An Autonomous Institution Affiliated to Visvesvaraya Technological University, Belagavi

Approved by UGC/AICTE/Govt of Karnataka, accredited by NAAC - A+ Grade, Programs Accredited by NBA (Tier-1)

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

Project Report for Project Phase 1

(18MEP610)

(Continuous Internal Evaluation)

on

FABRICATION AND TESTING OF SOLAR CELLS

Submitted by

JAYANTH AC VI Sem Section B 1NT18ME055

RISHAB T VI Sem Section A 1NT18ME126

JOSWIN MONTEIRO VI Sem Section C 1NT18ME057
DINESH KUMAR SAHOO VI Sem Section B 1NT18ME045

Under the guidance of

Mr. GANESH K
ASSISTANT PROFESSOR
Department of Mechanical Engineering

Dr. MADHUSUDHAN
PROFESSOR
Department of Mechanical Engineering

Date:

An Autonomous Institution Affiliated to Visvesvaraya Technological University, Belagavi Approved by

UGC/AICTE/Govt of Karnataka, accredited by NAAC - A+ Grade, Programs Accredited by NBA (Tier-1)

1
 DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

Certificate
This is to certify that the project entitled “FABRICATION AND TESTING OF SOLAR
CELLS” Phase 1 (18MEP610) report submitted by JAYANTH AC(1NT18ME055),
RISHAB T(1NT18ME126), JOSWIN MONTEIRO(1NT18ME057), DINESH KUMAR
SAHOO(1NT18ME045) bonafide students of Nitte Meenakshi Institute of
Technology, Bengaluru in partial fulfilment for the award of B.E Degree in
Mechanical Engineering of the Visvesvaraya Technological University, Belagavi,
during the academic year 2020-21 is an authentic work carried out by them under my
supervision and guidance. It is certified that all corrections/suggestions indicated by
me have been incorporated in the report submitted to the department library. The
project work report has been approved as it satisfies the academic requirements in
respect of project work prescribed for the said degree.

Mr. GANESH K Dr. MADHUSUDHAN

Asst Professor, Dept of Mechanical Engg, NMIT Professor, Dept of Mechanical Engg, NMIT

Dr. Sudheer Reddy Dr. H C Nagaraj

Professor & Head Principal, NMIT
Dept of Mechanical Engg, NMIT

Sl.
Name of the Examiner Signature with Date
No.

1.

TABLE OF CONTENTS
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 SL. NO. TITLE PAGE
1 INTRODUCTION 4
2 CHAPTER 1. SOLAR CELLS 5
3 1.1 HOW DO SOLAR CELLS WORK 6
4 CHAPTER 2. GALLIUM ARSENIDE 7
5 2.1 PROPERTIES 8
2.1.1 GALLIUM
6 2.1.2 ARSENIC 9
7 CHAPTER 3. ADVANTAGES OF Ga-As CELLS 11
8 CHAPTER 4. FABRICATION OF Ga-As CRYSTAL 12
9 LITERATURE SURVEY 14

TABLE OF FIGURES

FIG NO. TITLE PAGE

1 SOLAR ENERGY 4
2 SOLAR CELL 5
3 WORKING OF SOLAR CELL 6
4 GALLIUM ARSENIDE 7

INTRODUCTION
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The world's need for electricity is increasing day by day. And as we continue to
produce this commodity by means that are limited, we are moving closer to a
imminent disaster. It is a well known fact that fossil fuels are an expensive
resource and will eventually run out. Due to this a movement must be started
to promote, create, and sustain environmentally-friendly, effective, and
renewable energy.

The solution to this problem lies within technology that has been already
created. This is no science fiction tale. Harnessing natures forces such as wind,
water, and the sun, can allow for the production of electricity. These
alternatives to burning fossil fuels may not be quite as effective; however their
potential to be improved gives hope that one day these means may be used in a
more widespread manner. This would create a cleaner environment for all and
still yield electricity for those that require it.

We have chosen to discuss solar cells because we all can rely on the sun to
keep shining and allow for solar power. We will have many years of solar
energy. Just as plants have captured the sun's energy, so should we to provide
for a clean and prosperous future.

Fig.1 SOLAR ENERGY

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CHAPTER 1. SOLAR CELLS

When light shines on a photovoltaic (PV) cell – also called a solar cell – that
light may be reflected, absorbed, or pass right through the cell. The PV cell is
composed of semiconductor material; the “semi” means that it can conduct
electricity better than an insulator but not as well as a good conductor like a
metal. There are several different semiconductor materials used in PV cells.

