MODULE 3: THE LANGUAGE OF MATHEMATICS

Our target learning outcomes in this module are a) discuss the language, symbols and
conventions of mathematics; b) explain the nature of mathematics as a language; c)
perform operations on mathematical expressions correctly; and d) cite examples that
highlight the importance of mathematics as a language.
Mathematics is known as the language of Science. Different notations and
terminologies are commonly used in learning and studying Mathematics. Having a
systematic notation using different symbols and graphical presentations makes learning
Mathematics compact and focused. People have trouble understanding mathematics
because the ideas are difficult, but because they cannot understand a foreign language.
The Language of Mathematics, particularly the symbols being used in Mathematics,
has three characteristics:
1. Precise - must be able to distinguish different thoughts or make very fine distinctions.
2. Concise - must be able to say things briefly.
3. Powerful - must be able to express complex thoughts with ease.
Numbers are the most commonly known symbol that represents Mathematics. It
specifies a certain value or quantity. We currently use the Hindu-Arabic number system
represented by ten symbols 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, and 9.

UNIT 1: SETS

In all sorts of situations, we classify objects into sets of similar objects and count them.
This procedure is the most basic motivation for learning the whole numbers and learning how
to add and subtract them.
In our ordinary language, we try to make sense of the world we live in by classifying
collections of things. The English language has many words for such collections. For example,
we speak of ‘a flock of birds’, ‘a herd of cattle,’ ‘a swarm of bees’ and ‘a colony of ants.’
We do a similar thing in mathematics and classify numbers, geometrical figures, and
other things into collections that we call sets.
A set is a well-defined collection of distinct objects. Objects that belong in a set are
called its elements or members of the set. Consider the following examples:
1. The set of denominations of Philippine currency.
2. The set of even numbers.
3. The set of prime numbers.
4. The set of consonants in the English alphabet.
5. 𝐸 = {𝑥: 𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 + 2 = 0}

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 A set must be well defined. This means that our description of the elements of a set is
unambiguous. For example, a group of beautiful people is not a set because people
disagree about what ‘beautiful’ means.

A. Notation
A set is usually denoted by a capital letter, such as 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶, 𝑋, 𝑌, 𝑍, …, whereas lower-
case letters, 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐, 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧, … are used to denote the elements of sets. Elements of a set are
enclosed in braces/curly brackets { }.
Consider 𝑆 = {𝑤, 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧}. We say that 𝑤 belongs to 𝑆, or equivalently 𝑤 is an element
of 𝑆. In symbols, this is written as: 𝑤 ∈ 𝑆. But 𝑝 is not an element of 𝑆, so we write 𝑝 ∉ 𝑆.
Take note that in listing the elements of a set, repetition of an element is ignored. A
set remains the same even if its elements are repeated or arranged. Say for instance, the set
𝑊 = {𝑎, 𝑎, 𝑏} has only the two elements 𝑎 and 𝑏. The second mention of 𝑎 is an unnecessary
repetition and can be ignored.

B. Describing a Set
We describe a set in two ways, namely:
1. A set can be described by listing all of its elements. This is called the tabular
form of the set or the roster method.
2. A set can also be described by writing a description of its elements between
braces. This is called the set-builder notation or the rule method

Example 9. Write 𝐴 = {𝑎, 𝑒, 𝑖, 𝑜, 𝑢} using the set-builder notation.

Answer:
𝐴 = {𝑥: 𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑙𝑒𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝐸𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑖𝑠ℎ 𝑎𝑙𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑏𝑒𝑡, 𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑣𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑙} or
𝐴 = {𝑥: 𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑣𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑙 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝐸𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑖𝑠ℎ 𝑎𝑙𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑏𝑒𝑡}. Here, 𝑒 ∈ 𝐴 but 𝑞 ∉ 𝐴.

Example 10. Write 𝐵 = {𝑥: 𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑛 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑒𝑟, 𝑥 > 0} using the roster method.
Answer:
𝐵 = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10, … }

Example 11. Write 𝐸 = {𝑥: 𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 + 2 = 0} using the roster method.

Answer:
Here, 𝐸 = {𝑥: 𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 + 2 = 0} is read as: 𝐸 is the set of all 𝑥 such that 𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 + 2 = 0,
meaning 𝐸 consists of those numbers which are solutions of the equation 𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 + 2 = 0. To
get the solution set, we solve the quadratic equation 𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 + 2 = 0. Factoring the left side
of the equation, we have: (𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 − 1) = 0. Then, equating each factor to zero, we
obtain
𝑥 − 2 = 0 implies 𝑥 = 2, and
𝑥 − 1 = 0 implies 𝑥 = 1.
Hence, 𝐸 = {1, 2}.

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 C. Hierarchy of Numbers

(Z’)

1. The set of numbers whose elements are the natural numbers and zero is called the
set of whole numbers, denoted by 𝑾. We write 𝑾 = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, … }

2. The set of integers, denoted by 𝒁, is composed of the set of whole numbers and
the negative integers. We write 𝒁 = {… , −3, −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, 3, … }

3. The set of rational numbers, denoted by 𝑸, are those numbers that can be
expressed as a quotient of two integers 𝑝 and 𝑞, where 𝑞 ≠ 0. Examples are
fractions, repeating decimals, and terminating decimals.
𝑝
We write, 𝑸 = {𝑥: 𝑥 𝑐𝑎𝑛 𝑏𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑞
, 𝑝 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑞 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑒𝑟𝑠, 𝑞 ≠ 0}

4. The set of irrational numbers, denoted by 𝑸′, consists of numbers whose decimal
representations are non-terminating and non-repeating that cannot be expressed
as the quotient of two integers. Examples: 𝜋, 𝑒, √2

5. The set of real numbers, denoted by 𝑹, is the union of 𝑸 and 𝑸′

6. The set of complex numbers, denote by 𝑪, are numbers of the form 𝑎 + 𝑏𝑖, where
a and b are real numbers and 𝑖 2 = −1. In symbols,
𝑪 = {𝑎 + 𝑏𝑖: 𝑎, 𝑏 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑠 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑖 2 = −1}
Note that the set 𝑵 = {1, 2, 3, … } of positive integers is also known as the set of natural
numbers.

