density and strength.
(iii) Fissures include checks, splits, shakes and resin pockets.
(iv) Knots are the part of a branch that has become enclosed in a growing tree. Dead knots are
often loose thereby reducing the effective area, which can take tensile stress. Knots also
often deflect the fibres reducing strength in tension.
(v) Decay (dry or wet rot), which is caused by fungi in moisture levels between 21 and 25% in
the presence of air, reduces the strength of the wood and spoils its appearance.
Dry rot is not common in tropics. It thrives in damp, unventilated and low lying buildings.
Wooden floors, untreated concrete pattern could cause trouble. To avoid dry rot, ventilate
the area, remove untreated timber and apply preserve in the area.
Wet rot results from presence of moisture is permanently damped places (e.g., ceilings) or in
the vicinity of leaking pipes. To avoid wet rot, remove decayed timber, treat the rest with
preservative and eliminate the damp.
(vi) Insect damage–borers or termites may dig holes in the timber or eat on the sides. This
lessens the nail holding resistance in the timber. Attack is by pinhole borers, powder posts
beetle. Pinhole borer attacks newly fell timber or standing trees. Powder post beetle attacks
seasoned tropical hardwoods that contain starch. The termites are of two types: dry woods
that fly and sub-terrain.
(vii) Weathering–disintegration of wood caused by alternate shrinkage and swelling due to rapid
temperature changes, sunlight, and humidity. Painting prevents this if properly done.

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Seasoning of Timber
The behaviour of timber and other wood products after manufacture is closely related to fluctuation
of moisture contents in wood. Seasoning reduces moisture content and brings it to specified limits.
Moisture is removed by oven or kiln drying or by natural or forced air.
1. Air seasoning – timber is protected from rain, sunshine and ground. It is kept in stacks so that
aeration is everywhere to reduce degrading, attack by fungi and insects; may take several
weeks for softwood in good conditions, but, may take years if conditions are unfavourable for
some hardwoods.
2. Artificial seasoning – either moderate or rapid depending on the temperature of the air injected
into the chamber where the timber is piled, and the rate at which air is circulated and extracted
from the chamber. Usually hot air seasoning is used after most of the moisture has been
removed with air seasoning.
3. Smoke seasoning – is a moderate process and involves placing timber over a bonfire. It can
take a month or two depending on the size and type of wood being seasoned. Considered to
be both seasoning and treating (may protect timber against pest attacks and increases
durability). However, it is not very reliable and can lead to splitting of the timber because of lack
of control of the heat from the bonfire.

Care of Seasoned Timber

Timber should be protected from moisture on the building site. Close piling and covering with
tarpaulins delays the absorption of atmospheric moisture, particularly in the interior of the pile.

Timber Preservation
Timber should be treated with preservatives to protect it against fungal, insect or termite attack.
Effective preservation depends on the preservative and how it is applied. An effective preservative
should be poisonous to fungi and insects, permanent, able to penetrate sufficiently, cheap and
readily available. It should not corrode metal fastenings, nor should the timber rendered more
flammable by its use.

Wood Preservatives
 Creosote – is an effective general purpose preservative, cheap and widely used for exterior
work and to a lesser degree inside. It is a black to brownish oil produced by the distillation of
coal-tar. It subject to evaporation, increases flammability, and creosoted wood cannot be
painted.
 Coal-tar – is not as effective as the creosote produced from it; is less poisonous; does not
penetrate the timber because of its viscosity, it is blacker than creosote and it is unsuitable for
interior wood work.
 Unleachable metallic salts – are mostly based on copper salts. The timber is impregnated by a
"vacuum-pressure" process; the treated surfaces are odourless and can be painted or glued.
 Water-soluble preservatives – not satisfactory for exterior use as they can be washed out by
rain; very suitable for interior work (are comparatively odourless and colourless); the timber can
be painted.
 Used engine oil – the residual products in the oil from combustion will act as preservatives; the
oil is not nearly as effective as commercial preservatives. It can be thinned with diesel fuel for
better penetration. The combination of 40 litres of used engine oil and 1 litre of Dieldrin is a
viable alternative in rural construction.