When the semiconductor is exposed to light, it absorbs the light’s energy and
transfers it to negatively charged particles in the material called electrons. This
extra energy allows the electrons to flow through the material as an electrical
current. This current is extracted through conductive metal contacts – the grid-
like lines on a solar cells – and can then be used to power your home and the
rest of the electric grid.

The efficiency of a PV cell is simply the amount of electrical power coming out
of the cell compared to the energy from the light shining on it, which indicates
how effective the cell is at converting energy from one form to the other. The
amount of electricity produced from PV cells depends on the characteristics
(such as intensity and wavelengths) of the light available and multiple
performance attributes of the cell.

An important property of PV semiconductors is the bandgap, which indicates

what wavelengths of light the material can absorb and convert to electrical
energy. If the semiconductor’s bandgap matches the wavelengths of light
shining on the PV cell, then that cell can efficiently make use of all the
available energy.

Fig.2 SOLAR CELL

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1.1 HOW DO SOLAR CELLS WORK?

A solar cell is made of two types of semiconductors, called p-type and n-type
silicon. The p-type silicon is produced by adding atoms—such as boron or
gallium—that have one less electron in their outer energy level than does
silicon. Because boron has one less electron than is required to form the
bonds with the surrounding silicon atoms, an electron vacancy or “hole” is
created. The n-type silicon is made by including atoms that have one more
electron in their outer level than does silicon, such as phosphorus. Phosphorus
has five electrons in its outer energy level, not four. It bonds with its silicon
neighbor atoms, but one electron is not involved in bonding. Instead, it is free
to move inside the silicon structure.

A solar cell consists of a layer of p-type silicon placed next to a layer of n-type
silicon (Fig. 1). In the n-type layer, there is an excess of electrons, and in the p-
type layer, there is an excess of positively charged holes (which are vacancies
due to the lack of valence electrons). Near the junction of the two layers, the
electrons on one side of the junction (n-type layer) move into the holes on the
other side of the junction (p-type layer). This creates an area around the
junction, called the depletion zone, in which the electrons fill the holes.

Fig.3 WRKING OF SOLAR CELL

When all the holes are filled with electrons in the depletion zone, the p-type
side of the depletion zone (where holes were initially present) now contains
negatively charged ions, and the n-type side of the depletion zone (where
electrons were present) now contains positively charged ions. The presence of
these oppositely charged ions creates an internal electric field that prevents
electrons in the n-type layer to fill holes in the p-type layer.

When sunlight strikes a solar cell, electrons in the silicon are ejected, which
results in the formation of “holes”—the vacancies left behind by the escaping
electrons. If this happens in the electric field, the field will move electrons to
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the n-type layer and holes to the p-type layer. If you connect the n-type and p-
type layers with a metallic wire, the electrons will travel from the n-type layer
to the p-type layer by crossing the depletion zone and then go through the
external wire back of the n-type layer, creating a flow of electricity.

CHAPTER 2. GALLIUM ARSENIDE (GaAs)

To start off with the basics : gallium arsenide is composed of 2 base elements;
gallium and arsenic. When these two individual elements bind together, they
form the aforementioned compound, which displays many interesting
characteristics. Gallium arsenide is a semiconductor with a greater saturated
electron velocity and electron mobility than that of silicon. A semiconductor is
a material that has electrical conductivity between an insulator and a
conductor; it may vary its ability to conduct electricity when it is cool versus
when it is hot. This makes it very useful in many applications. Another novel
quality to gallium arsenide is that it has a direct band gap. This is a quality
that denotes a compound that can emit light efficiently.

For example due to the fact that it has a greater electron mobility than silicon
it can be used in different ways that silicon cannot. Transistors made of this
material can run at frequencies over 250 GHz. These transistors produce less
noise when operating at the same high frequencies as their silicon
counterparts. Gallium arsenide also has a higher breakdown voltage.
Breakdown voltage is the minimum (reverse) voltage applied that can cause to
make a part of the component electrically conductive (or conduct in reverse).

Because of these factors, gallium arsenide has been a good candidate for many
electrical applications ranging from the common to the extraordinary. Some of
these include cellular telephones, satellites and satellite communication, micro
and nano scale semiconductors, radar systems, and even nano based solar
power.