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 Elementary Properties of the Real Numbers
We investigate here properties of real numbers. Here are some rules concerning the
addition and multiplication of the real numbers 𝑅:
a. Associative law for addition and multiplication:
(𝑎 + 𝑏) + 𝑐 = 𝑎 + (𝑏 + 𝑐)
(𝑎𝑏)𝑐 = 𝑎(𝑏𝑐)
b. Commutative law for addition and multiplication:
𝑎 + 𝑏 = 𝑏 + 𝑎
𝑎𝑏 = 𝑏𝑎
c. Distributive law for addition and multiplication:
𝑎(𝑏 + 𝑐) = 𝑎𝑏 + 𝑎𝑐
d. Additive and multiplicative identities: There exists a zero element 0 and a unity
element 1 such that for any 𝑎 ∈ 𝑅,
𝑎 + 0 = 0 + 𝑎 = 𝑎
𝑎 · 1 = 1 · 𝑎 = 𝑎
The Real Line: Order and Inequalities
One important property of real numbers is that they can be represented graphically
by points on a straight line.

Let 𝑎 and 𝑏 be real numbers. We say that a is less than b, written as 𝑎 < 𝑏, if the
difference 𝑏 − 𝑎 is positive, meaning that 𝑎 lies to the left of the point 𝑏 on the number line.
The following additional notation and terminologies are used:
𝑎 > 𝑏, read: 𝑎 is greater than 𝑏
𝑎 ≤ 𝑏, means 𝑎 < 𝑏 𝑜𝑟 𝑎 = 𝑏, read: 𝑎 is less than or equal to 𝑏
𝑎 ≥ 𝑏, read: 𝑎 is greater than or equal to 𝑏
We say, 2 < 5, −6 < −1, 6 ≥ 3. The statement 2 < 𝑥 < 7 means 2 < 𝑥 and 𝑥 < 7,
hence 𝑥 lies between 2 and 7 on the real line 𝑅

Basic Properties of Inequality Relations:

1. Let 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 be real numbers. Then,
 𝑎 ≤ 𝑎
 If 𝑎 ≤ 𝑏 and 𝑏 ≤ 𝑎, then 𝑎 = 𝑏.
 If 𝑎 ≤ 𝑏 and 𝑏 ≤ 𝑐, then 𝑎 ≤ 𝑐.
2. Law of Trichotomy: For any real numbers 𝑎 and 𝑏, exactly one of the following holds:
𝑎 > 𝑏, 𝑎 = 𝑏, 𝑎 < 𝑏
3. Let 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 be real numbers such that 𝑎 ≤ 𝑏. Then
● 𝑎+𝑐 ≤ 𝑏+𝑐
● 𝑎𝑐 ≤ 𝑏𝑐 when 𝑐 > 0; but 𝑎𝑐 ≥ 𝑏𝑐 when 𝑐 < 0.

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 D. Basic Concepts

Equal sets. Two sets are said to be equal if they have exactly the same elements.

Example 12. Given 𝐸 = {𝑥: 𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 + 2 = 0} and 𝐹 = {2, 1}, we say that 𝐸 and 𝐹 are equal
sets. We write 𝐸 = 𝐹 since each consists precisely of the elements 1 and 2. On the other
hand, the sets 𝐶 = {1, 3, 5} and 𝐷 = {1, 2, 3} are not equal, because they have different
elements. We write 𝐶 ≠ 𝐷.

Finite and Infinite sets. A finite set is a set that has a finite (definite or fixed) number of
elements, meaning that we can list all their elements. An infinite set is a set that is not finite.
It has an infinite number of elements. Examples of infinite sets are the set of even whole
numbers and the set of integers greater than 2000.

Example 13. 𝑆 = {𝑥: 𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑤ℎ𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟, 2000 < 𝑥 < 2005} is a finite set. Here, the elements
are 2001, 2002, 2003 and 2004. 𝑀 = {𝑥: 𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑛 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑒𝑟, 2000 < 𝑥 < 3000} is also finite. The
elements of this set are the numbers 2001, 2002, 2003, …, 2999.

The Numbers of Elements of a Set. The cardinality of a set A, denoted by |A|, is the
number of elements in set A. A set has cardinality ℵ0 if and only if it is countably infinite, there
is a one-to-one correspondence between the set and the set of natural numbers. The symbol
ℵ0 (aleph-naught, aleph-zero, or the German term aleph-null) is the cardinality of all natural
numbers and is an infinite cardinality. Also, the cardinality of the set of real numbers
(cardinality of the continuum c) is 2ℵ0 .

Example 14. If 𝑆 = { 1, 3, 5, 7, 9 }, then the cardinality of set 𝑆 is 5, written as |𝑆| = 5 . If 𝐴 =

{ 1001, 1002, 1003, … , 3000 }, then cardinality of set 𝐴 is 2000, written as |𝐴| = 2000.

Equivalent Sets. Two sets are said to be equivalent if they both have the same
cardinality. Note that all equal sets are equivalent, but not all equivalent sets are equal sets.

Example 15. Sets 𝐶 = {1, 3, 5} and 𝐷 = {1, 2, 3} are equivalent sets since |𝐶| = |𝐷| = 3 but
𝐶 ≠ 𝐷. Equal sets 𝐸 = {𝑥: 𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 + 2 = 0} and 𝐹 = {2, 1} are also equivalent sets since |𝐸| =
|𝐷| = 2.