Methods of Wood Preservation

These include:
1. Pressure impregnation – timber is placed in a horizontal steel cylinder and the preservatives
(mainly creosote or unleachable metallic salts) applied into it; one of the best methods. Water-
borne preservatives must be applied with the pressure treatment if the timber will be exposed
to rain or ground moisture. Surface-applied water-borne preservatives quickly leach away
leaving the timber unprotected.

2. Open tank treatment – known as steeping or soaking is used for relatively small quantities of
timber. Two methods are used:

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(a) Hot and cold steeping – preservative tank with timber is heated to nearly boiling; it is held
for 1–2 hours and then allowed to cool. The heating expands the cells expelling some of
the air; the contraction of timber during cooling creates a partial vacuum in the timber into
which the preservatives is absorbed.
(b) The timber can be steeped in either hot or cold preservative, but it is not as effective as hot
and cold steeping. Creosote or metallic salts can be applied by these methods.

3. Superficial preservation – includes dipping, spraying and brush application. These treatments
are not as effective as the pressure and open-tank systems, as the preservative only
penetrates the timber slightly. Timber must be seasoned and surface should be dry and clean
before application. Applied preservative when hot to enhance penetration. At least two coats of
preservative are required; creosote is the most common preservative used for this method.

c) Earth as Building Material

Advantages of earth as a building material include:
1. It is resistant to fire.
2. It is cheaper than most alternative wall materials and is readily available at most building sites.
3. It has very high thermal capacity that enables it to keep the inside of a building cool when the
outside is hot and vice versa.
4. It is a good noise absorbent.
5. It is easy to work using simple tools and skills.

Despite its good qualities, the earth has the following weaknesses as a building material:
1. It has low resistance to water penetration resulting in crumbling and structural failure.
2. It has a very high shrinkage/swelling ratio resulting in major structural cracks when exposed to
changing weather conditions.
3. It has low resistance to abrasion and requires frequent repairs and maintenance when used in
building construction.

These weaknesses can be overcome by stabilizing the earth and/or making it into baked bricks.

Soil Stabilization
Addition of the correct stabilizer in a suitable amount remarkably improves the quality of nearly any
inorganic soil as a building material.

Soil stabilization increases the soil's resistance to destructive weather conditions in one or more of
the following ways:

1. By cementing the particles of the soil together, leading to increased strength and cohesion.
2. By reducing the movements (shrinkage and swelling) of the soil when its moisture content
varies due to weather conditions.
3. By making the soil waterproof or at least less permeable to moisture.

Several substances may be used for soil stabilization including:

 Sand or clay, Portland cement, lime, Bitumen, Pozzolanas (e.g., rice husk ash, volcanic ash),
natural fibres (e.g., grass, straw, sisal, sawdust), sodium silicate (water-glass), resins,
molasses, gypsum, cow dung, etc.
 Sand or clay is added to improve the grading of a soil. Sand is added to soils which are too
clayey and clay to soils which are too sandy. The strength and cohesion of the sandy soil is
increased while moisture movement of a clay soil is reduced.
 Portland cement greatly improves the compressive strength and imperviousness and may also
reduce moisture movement, especially when used with sandy soils. Sandy soils require 5-10%
cement for stabilization, silty soils 10-12.5% and clayey soils 12.5-15%.
 Lime decreases moisture movement and permeability by reaction with the clay to form strong
bonds between the soil particles. The amount of lime used varies from 4-14%. Combination of
lime and cement is used when a soil has too much clay for cement stabilization or too little clay
for an extensive reaction with the lime. Lime will make the soil easier to work and the cement
will increase the strength.

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 Bitumen (or asphalt) emulsion is used to improve impermeability of the soil and keep it from
losing its strength when wet, but may cause some decrease in dry strength. Bitumen is only
used with very sandy soils since it would be very difficult to mix it with clayey soils.
 Combination of lime and pozzolana makes a binder which may be as good as Portland cement.
It is used in the same way as a combination of lime and cement.
 Natural fibres, used in a mixing ratio of about 4%, greatly reduce moisture movement, but will
make dry soil blocks weaker and more permeable to water.
 Sodium silicate or water-glass is best used to coat the outside of soil blocks as a waterproofing
agent.

d) Metals
Several ferrous metals (those containing iron) are useful in farm building construction. Cast iron is
used for making sanitary waste pipe and fittings. High-carbon (or hard steel) is used for tools with
cutting edges. Medium-carbon steel is used for structural members such as "I" beams, reinforcing
bars and implement frames. Low-carbon (or mild steel) is used for pipe, nails, screws wire,
screening, fencing and corrugated roof sheets.