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 Fig.4 GALLIUM ARSENIDE

2.1 PROPERTIES

2.1.1 GALLIUM (Ga)

Atomic number : 31
Atomic mass : 69.72g.mol^-1
Melting point :29.8 °C
Boiling point :2204 °C

Solid gallium is a blue-gray metal with orthorhombic crystalline structure; very

pure gallium has a stunning silvery color. Gallium is solid at normal room
temperatures, but as well as mercury, cesium, and rubidium it becomes liquid
when heated slightly. Solid gallium is soft enough to be cut with a knife. It is
stable in air and water; but it reacts with and dissolves in acids and alkalis.

Applications

Liquid gallium wets porcelain and glass surfaces; it forms a bright, highly
reflective surface when coated on glass. It can be used to create brilliant
mirrors. Gallium easily alloys with most metals, so it is used to form low-
melting alloys. The plutonium pits of nuclear weapons employ an alloy with
gallium to stabilize the allotropes of plutonium.
Analog integrated circuits are the most common application for gallium, with
optoelectronic devices (mostly laser diodes and light-emitting diodes) as the
second largest end use. Gallium has semiconductor properties, especially as
gallium arsenide (GaAs). This can convert electricity to light and is used in light
emitting diodes (LEDs) for electronic display and watches.

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Gallium is used in some high temperature thermometers.

Health effects of gallium

Gallium is an element found in the body, but it occurs in a very small amount.
For example, in a person with a mass of seventy kilograms, there are 0.7
milligrams of gallium in the body. If this amount of gallium was condensed into
a cube, the cube would only be 0.49 millimeters long on one side. It has no
proven benefit towards the function of the body, and it most likely is only
present due to small traces in the natural environment, in water, and in
residue on vegetables and fruits. Several vitamins and commercially distributed
waters have been known to contain trace amounts of gallium with less than
one part per million. Pure gallium is not a harmful substance for humans to
touch. It has been handled many times only for the simple pleasure of
watching it melt by the heat emitted from a human hand. However, it is known
to leave a stain on hands. Even the gallium radioactive compound, gallium
[67Ga] citrate, can be injected into the body and used for gallium scanning
without harmful effects. Although it is not harmful in small amounts, gallium
should not be purposefully consumed in large doses. Some gallium compounds
can actually be very dangerous, however. For example, acute exposure to
gallium (III) chloride can cause throat irritation, difficulty breathing, chest
pain, and its fumes can cause even very serious conditions such as pulmonary
edema and partial paralysis.

Environmental effects of gallium

One controversy with gallium involves nuclear weapons and pollution. Gallium
is used to hold some nuclear bomb pits together. However, when the pits are
cut and plutonium oxide powder is formed, the gallium remains in the
plutonium. The plutonium then becomes unusable in fuel because the gallium
is corrosive to several other elements. If the gallium is removed, however, the
plutonium becomes useful again. The problem is that the process to remove
the gallium contributes to a huge amount of pollution of water with radioactive
substances. Gallium is an ideal element to use in the bomb pits, but pollution
is destructive to the earth and to the health of its inhabitants. Even if efforts
were taken to remove the pollution from the water, it would significantly
increase the costs of the procedure of turning plutonium into a fuel by about
200 million dollars. Scientists are working on another method to clean the
plutonium, but it could take years to be completed.

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2.1.2 ARSENIC (As)

Atomic number:33
Atomic mass :74.9216g.mol^-1
Melting point :814 °C (36 atm)
Boiling point :615 °C (sublimation)

Arsenic appears in three allotropic forms: yellow, black and grey; the stable
form is a silver-gray, brittle crystalline solid. It tarnishes rapidly in air, and at
high temperatures burns forming a white cloud of arsenic trioxide. Arsenic is a
member of group Va of the periodic table, which combines readily with many
elements.
The metallic form is brittle, tarnishes and when heated it rapidly oxidizes to
arsenic trioxide, which has a garlic odor. The non-metallic form is less reactive
but will dissolve when heated with strong oxidizing acids and alkalis.

Applications

Arsenic compounds are used in making special types of glass, as a wood

preservative and, lately, in the semiconductor gallium arsenide, which has the
ability to convert electric current to laser light. Arsine gas AsH3, has become
an important dopant gas in the microchip industry, although it requires strict
guidelines regarding its use because it is extremely toxic.
During the 18th, 19th, and 20th centuries, a number of arsenic compounds
have been used as medicines; copper aceto-arsenide was used as a green
pigment known under many different names.