Universal and Empty Sets. The universal set, denoted by 𝑈 is the set that contains all
the elements being considered. Examples are the following:
1. In plane geometry, the universal set consists of all the points in the plane
2. In human population studies, the universal set consists of all the people in the
world

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 The symbol 𝜙 𝑜𝑟 { } represents the empty set, more commonly known as the null set,
which is the set that has no elements at all. Thus, |𝜙| = 0. There is only one empty set: If L and
M are both empty, then 𝐿 = 𝑀 = 𝜙 since they have exactly the same elements, namely,
none.

Joint and Disjoint Sets. Two sets are said to be joint if they have at least one common
element. Otherwise, they are disjoint.

Example 16. Consider sets 𝐶 = {1, 3, 5} and 𝐷 = {1, 2, 3}. We say that sets 𝐶 and 𝐷 are joint
sets since 1 and 3 are elements common to them. If we consider sets 𝐺 = {6, 7, 9} and 𝐶 =
{1, 3, 5}, then we say that sets 𝐶 and 𝐺 are disjoint sets because they have no common
elements.

Subsets, Proper Subset, Improper Subset. Sets of things are often further subdivided.
For instance, owls are a particular type of bird, so every owl is also a bird. We express this in
the language of sets by saying that the set of owls is a subset of the set of birds. A set, say 𝐴,
is called a subset of another set, say 𝐵, if every element of 𝐴 can be found in 𝐵. This is denoted
by 𝐴 ⊆ 𝐵 (read this as “𝐴 is a subset of 𝐵”). If 𝐴 is a subset of 𝐵, and there is an element of 𝐵
that is not in 𝐴, then 𝐴 is called a proper subset of 𝐵. This is denoted by 𝐴 ⊂ 𝐵. If 𝐴 is any set,
then 𝐴 is the improper subset of 𝐴. Any other subset of 𝐴 is a proper subset of 𝐴.

Example 17. If 𝐴 = {2, 4, 6} and 𝐵 = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}, then 𝐴 ⊆ 𝐵 because every element of A
is an element of B. Consider sets 𝐶 = {1, 3, 5} and 𝐷 = {1, 2, 3}. We say that C is not a subset
of D, denoted by 𝐶 ⊈ 𝐷, because 5 is an element of C that is not found in D. Also, we say
that 𝐷 ⊈ 𝐶.

The following properties should be noted:

1. Every set 𝐴 is a subset of the universal set 𝑈 because by definition, all the
elements of 𝐴 are elements of 𝑈. The empty set is a subset of 𝐴. In symbols, ∅ ⊆
𝐴 ⊆ 𝑈.
2. Every set is a subset of itself because the elements of 𝐴 belong to 𝐴 (the
improper subset of 𝐴. In symbols, 𝐴 ⊆ 𝐴.
3. If 𝐴 ⊆ 𝐵 and 𝐵 ⊆ 𝐶, then 𝐴 ⊆ 𝐶.
4. 𝐴 = 𝐵 if and only if 𝐴 ⊆ 𝐵 and 𝐵 ⊆ 𝐴.

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 Example 18: Suppose that 𝑈 = {𝑥: 𝑥 ∈ 𝑍}. Consider the following sets as examples:
𝐴 = {𝑥: 𝑥 ∈ 𝑍, −2 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 4} 𝐷 = {𝑥: 𝑥 ∈ 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑛 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒 }
𝐵 = {𝑥: 𝑥 ∈ 𝑍, 𝑥 ≤ 0 } 𝐸 = {−1, 0, 1, 2, 3}
𝐶 = {𝑥: 𝑥 ∈ 𝑍, 1 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 7} 𝐹 = {−2, −1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4}
Find the following:
Solution:
Before we answer the questions, let us list first the elements of the sets above. We
have:
𝐴 = {−2, −1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4} 𝐷 = {2}
𝐵 = {… , −2, −1, 0} 𝐸 = {−1, 0, 1, 2, 3}
𝐶 = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7} 𝐹 = {−2, −1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4}

a. Which sets are finite? Which are infinite?

Answer:
 The finite sets are 𝐴, 𝐶, 𝐷, 𝐸 and 𝐹.
 𝐵 is an infinite set.
b. What is the cardinality of the sets 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶, 𝐷, 𝐸, 𝐹?
Answer:
|𝐴| = 7 |𝐶| = 7 |𝐸| = 5
|𝐵| = ℵ0 |𝐷| = 1 |𝐹| = 7
c. Which pair of sets is equal?
Answer: 𝐴 and 𝐹 are equal sets.
d. Which pair of sets is equivalent?
Answer: 𝐴, 𝐶 and 𝐹 are equivalent sets.
e. Identify pairs of joint and disjoint sets.
Answer:
 Joint sets: 𝐴&𝐵, 𝐴&𝐶, 𝐴&𝐷, 𝐴&𝐸, 𝐴&𝐹, 𝐵&𝐸, 𝐵&𝐹, 𝐶&𝐷, 𝐶&𝐸, 𝐶&𝐹,
𝐷&𝐸, 𝐷&𝐹, 𝐸&𝐹
 Disjoint sets: 𝐵&𝐶, 𝐵&𝐷
f. Which set is a proper subset of 𝐴?
Answer:
❏ 𝐷 ⊂ 𝐴 because 2 belongs to 𝐴.
❏ 𝐸 ⊂ 𝐴 because -1, 0, 1, 2, and 3 are all in 𝐴.
g. Which set is an improper subset of 𝐴?
Answer:
Since 𝐴 = 𝐹, we say that 𝐹 is an improper subset of 𝐴.

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 E. Set Operations

Union of Sets. For two sets 𝐴 and 𝐵, the union of 𝑨 and 𝑩, denoted by 𝐴 ∪ 𝐵, is
defined as the set which contains all distinct elements found on either A or B.
In symbols, 𝐴 ∪ 𝐵 = {𝑥: 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 ∈ 𝐵}.

Example 19: Let 𝐴 = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} and 𝐵 = {3, 4, 6, 7}. Then, 𝐴 ∪ 𝐵 = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7}.