Non-ferrous metals such as aluminium and copper are corrosion resistant and are often chosen on
that account. Copper is used for electric wire, tubing for water supply and for flashing. Aluminium is
used for corrugated roofing sheets, gutters and the accompanying nails. Brass is used for building
hardware.

Both bituminous and oil-based paints with metallic-oxide pigments offer good protection against
corrosion if they are carefully applied in continuous layers. Two to three coats offer the best
protection. Before painting, the metal surface must be clean, dry and free of oil.

e) Glass
Glass in buildings is required to resist loads including wind loads, impact by persons and animals
and sometimes thermal and other stresses. Generally, the thickness must increase with the area of
glass pane. The support provided for glass will affect its strength performance.

Glass should be cut to give a minimum clearance of 2 mm all around the frame to allow for thermal
movements.

f) Plastics
Plastics are among the newest building materials, ranging from material strong enough to replace
metal to foam-like products.

Properties of plastics:
 Plastics are usually light in weight and have a good strength to weight ratio, but rigidity is lower
than that of virtually all other building materials, and creep is high.
 Have low thermal conductivity and thermal capacity, but thermal movement is high.
 Resist a wide range of chemicals and do not corrode, but tend to become brittle with age.
 Most plastics are combustible and may release poisonous gases in a fire. Some are highly
flammable, while others are difficult to burn.
 Plastics products are available in many forms solid and cellular, from soft and flexible to rigid,
from transparent to opaque.
 Various textures and colours (many of which fade if used out-of-doors) are available.

Classification
Plastics are classified into:
 Thermoplastics which always soften when heated and harden again on cooling, provided they
are not overheated. Include polythene, poly vinyl chloride (PVC) and acrylics.
 Thermosetting plastics which undergo an irreversible chemical change in which the molecular
chains crosslink so they cannot subsequently be appreciably softened by heat.

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Thermoplastics
 Polythene is tough, water- and oil-proof and can be manufactured in many colours. It is used
for cold water pipes, plumbing and sanitary ware and polythene film (translucent or black). The
film should not be subjected to prolonged heat over 50°C or to direct sunlight. The translucent
film will last only 1-2 years exposed to sunlight, but the carbon pigmentation of the black film
increases resistance to sunlight.
 Poly vinyl chloride (PVC) does not burn and can be made in rigid or flexible form. It is used for
rainwater goods, drains, pipes, ducts, electric cable insulation, etc.
 Acrylics transmit more light than glass, and can be easily moulded or curved to almost any
shape.

Thermosetting plastics
 They are used as impregnants for paper fabrics, binders for particle boards, adhesives paints
and clear finishes.
 Phenol formaldehyde (bakelite) is used for electrical insulating accessories. Urea-formaldehyde
is used for particle board manufacture.
 Epoxide resins are provided as a resin and a curing agent. They are extremely tough and
stable and adhere well to most materials. Silicone resins are water repellant and used for
waterproofing in masonry.

g) Rubber
Rubbers are similar to thermosetting plastics. In the manufacturing process, a number of
substances are mixed with latex, a natural polymer. Carbon black is added to increase strength in
tension and to improve wearing properties.

After forming, the product is vulcanized by heating under pressure, usually with sulphur present.
This process increases the rubber’s strength and elasticity. Ebonite is a fully vulcanized, hard
rubber.

Modified and synthetic rubbers (elastomers) are increasingly being used for building products.
Unlike natural rubbers, they often have good resistance to oil and solvents. One such rubber, butyl,
is extremely tough, has good weather resistance, excellent resistance to acids and very low
permeability to air. Synthetic rubber fillers and nail washers are used with metal roofing.

h) Bituminous Products
These include bitumen (asphalt in the United States), coal tar and pitch. They are usually dark
brown or black and, in general, they are durable materials that are resistant to many chemicals.
They resist the passage of water and water vapour, especially if they have been applied hot.