Health effects of arsenic

Arsenic is one of the most toxic elements that can be found. Despite their toxic
effect, inorganic arsenic bonds occur on earth naturally in small amounts.
Humans may be exposed to arsenic through food, water and air. Exposure may
also occur through skin contact with soil or water that contains arsenic.
Levels of arsenic in food are fairly low, as it is not added due to its toxicity. But
levels of arsenic in fish and seafood may be high, because fish absorb arsenic
from the water they live in. Luckily this is mainly the fairly harmless organic
form of arsenic, but fish that contain significant amounts of inorganic arsenic
may be a danger to human health. Arsenic exposure may be higher for people
that work with arsenic, for people that live in houses that contain conserved
wood of any kind and for those who live on farmlands where arsenic-containing
pesticides have been applied in the past. Exposure to inorganic arsenic can
cause various health effects, such as irritation of the stomach and intestines,
decreased production of red and white blood cells, skin changes and lung
irritation. It is suggested that the uptake of significant amounts of inorganic
arsenic can intensify the chances of cancer development, especially the

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chances of development of skin cancer, lung cancer, liver cancer and lymphatic
cancer.

A very high exposure to inorganic arsenic can cause infertility and miscarriages
with women, and it can cause skin disturbances, declined resistance to
infections, heart disruptions and brain damage with both men and women.
Finally, inorganic arsenic can damage DNA.A lethal dose of arsenic oxide is
generally regarded as 100 mg. Organic arsenic can cause neither cancer, nor
DNA damage. But exposure to high doses may cause certain effects to human
health, such as nerve injury and stomachaches.

Environmental effects of arsenic

The arsenic cycle has broadened as a consequence of human interference and
due to this, large amounts of arsenic end up in the environment and in living
organisms. Arsenic is mainly emitted by the copper producing industries, but
also during lead and zinc production and in agriculture. It cannot be destroyed
once it has entered the environment, so that the amounts that we add can
spread and cause health effects to humans and animals on many locations on
earth.Plants absorb arsenic fairly easily, so that high-ranking concentrations
may be present in food. The concentrations of the dangerous inorganic arsenics
that are currently present in surface waters enhance the chances of alteration
of genetic materials of fish. This is mainly caused by accumulation of arsenic in
the bodies of plant-eating freshwater organisms. Birds eat the fish that already
contain eminent amounts of arsenic and will die as a result of arsenic
poisoning as the fish is decomposed in their bodies.

CHAPTER 3. ADVANTAGES OF GaAs OVER SILICON

1. High conversion rate

According to Fullsuns, their current “GaAs Solar Cell Technology” has a

maximum conversion rate of 31.6%, and this value has been recognized by the
National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) as the world's number one
conversion rate. According to their future plans, their solar conversion rate will
reach 38% by 2020 and 42% by 2025.

When it comes to the efficiency of the photovoltaic industry, it is inseparable

from theoretical efficiency and mass production efficiency. One of the great
advantages of gallium arsenide is that the theoretical efficiency is high, almost
twice as high as that of crystalline silicon. This is a superior property of gallium
arsenide. When the limitations of silicon are highlighted, GaAs is a good
direction.

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 2. Strong plasticity

Unlike traditional solar panels, gallium arsenide thin film solar cells have the
advantages of flexibility, flexibility, light weight, adjustable color, and shape
plasticity. These advantages are important factors that can be applied to
automotive design and manufacturing. In addition, since it is highly malleable,
it is possible to obtain a maximum photosensitive area, and thus it is possible
to greatly increase the amount of solar power generated and provide power for
the automobile.

3. Good temperature resistance

Conventionally, current silicon photocells are no longer functioning properly at

200 °C. The temperature resistance of gallium arsenide batteries is better than
that of silicon photocells. Experimental data shows that gallium arsenide
batteries can still work normally at 250 °C, which should be able to be used in
the automotive industry where real-time current charging and discharging and
generating a large amount of thermal energy. Increased a lot of stability.

4. Good low light

The sensitivity of crystalline silicon photovoltaic systems to light is not very

high. When the light is poor in rainy days, it is basically impossible to work.
Thin-film solar cells can generate electricity in low light conditions, but only
generate electricity. The efficiency is less than when the sun is abundant.