Intersection of Sets. For two sets 𝐴 and 𝐵, the intersection of 𝑨 and 𝑩, denoted by 𝐴 ∩
𝐵, is defined as the set which contains all elements which can be found on both 𝐴 and 𝐵.
In symbols, 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 = {𝑥: 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 ∈ 𝐵}.

Example 20: Let 𝐴 = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} and 𝐵 = {3,4, 6, 7}. Getting the common elements of 𝐴
and 𝐵 gives 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 = {3, 4}.
1.
Complement of a Set. The complement of a set 𝐴 is the set containing elements of
the universal set 𝑈 which are not in 𝐴.
In symbols, 𝐴𝑐 = {𝑥: 𝑥 ∉ 𝐴, 𝑥 ∈ 𝑈}.
Other notations for the complement of 𝐴 are 𝐴′ or 𝐴.

Example 21: Let 𝐴 = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} and 𝑈 = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10}. Removing the elements of
𝐴 from the elements of the universal set we obtain, 𝐴𝐶 = {6, 7, 8, 9, 10}.

Difference of Sets. The difference of the sets 𝐴 and 𝐵, denoted by 𝐴\𝐵 (or 𝐴 − 𝐵) is the
set of elements which belong to 𝐴 but not in 𝐵.
In symbols, 𝐴\𝐵 = {𝑥: 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴, 𝑥 ∉ 𝐵}.

Example 22: Let 𝐴 = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} and 𝐵 = {3, 4, 6, 7}. Removing the elements of 𝐵 from the set
𝐴, we obtain 𝐴\𝐵 = {1, 2, 5}.

Cartesian Product of Sets. Let 𝐴 and 𝐵 be two sets. The product set or Cartesian
product of 𝐴 and 𝐵, denoted by 𝐴 × 𝐵, is the set of ordered pairs (𝑎, 𝑏) such that 𝑎 ∈ 𝐴 and
𝑏 ∈ 𝐵.
In symbols, 𝐴 × 𝐵 = {(𝑎, 𝑏): 𝑎 ∈ 𝐴 , 𝑏 ∈ 𝐵}.
Note here that 𝐴 × 𝐵 ≠ 𝐵 × 𝐴 and the cardinality of the product set of 𝐴 and 𝐵,
denoted by |𝐴 × 𝐵|, is |𝐴 × 𝐵| = |𝐴| ∙ |𝐵|.

Example 23: Let 𝐴 = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} and 𝐵 = {3,4}. Then

𝐴 × 𝐵 = {(1,3), (1,4), (2,3), (2,4), (3,3), (3,4), (4,3), (4,4), (5,3), (5,4)}
𝐵 × 𝐴 = {(3,1), (3,2), (3,3), (3,4), (3,5), (4,1), (4,2), (4,3), (4,4), (4,5)}
Note that |𝐴 × 𝐵| = 5 × 2 = 10.

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 Example 24: Consider the following sets:
𝑈 = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10} 𝐴 = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10}
𝐵 = {1, 3, 6, 9} 𝐶 = {4, 7, 9, 10}
List the elements of the following sets:
a. (𝐴 ∪ 𝐵)𝑐 ∪ 𝐶
b. 𝐵 ∩ (𝐶 ∪ 𝐴𝐶 )
c. 𝐴𝑐 \(𝐴 ∪ 𝐵)𝑐
d. 𝐴𝐶 × [𝐴𝑐 \(𝐴 ∪ 𝐵)𝑐 ]
Solution:

a. (𝐴 ∪ 𝐵)𝑐 ∪ 𝐶
Since (𝐴 ∪ 𝐵) = {1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 8, 9, 10}, it follows that (𝐴 ∪ 𝐵)𝑐 = {5, 7}. Hence
(𝐴 ∪ 𝐵)𝑐 ∪ 𝐶 = {4, 5, 7, 9, 10}.
b. 𝐵 ∩ (𝐶 ∪ 𝐴𝐶 )
Since 𝐴𝐶 = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9}, we have (𝐶 ∪ 𝐴𝐶 ) = {1, 3, 4, 5, 7, 9, 10}. Thus
𝐵 ∩ (𝐶 ∪ 𝐴𝐶 ) = {1, 3, 9}.
c. 𝐴𝑐 \(𝐴 ∪ 𝐵)𝑐
From (a), we obtain (𝐴 ∪ 𝐵)𝑐 = {5, 7}.
Removing the elements of (𝐴 ∪ 𝐵)𝑐 from 𝐴𝐶 = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9}, we obtain
𝐴𝑐 \(𝐴 ∪ 𝐵)𝑐 = {1, 3, 9}.
d. 𝐴𝐶 × [𝐴𝑐 \(𝐴 ∪ 𝐵)𝑐 ]
We know that 𝐴𝐶 = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9} and 𝐴𝑐 \(𝐴 ∪ 𝐵)𝑐 = {1, 3, 9}. Then
𝐴𝐶 × [𝐴𝑐 \(𝐴 ∪ 𝐵)𝑐 ] = {(1,1), (1,3), (1,9), (3,1), (3, 3), (3, 9), (5, 1), (5, 3), (5, 9), (7, 1),
(7, 3), (7, 9), (9,1), (9, 3), (9,9)}