Bitumen occurs naturally as rock asphalt or lake asphalt, or can be distilled from petroleum. It is
used for road paving, paint, damp-proof membranes, joint filler, stabilizer in soil blocks, etc.

i) Paints
Paint preserves, protects and decorates surfaces, and enables them to be cleaned easily. All
paints contain a binder that hardens. Other ingredients found in various paints include: pigments,
strainers, extenders, dryers, hardeners, thinners, solvents and gelling agents. Some water-thinned
paints contain emulsifiers. Owing to the cost involved, few buildings in rural areas are painted.
When paint can be afforded, priority should be given to painting surfaces likely to rust, rot or decay
because of exposure to rain or dampness, and to rooms such as a kitchen or a dairy, where
hygiene demands easily cleaned surfaces. White and other light colours reflect more light than dark
colours, and can be used in a sitting room or a workshop to make the room lighter.

Painting
Adequate preparation of the surface to be painted is essential. The surface should be smooth (not
shiny, because this would not give good adhesion), clean, dry and stable. Old, loose paint should
be brushed off before a new coat is applied. Most commercial paints are supplied with directions

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for use, which should be read carefully before the work is started. The paint film is usually built up
in two or more coats;

 Priming paints are used for the first coat, to seal and protect the surface and to give a smooth
surface for subsequent coats. They are produced for application to wood, metal and plaster.
 Undercoating paints are sometimes used to obscure the primer, as a further protective coating
and to provide the correct surface for the finishing paint.
 Finishing paints are produced in a wide range of colours and finishes (e.g. matt, semi-matt or
gloss).

Some commonly used types of paint for farm structures are detailed below, but many others are
manufactured with special properties, making them water- and chemical-resistant, heat-resistant,
fire-retardant, anticondensation, fungicidal or insecticidal, for example.

Estimation of quantities of paint required

The volume of paint required for a particular paint job can be determined from knowledge of the
following:
(i) Surface area of the surface(s) to be painted.
(ii) Spreading rate of the paint being used.
(iii) The number of coats needed.

Spreading rates
The spreading rate of paint is the area that a specific volume of paint will cover at a specified film
thickness. Two standard measurements are used to describe the film thickness of a coating: mils
and microns. A micron is a metric system measurement equal to 0.001 millimetres.

The spreading rate in microns may be calculated as follows:

Any liquid will cover 1 000 m2 per litre at 1 micron wet. Therefore, a 100% volume/solids material
will cover 1 000 m 2 per litre dry when applied at 1 micron wet and, because it is 100% solids, it will
yield a 1 micron-thick dry film. However, if a coating is less than 100% solids, then the dry film
thickness will be thinner because the volatile portion of the volume will evaporate and leave the
film, thereby reducing the dried film volume or thickness.

Assuming a material has 42% volume of solids, the area that it will cover when a dry film thickness
of 38.1 microns is required may be calculated as follows: 1 000 m2 / litre × 0.42 = 420 m2 / litre at 1
micron thickness.

Assuming 38.1 microns dry is desired, then:

420 m2 / litre / 38.1 = 11.0 m 2 / litre

A coating with 42% volume solids, applied at 11.0 m2 / litre, will produce a dry film that is 38.1
microns thick.

Example 2.3
The living room walls require painting, excluding the ceiling. The walls are 3 m high, with a total of
18 m of wall length. The total door and window area is 3 m 2. If a spreading rate of 11 m 2 per litre is
used, and only two coats of paint are required, work out how much paint is needed.

Solution:
To work out how much paint is needed:
 Take the surface area = (3 × 18) - 3 = 51 m2
 The spreading rate = 11 m2 / litre
 The number of coats needed = 2
 The required litres of paint = (51 m2 / 11 m2 / litre) × 2 coats = 9 litres in total (i.e. a 10-litre pail)

Oil- and resin-based paints

Oil paints are based on naturally drying oils (e.g. linseed oil). They are being gradually replaced by
alkyd and emulsion paints.