CHAPTER 4. FABRICATION OF GaAs CRYSTAL

There are many ways to create a GaAs solar or photo voltaic cell. First the
GaAs crystal must be created. Without this, the solar cell will not be able to
function. In this section some methods to create GaAs crystals will be
discussed. Three effective means of growing crystals include: Molecular Beam
Epitaxy, Metalorganic vapour Phase Epitaxy, and Electrochemical Deposition
(or Electroplating).

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 1. Molecular Beam Epitaxy source

Although this term is rather intimidating when first read, this concept is
actually rather simple. In molecular beam epitaxy or MBE a thin film or layer of
a given compound is deposited on a heated, crystalline substrate. This is done
in a high or ultra high power vacuum. The substrate may be rotated during the
process to improve the overall homogenity of the film being created. One of the
key reasons MBE is used is it allows for epitaxial growth. This mean that the
arrangement of the deposited crystals matches that of the substrate that it is
placed upon.

The substrate is placed in an ultra high pressure vacuum. Then the element to
be deposited, such as gallium or arsenic, is heated in separate effusion cells.
These heated elements are "shot" onto the substrate.

2. Metalorganic Vapour Phase Epitaxy source

Another means of epitaxial growth is metalorganic vapour phase epitaxy. In

this process various metalorganic compounds are deposited molecule by
molecule into a specific arrangement. Normally this reaction takes place inside
of a complex reactor. The reactor, with wall made of stainless steel or quartz,
should not reacted with the substrate of the compound to be reacted. The
reactor walls generally have a means of cooling down, such as channels for
water to flow through. Compounds are normally grown in a hydrogen
environment and then form epitaxial layers on the substrate as they
decompose.

3. Electrochemical Deposition source

When a metallic salt is dissolved in solution, the metal (positive) cation breaks
apart from its (negative) anion counterpart. With positive and negative ions in
solution, many interesting things can occur when an electric current is routed
through said solution. Originally this process was designed to create thin
layers of a specific metal. Recently, however, this process has been slightly
augmented to create conducting and semi-conducting nanowires. The basic
premise behind electrochemical deposition or electroplating, is to negatively
charge a substrate and then immerse it in the solution of choice. The negative
charge on the electrode (or substrate) attracts the positive metal ions in
solution. This causes the metal ions to lie n the surface of the substrate
creating a thin layer. This layer usually is about 100 nanometers in thickness;
however, this property can be changed by altering certain factors in the film's
creations such as, voltage, solution constituents, temperature and so on.

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 4. Other Means of Creating source

Without one of these means discussed, creating a gallium arsenide solar cell
can prove very difficult (especially a high efficiency one). A means is needed to
create a film of gallium arsenide on the respective substrate. It is possible that
it can be done by spin coating or very careful application of a gallium arsenide
paste or liquid. This may be made by combining gallium arsenide powder and
varying quantities of water. These means will most likely not be quite as
effective as the others discussed because the order of the gallium arsenide
crystal will not be controlled and pristine.

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 LITERATURE REVIEW

1) TITLE: The Design and Optimization of GaAs Single Solar Cells

AUTHOR: Kamal Attari, Lahcen Amhaimar, Ali El yaakoubi, Adel

Asselman, and Mounir Bassou

YEAR OF PUBLICATION: 2017

JOURNAL NAME: International Journal of Photoenergy Volume 2017,

Article ID 8269358, 7 pages https://doi.org/10.1155/2017/8269358

DESCRIPTION:
In this paper, a single GaAs solar cell was designed and optimized in two
phases; the first was by building a structure with new layers like the
buffer and the BSF that can significantly improve the performance due to
higher collection of photogeneration minority carriers. They have
proposed a new structure configuration based on GaAs that can achieve
significant efficiency. Also in this work, a GA is applied and combined
with the ATLAS code to increase the designed cell output power
efficiency. The simulations shows that the efficiency improvement
performance of the proposed GA is better than the initial proposed
structure, and as result, an optimization of more than 8% is reached.