F. Laws on Sets and Set Operations

Commutative Law. The order in which the sets appear in a union or intersection
operation does not affect the result.
 𝐴∪𝐵 =𝐵∪𝐴
 𝐴∩𝐵 =𝐵∩𝐴
Associative Law. The grouping of operations involving union or intersection operations
does not affect the result.
 𝐴 ∪ (𝐵 ∪ 𝐶) = (𝐴 ∪ 𝐵) ∪ 𝐶
 𝐴 ∩ (𝐵 ∩ 𝐶) = (𝐴 ∩ 𝐵) ∩ 𝐶
Identity Laws
 𝐴∪∅=𝐴
 𝐴∩𝑈 =𝐴
Distributive Laws
 𝐴 ∪ (𝐵 ∩ 𝐶) = (𝐴 ∪ 𝐵) ∩ (𝐴 ∪ 𝐶)
 𝐴 ∩ (𝐵 ∪ 𝐶) = (𝐴 ∩ 𝐵) ∪ (𝐴 ∩ 𝐶)
 (𝐴 ∪ 𝐵) ∩ 𝐶 = (𝐴 ∩ 𝐶) ∪ (𝐵 ∩ 𝐶)

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  (𝐴 ∩ 𝐵) ∪ 𝐶 = (𝐴 ∪ 𝐶) ∩ (𝐵 ∪ 𝐶)
De Morgan’s Laws
 (𝐴 ∪ 𝐵)𝐶 = 𝐴𝐶 ∩ 𝐵𝐶
 (𝐴 ∩ 𝐵)𝐶 = 𝐴𝐶 ∪ 𝐵𝐶

G. Venn Diagrams

Diagrams make mathematics easier because they help us

to see the whole situation at a glance. The English mathematician
John Venn (1834–1923) began using diagrams to represent sets.
His diagrams are now called Venn diagrams.
A Venn diagram is a pictorial representation of sets where
enclosed areas in the plane represent sets. In a Venn diagram,
the universal set is generally drawn as a large rectangle, and then
subsets of the universal set are represented by circles within this
rectangle.
Suppose 𝑆 is a subset of 𝑇. In The Venn diagram, we place the circle representing 𝑆
inside the circle representing 𝑇. Say for instance, let 𝑆 = { 0, 1, 2 } and 𝑇 = { 0, 1, 2, 3, 4 }. Using
the Venn diagram, we illustrate 𝑆 ⊂ 𝑇 as follows:

𝑻
3
4 𝐒
0
2 1

We can also illustrate the hierarchy of numbers using a Venn diagram.

ℂ
Imaginary
Numbers

ℕ W ℤ ℚ ℚ′

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 If A and B are arbitrary sets, it is possible that some elements are in A but not in B, some
elements are in B but not in A, some in both A and B, and some are in neither A nor B. We
illustrate these possibilities using a Venn diagram.

A. Illustration of disjoint sets B. Union of A and B

C. Intersection of A and B D. Complement of set A

E. Difference of A and B Note that the shaded region represents

the elements of the set in B, C, D, and E.

Problem Solving with Venn Diagrams

Let us look at a few examples that demonstrate how Venn diagrams can make
problem-solving much easier.

Example 25: A travel agent surveyed 100 people to find out how many of them had visited
the cities of Melbourne and Brisbane. Thirty-one people had visited Melbourne, 26 people
had been to Brisbane, and 12 people had visited both cities. Draw a Venn diagram to find
the number of people who had visited
a. Melbourne or Brisbane
b. Brisbane but not Melbourne
c. only one of the two cities
d. Neither city

Solution:

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 Let: M be the set of people who had visited Melbourne,
B be the set of people who had visited Brisbane
U be the universal set that represents the set of people surveyed

First, let us construct the Venn diagram:

 Consider the intersection; there were 12 people who had visited both Melbourne
and Brisbane, this means that |𝑀 ∩ 𝐵| = 12.
 There were 31 people who visited Melbourne. Hence, there were
|𝑀\𝐵| = 31 − 12 = 19 people who had visited Melbourne only.
 There were 26 people who had visited Brisbane. Hence, there were |𝐵\𝑀| = 26 −
12 = 14 people who had visited Brisbane only
 Since the travel agent surveyed 100 people, there were
100 − 12 − 19 − 14 = 55 people who had visited neither Melbourne nor Brisbane.

The Venn diagram below illustrates the information that we obtained:

We are now ready to answer the given questions:

a. The number of people who had visited Melbourne or Brisbane. This includes those
who had visited both cities, Melbourne only, and Brisbane only, or M ∪ B
Answer: 12 + 19 + 14 = 45

b. The number of people who had visited Brisbane but not Melbourne. This means
that we consider those who had visited Brisbane only, not including the
intersection.
Answer: 14
c. The number of people who had visited only one of the two cities. This includes only
those who had visited Melbourne only plus Brisbane only; the intersection is not
included.
Answer: 19 + 14 = 33
d. The number of people who had visited neither city: (We consider here the
number outside the two circles.)
Answer: 55

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 Example 26: Consider the following data for 120 mathematics students:
65 study French, 20 study French and German
45 study German, 25 study French and Russian
42 study Russian, 15 study German and Russian
8 study all three languages
Answer the following:
a. Find the number of students studying at least one of the three languages.
b. Find the number of students studying: exactly one language and exactly two
languages.
Solution:
Let: F be the set of students studying French
G be the set of students studying German
R be the set of students studying Russian
U be the universal set representing all mathematics students

First, let us construct the Venn diagram:

 Consider the intersection of the 3 sets = 8 of them are studying the three
languages
 Those who are studying German and Russian only = 15 – 8 = 7
 Those who are studying French and Russian only = 25 – 8 = 17
 Those who are studying French and German only = 20 – 8 = 12
 Those who are studying French only = 65 – 17 – 12 – 8 = 28
 Those who are studying German only = 45 – 7 – 12 – 8 = 18
 Those who are studying Russian only = 42 – 17 – 7 – 8 = 10
 Those who are not studying the 3 languages
120 – 10 – 18 – 28 – 12 – 17 – 7 – 8 = 20

The Venn diagram below illustrates the information that we obtained:

F 12 G
18
28
8
17 7
10
R 20

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 We are now ready to answer the given questions:
a. The number of students studying at least one of the three languages. (at least
one means greater than or equal to 1)
Answer:
1 language = 28 + 18 + 10 = 56
2 languages = 12 + 17 + 7 = 36
3 languages = 8__
Total = 100
b. The number of students studying exactly one language:
Answer: 28 + 18 + 10 = 56
The number of students studying exactly two languages:
Answer: 12 + 17 + 7 = 36

UNIT 2: RELATIONS AND FUNCTIONS

A. Relation
A relation is defined as a set of ordered pairs. More precisely, consider the
Cartesian product 𝐴 × 𝐵 = {(𝑎, 𝑏): 𝑎 ∈ 𝐴, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐵} of two sets 𝐴 and 𝐵. A relation R from 𝐴 to 𝐵 is
a subset of 𝐴 × 𝐵. For each pair 𝑎 ∈ 𝐴 and 𝑏 ∈ 𝐵, exactly one of the following is true:
I. (𝑎, 𝑏) ∈ 𝑅; we say “𝑎 is 𝑅-related to 𝑏” written 𝑎𝑅𝑏.
II. (𝑎, 𝑏) ∉ 𝑅; we say “𝑎 is not 𝑅-related to 𝑏”.
The following are examples of relations because they consist of a set of ordered pairs:
{(−2,5), (−1, 0), (2, −3)}
{(−1,0), (0, −3), (2, −3), (3,0), (4,5)}
{(3,0), (4,5)}
{(−2,5), (−1, 0), (0, −3), (1, −4), (2, −3), (3,0), (4,5)}
Some relations are very special and are used at almost all levels of mathematics. Set
inclusion ⊆, “less than”, “parallel to” are some relations used in mathematics.

Example 27 Let 𝐴 = {𝑎, 𝑏} and 𝐵 = {1,2,3}. Then

𝑅1 = {(𝑎, 1), (𝑏, 2), (𝑎, 3)}
𝑅2 = {(𝑎, 1), (𝑎, 2), (𝑎, 3)}
𝑅3 = {(𝑏, 1), (𝑏, 2)}
are relations from 𝐴 to 𝐵. We could say that 𝑎𝑅1 1, 𝑎𝑅2 3, and 𝑏𝑅3 2.

The domain of a relation 𝑅 from a set 𝐴 to a set 𝐵 is the set of all first elements of the
ordered pairs which belong to 𝑅, and since these first elements come from set 𝐴 then the
domain of 𝑅 is a subset of 𝐴. The range of a relation 𝑅 is the set of all second elements of the
ordered pairs which belong to 𝑅, and so it is a subset of 𝐵.

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 B. Function
A function is a relation for which each value from the set of the first components of
the ordered pairs is associated with exactly one value from the set of second components
of the ordered pair.

Example 28: The following relation is a function:

{(−1, 0), (0, −3), (1, −4), (2, −3), (3,0), (4,5)}
We have the following sets of first components (i.e. the first number from each
ordered pair) and second components (i.e. the second number from each ordered pair).
1𝑠𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠: {−1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4} 2𝑛𝑑 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠: {0, −4, −3, 0,5}
For the set of second components, notice that the “−3” occurred in two ordered pairs but
we only listed it once.
To see why this relation is a function, pick any value from the set of first components.
Now, go back up to the relation, find every ordered pair in which this number is the first
component, and list all the second components from those ordered pairs. The list of
second components will consist of exactly one value. That is, every first component is
paired with a unique value for the second component. Therefore, this relation is a
function.

Example 29: The following relation is not a function:

{(6, 10)(−7, 3)(0, 4)(6, −4)}
Here is the list of first and second components
1𝑠𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠: {6, −7, 0} 2𝑛𝑑 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠: {10, 3, 4, −4}
The list of second components associated with 6 has two values, so this relation is not a
function.

“Working Definition” of Function

A function can be thought of as an equation for 𝑦 in terms of 𝑥 for which any 𝑥 value
that can be plugged into or substituted into the equation will yield exactly one 𝑦 value out
of the equation.
The phrase “𝑥 that can be plugged into” implies that not all 𝑥 values can be
substituted into an equation. Further, when dealing with functions, we will always assume
that both 𝑥 and 𝑦 will be real numbers.

Function Notation
Let’s start off with the following quadratic equation: 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 + 3. You can use any
process to verify that this is a function. Since this is a function, we will denote it as follows,
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 + 3.

So, we replaced the variable 𝑦 with the notation 𝑓(𝑥). This is read as “𝑓 of 𝑥.” Note
that there is nothing special about the 𝑓 we used here. We could just have easily used any
of the following letters to represent the function:

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 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 + 3 ℎ(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 + 3 𝑅(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 + 3

Evaluating functions
Evaluating a function is means determining the 𝑦 value for a given value of 𝑥. Let’s
take the function 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 + 3 and evaluate its value at 𝑥 = 4.
Now, when we say the value of the function we are asking what the value of the
equation is for that particular value of 𝑥, denoted by 𝑓(4):
𝑓(4) = (4)2 − 5(4) + 3 = 16 − 20 + 3 = −1

Example 30: Given 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 + 8 and 𝑔(𝑥) = √𝑥 + 6, evaluate each of the following.
a. 𝑓(3) and 𝑔(3)
b. 𝑓(−10) and 𝑔(−10)
c. 𝑓(0)
d. 𝑓(𝑡)
e. 𝑓(𝑡 + 1) and 𝑓(𝑥 + 1)
f. 𝑓(𝑥 3 )
g. 𝑔(𝑥 2 − 5)