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Chapter 2: Building Materials

 Alkyd paints are oil-based paints, modified by the addition of synthetic resins to improve
durability, flexibility, drying and gloss. They are quite expensive.
 Synthetic resin paints contain substantial proportions of thermosetting resins, such as acrylics,
polyurethane or epoxides, and are often packed in two parts. They have excellent strength,
adhesion and durability, but are very expensive.
 Bituminous paints are used to protect steelwork and iron sheeting from rust, and to protect
wood from decay. They are black or dark in colour, and tend to crack in hot sunlight. They can
be over-painted with ordinary paint only after a suitable sealer has been applied.
 Varnishes are either oil/resin or spirit-based and used mainly to protect wood with a
transparent finish, but protection is inferior to opaque finishes. Spirit-based varnish is used only
for interior surfaces.

Water-based paints
 Non-washable distemper consists of chalk powder, mixed with animal glue dissolved in hot
water. It is cheap, but easily rubbed or washed off, and therefore suitable only for whitening
ceilings.
 Washable distemper (water paint) consists of drying oil or casein, emulsified in water with the
addition of pigments and extenders. Hardening is slow but, after a month, it can withstand
moderate scrubbing. It weathers fairly well outdoors and is reasonably cheap.
 Whitewash (limewash) consists of lime mixed with water. It can be used on all types of wall,
including earth walls, and is cheap, but its lack of water resistance and poor weathering
properties make it inferior to emulsion paint for outdoor surfaces. However, the addition of
tallow or cement gives some degree of durability for external use.
 In emulsion paints, the pigments and binder (vinyl, acrylic, urethane or styrene polymers) are
dispersed as small globules in water. They harden quickly, are quite tough and weather-
resistant, and the cost is moderate. Although they adhere well to most supports, because they
are permeable an oil-based primer may be required to seal porous exterior surfaces.
 Cement-based paints are often used for exteriors, and are quite inexpensive. They contain
white Portland cement, pigments (if other colours are desired) and water-repellents, and are
sold in powder form. Water is added just before use to obtain a suitable consistency. Paint that
has thickened must not be thinned further. It adheres well to brickwork, concrete and
renderings, but not to timber, metal or other types of paint. Surfaces should be dampened
before painting.
 Cement slurries make economical surface coatings on masonry and concrete, but earth walls
that shrink and swell will cause the coating to peel off. Slurries are mixtures of cement and/or
lime, clean fine sand and enough water to make a thick liquid. Good slurry can be made using
1 part cement, 1 part lime and up to 4 parts sand. It is applied on the dampened surface with a
large brush or a used bag, hence the name ‘bag washing’.

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Appendix V1: Water-cement ratio and cement aggregate ratio various grades concrete of
medium workability
Grade Water-cement Maximum size of Aggregate-cement Sand to total
ratio aggregates (mm) ratio aggregate (%)
C7 0.95 40 10.8 35
C7 0.95 20 9.4 40

C10 0.85 40 9.2 35

C10 0.85 20 8.1 40
C10 0.85 14 7.6 45

C15 0.75 40 7.8 35

C15 0.75 20 6.7 40
C15 0.75 14 6.4 45

C20 0.66 40 6.7 35

C20 0.66 20 5.7 40
C20 0.66 14 5.4 45

C25 0.58 40 5.7 35

C25 0.58 20 4.9 40
C25 0.58 14 4.6 45

C30 0.51 40 5.1 35

C30 0.51 20 4.4 40
C30 0.51 14 4.0 45

C35 0.45 20 4.0 35

Appendix V2: Water-cement ratio and cement aggregate ratio various grades concrete of
high workability
Grade Water-cement Maximum size of Aggregate-cement Sand to total
ratio aggregates (mm) ratio aggregate (%)
C7 0.95 40 9.4 40
C7 0.95 20 8.2 45

C10 0.85 40 8.2 40

C10 0.85 20 7.3 45
C10 0.85 14 7.0 50

C15 0.75 40 7.0 40

C15 0.75 20 6.1 45
C15 0.75 14 5.8 50

C20 0.66 40 6.1 40

C20 0.66 20 5.3 45
C20 0.66 14 5.1 50

C25 0.58 40 5.2 40

C25 0.58 20 4.5 45
C25 0.58 14 4.3 50

C30 0.51 40 4.7 40

C30 0.51 20 4.1 45
C30 0.51 14 3.8 50

C35 0.45 20 3.7 40

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