2) TITLE: GaN as Semiconductor Material for Solar Photovoltaic: A Review

AUTHOR: Manish Pal, Romit Malav, Sandeep Pareek

YEAR OF PUNLICATION: 2017

JOURNAL NAME: International Research Journal of Engineering and

Technology (IRJET)

DESCRIPTION:
One encouraging trend relating to the future of solar energy is that many of the
world's greatest innovators are choosing to focus their talents and funds on
improving alternative energy technology. Most solar panels based on silicon can
convert around 15% of the sun's energy into electricity. More experimental
photovoltaic panels, like GaN based panels, can convert 40% of incident solar
energy into electricity. These panels utilize varying band gaps and mirror arrays
and are used more for large scale solar power generation. It uses future-forward
design paired with a disruptive level of system integration. With this approach,
we may reduce the installed cost of solar power with battery storage by up to
50%.

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3) TITLE: Highly efficient single-junction GaAs thin-film solar cell on flexible
substrate

AUTHOR: Sung Hyun Moon, Kangho Kim, Youngjo Kim, Junseok Heo & Jaejin
Lee

YEAR OF PUBLICATION: 2016

JOURNAL NAME: Scientific Reports

DESCRIPTION:
Fabrication of a highly efficient n-on-p single-junction GaAs thin-film Solar cell
on a flexible substrate using the simple ELO method. The n-on-p structure is
preferred over the p-on-n structure because of the higher charge collection
efficiency of electrons with a long diffusion length in the p-base region. The
optimized, high-efficiency thin-film GaAs solar cells fabricated using this mass-
production-friendly technology will enable the widespread use of III-V thin-film
solar cells in industrial and commercial applications.

4) TITLE: Synthesis of gallium arsenide nanostructures for solar cell applications

AUTHOR: Onkar Mangla and Savita Roy

YEAR OF PUBLICATION: 2020

JOURNAL NAME: Material letters

DESCRIPTION:
Gallium arsenide (GaAs) nanostructures are fabricated on gold coated silicon
substrate with the help of GaAs ions generated by high density, high
temperature and extremely non-equilibrium argon plasma in a modified dense
plasma focus device. The nanostructures were found to have average dimension
in range of 17 nm to 21 nm. It is found that the gold acts as a nucleating agent
for growth of GaAs nanostructures. Emission peak in photoluminescence
spectra confirms good quality of nanostructures related to its purity. These
nanostructures are found to possess the high absorption in a wide optical range
which will have applications in solar cell. The optical and electrical transport
properties indicate that the GaAs nanostructures so obtained are the potential
candidate for solar cell applications.

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5) TITLE: Enhancement of GaN/In Ga N Solar Cells

AUTHOR: H. W. Wang, H. C. Chen, Y. A. Chang, C. C. Lin

YEAR OF PUBLICATION: 2011

JOURNAL NAME: IEEE PHOTONICS TECHNOLOGY LETTERS

DESCRIPTION:
In this study, they demonstrate the fabrication and characteristic of double-
heterojunction GaN/In Ga N solar cell grown on the pattern sapphire substrate
and biomimetic surface anti-reflection process. The introduction of this
biomimetic structure is proved to be beneficial to the performance of the solar
cell, and our simulation can further substantiate the superiority of this design.
In summary, a biomimetic surface antireflection texture on the fabrication of p-
i-n double-heterojunction GaN/ In Ga N solar cells was fabricated by depositing
two-dimensional self-assembled polystyrene nanospheres as mask and etching
in the ICP-RIE.

SUMMARY OF LITERATURE REVIEW

 They have proposed a new structure configuration based on GaAs that

can achieve significant efficiency.
 Most solar panels based on silicon can convert around 15% of the sun's
energy into electricity. More experimental photovoltaic panels, like GaN
based panels, can convert 40% of incident solar energy into electricity.
 The Ga-As nanostructures are found to possess the high absorption in a
wide optical range which will have applications in solar cell.
 The Ga-As solar panels utilize varying band gaps and mirror arrays and
are used more for large scale solar power generation.

REFERENCES

 The Design and Optimization of GaAs Single Solar Cells

https://doi.org/10.1155/2017/8269358
 GaN as Semiconductor Material for Solar Photovoltaic: A Review
www.irjet.net
 Highly efficient single-junction GaAs thin-film solar cell on flexible
substrate
Scientific Reports (nature.com)

17
 Synthesis of gallium arsenide nanostructures for solar cell applications
https://www.researchgate.net/
 Enhancement of GaN/In Ga N Solar Cells
https://www.researchgate.net/
 https://www.appropedia.org/Gallium_arsenide_solar_cells#Making_Your
_Own_Gallium_Arsenide_Solar_Cell

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