Solutions:
(a) 𝑓(3) and 𝑔(3)
𝑓(3) = (3)2 − 2(3) + 8 = 9 − 6 + 8
𝑓(3) = 11
𝑔(3) = √3 + 6 = √9
𝑔(3) = 3 (we take only the positive square root)
(b) 𝑓(−10) and 𝑔(−10)
𝑓(−10) = (−10)2 − 2(−10) + 8 = 100 + 20 + 8
𝑓(−10) = 128
𝑔(−10) = √−10 + 6
𝑔(−10) = √−4, thus 𝑔(−10) is undefined since √−4 is imaginary.
(c) 𝑓(0)
𝑓(0) = (0)2 − 2(0) + 8
𝑓(0) = 8 Note that in this case this is pretty
(d) 𝑓(𝑡) much the same thing as our
𝑓(𝑡) = 𝑡 2 − 2𝑡 + 8 original function, except this time
we’re using 𝑡 as a variable.
(e) 𝑓(𝑥 + 1)
𝑓(𝑥 + 1) = (𝑥 + 1)2 − 2(𝑥 + 1) + 8 = 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 1 − 2𝑥 − 2 + 8
𝑓(𝑥 + 1) = 𝑥 2 + 7
(f) 𝑓(𝑥 3 )
𝑓(𝑥 3 ) = (𝑥 3 )2 − 2(𝑥 3 ) + 8
𝑓(𝑥 3 ) = 𝑥 6 − 2𝑥 3 + 8

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 (g) 𝑔(𝑥 2 − 5)
𝑔(𝑥 2 − 5) = √𝑥 2 − 5 + 6
𝑔(𝑥 2 − 5) = √𝑥 2 + 1

Piecewise Functions
We’ve seen an example of a piecewise function even if we didn’t call it a function
(or a piecewise function) at the time. Recall the mathematical definition of absolute value.
x if x  0
x 
 x if x  0
This is a function and if we use function notation we can write it as follows,

This is also an example of a piecewise function. A piecewise function is nothing more

than a function that is broken into pieces and which piece you use depends upon value of
𝑥.

Example 31: Given

Evaluate each of the following.

1. 𝑔(−6)
2. 𝑔(−4)
3. 𝑔(1)
4. 𝑔(15)
5. 𝑔(21)
Solution:
Now, to evaluate each of these functions values, the first thing that we need to do is
determine which inequality the 𝑡 value satisfies, and it will only satisfy a single inequality.
When we determine which inequality the number satisfies, we use the expression associated
with that inequality.
(a) 𝑔(−6)
In this case, −6 satisfies the first inequality, so we’ll use the first expression for this
evaluation.
𝑔(−6) = 3(−6)2 + 4 = 112
(b) 𝑔(−4)
𝑔(−4) = 3(−4)2 + 4 = 52
(c) 𝑔(1)
𝑔(1) = 10

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 (d) 𝑔(15)
𝑔(15) = 10
(e) 𝑔(21)
𝑔(21) = 1 − 6(21) = −125

Domain and Range

The domain is the set of all 𝑥 values that we can plug into a function and get back a
real number. At this point, that means that we need to avoid division by zero and taking
square roots of negative numbers.

Example 32: Determine the domain of each of the following functions.

x3
a  g x  
x  3x  10
2

b  f x   5  3x
7x  8
c  hx  
x2  4

d  Rx   102 x  5
x  16
Solution:
The domains for these functions are all the values of 𝑥 for which we don’t
divide by zero or the square root of a negative number. If we remember
these two ideas finding the domains will be pretty easy.
x3
a  g x  
x  3x  10
2

There is a possibility that we’ll have a division by zero here. We now solve for
the zeros of the denominator (values that will make 𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 − 10 zero).
𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 − 10 = (𝑥 + 5)(𝑥 − 2) = 0
𝑥 = −5, 𝑥 = 2
So, we will get division by zero if we plug in 𝑥 = −5 or 𝑥 = 2. That means that
we’ll need to avoid those two numbers. However, all the other values of 𝑥will work
since they don’t give division by zero. Thus,
Domain : All real numbers except 𝑥 = −5 and 𝑥 = 2. We can also use
𝑅 − {−5,2} or 𝑅\{−5,2}.
b  f x   5  3x
We have a square root in the problem, so we’ll need to worry about taking the
square root of a negative number.
This one is going to work a little differently from the previous example. In that
part, we determined the value(s) of 𝑥 to avoid. In this case, it will be just as easy to get
the domain directly. To avoid square roots of negative numbers, all that we need to
do is require that

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 5 − 3𝑥 ≥ 0
This is a fairly simple linear inequality that we should be able to solve at this
point.
5
5  3x  x
3
5
The domain of this function is : Domain : x 
3
7x  8
c  hx  
x2  4
In this case, we’ve got a fraction, but notice that the denominator will never
be zero for any real number since 𝑥 2 is guaranteed to be positive or zero and adding
4 onto this will mean that the denominator is always at least 4. In other words, the
denominator won’t ever be zero. So, all we need to do then is worry about the square
root in the numerator. To do this we’ll require
8 8
7x  8  0  7 x  8  x Domain : x  
7 7
10 x  5
d  Rx  
x 2  16
We’ve got both a square root and division by zero to worry about in this final
part. Let’s take care of the square root first since this will probably put the largest
restriction on the values of 𝑥. So, to keep the square root happy (i.e. no square root of
negative numbers) we’ll need to require that,
1
10 x  5  0  10 x  5  x
2
1
So, at the least we’ll need to require that x  in order to avoid problems with
2
the square root. Now, let’s see if we have any division by zero problems. Again, to do
this simply set the denominator equal to zero and solve.
𝑥 2 − 16 = (𝑥 − 4)(𝑥 + 4) = 0 ⇒ 𝑥 = −4, 𝑥 = 4
Now, notice that 𝑥 = −4 doesn’t satisfy the inequality we need for the square
root and so that value of 𝑥 has already been excluded by the square root. On the
other hand, 𝑥 = 4 does satisfy the inequality. This means that it is okay to plug 𝑥 = 4
into the square root, however, since it would give division by zero we will need to
avoid it. Thus,
1
Domain : x  except x  4
2

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 Operations on Functions
Functions can be added, subtracted, multiplied, and divided. If 𝑓(𝑥) and 𝑔(𝑥) are
two functions, then for all 𝑥 in the domain of both functions, the sum, difference, product,
and quotient are defined as follows.
1. (𝑓 + 𝑔)(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑔(𝑥)
2. (𝑓 − 𝑔)(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑔(𝑥)
3. (𝑓𝑔)(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥) ∙ 𝑔(𝑥)
𝑓 𝑓(𝑥)
4. (𝑔) (𝑥) = 𝑔(𝑥) , 𝑔(𝑥) ≠ 0

Example 33: Consider the functions 𝑓 (𝑥) = 2𝑥 + 3 and 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 − 1. Find the following
function values:
a. (𝑓 + 𝑔)(4)
b. (𝑓 − 𝑔)(5)
Solution:
a. (𝑓 + 𝑔)(4)
Consider 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 + 3 then 𝑓(4) = 2(4) + 3 = 11
Also, 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 – 1, then 𝑔(4) = 42 − 1 = 15
Hence,
(𝑓 + 𝑔)(4) = 𝑓(4) + 𝑔(4) = 26

b. (𝑓 − 𝑔)(5)
Consider 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 + 3 then 𝑓(5) = 2(5) + 3 = 13
Also,𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 – 1, then 𝑔(5) = 52 − 1 = 24
Hence,
(𝑓 − 𝑔)(5) = 𝑓(5) − 𝑔(5) = −11

Example 34: Find (𝑓𝑔)(𝑥) and (𝑓 /𝑔)(𝑥)

a. (𝑓𝑔)(𝑥)
b. (𝑓 /𝑔)(𝑥)
Solution:
a. (𝑓𝑔)(𝑥)
(𝑓𝑔)(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥) ∙ 𝑔(𝑥)
= (2𝑥 + 3)(𝑥 2 − 1)
= 2𝑥 3 + 3𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 − 3

b. (𝑓 /𝑔)(𝑥)
𝑓 𝑓(𝑥) 2𝑥 + 3
( ) (𝑥) =
𝑔
= 2 𝑔(𝑥) 𝑥 −1
𝑓 2𝑥 + 3
Note that the function (𝑔) (𝑥) = 𝑥2− 1
is defined on all values of 𝑥 except when
𝑥 = −1 and 𝑥 = 1.

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 Composition of Functions
The term "composition of functions" (or "composite function") refers to the combining
of two or more functions in a manner where the output from one function becomes the input
for the next function. Formally we define the composition of functions as follows:
Consider functions 𝑓: 𝐴 → 𝐵 and 𝑔: 𝐵 → 𝐶, where the target set 𝐵 of 𝑓 is the domain of
𝑔. Let 𝑎 ∈ 𝐴. Then the image 𝑓(𝑎) under 𝑓 is in B which is the domain of 𝑔. Accordingly, we
can find the image of 𝑓(𝑎) under the function 𝑔, i.e. 𝑔(𝑓 (𝑎)). We have a rule which assigns
to each element 𝑎 ∈ 𝐴, an element 𝑔(𝑓(𝑎)) in 𝐶. This gives rise to a well-defined function from
𝐴 to 𝐶, which is called the composition of 𝒇 and 𝒈, denoted by 𝑔 ∘ 𝑓. That is, if 𝑓: 𝐴 → 𝐵 and
𝑔: 𝐵 ⟶ 𝐶, then we have
𝑔 ∘ 𝑓 ∶ 𝐴 ⟶ 𝐶 by (𝑔 ∘ 𝑓 )(𝑎) = 𝑔(𝑓 (𝑎)) for 𝑎 ∈ 𝐴
We illustrate the composition of functions 𝑓 and 𝑔 as follows

Example 35: Consider the following illustration:

Find (𝑔 ∘ 𝑓)(𝑎), (𝑔 ∘ 𝑓)(𝑏), (𝑔 ∘ 𝑓)(𝑐)

Solution:
Using the illustration above, we have
 (𝑔 ∘ 𝑓)(𝑎) = 𝑔(𝑓(𝑎)) = 𝑔(𝑦) = 𝑡
 (𝑔 ∘ 𝑓)(𝑏) = 𝑔(𝑓(𝑏)) = 𝑔(𝑧) = 𝑟
 (𝑔 ∘ 𝑓)(𝑐) = 𝑔(𝑓(𝑐)) = 𝑔(𝑦) = 𝑡

Example 36: Let the functions 𝑓 and 𝑔 be defined by 𝑓 (𝑥) = 2𝑥 + 1 and 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 − 2.
Find (𝑔 ∘ 𝑓)(𝑥) and (𝑓 ∘ 𝑔)(𝑥).
Solution:
a. (𝑔 ∘ 𝑓)(𝑥)
(𝑔 ∘ 𝑓)(𝑥) = 𝑔(𝑓(𝑥))
Substituting the value of 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 + 1, we obtain
𝑔(𝑓(𝑥)) = 𝑔(2𝑥 + 1) = (2𝑥 + 1)2 − 2 = 4𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 − 1
b. (𝑓 ∘ 𝑔)(𝑥)
(𝑓 ∘ 𝑔)(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑔(𝑥))
Substituting the value of 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 − 2, we obtain
𝑓(𝑔(𝑥)) = 𝑓(𝑥 2 − 2) = 2(𝑥 2 − 2) + 1 = 2𝑥 2 − 3

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 Inverse of a Function

The inverse of the function 𝑓 is denoted by 𝑓 −1 and is pronounced "f inverse". The
inverse of a function does not mean the reciprocal of a function.
A function normally tells you what 𝑦 is if you know what 𝑥 is. The inverse of a function
will tell you what 𝑥 had to be to get that value of 𝑦.
An inverse of a function is a function that "reverses" another function, that is, if the
function 𝑓 applied to an input 𝑥 gives a result of 𝑦, then applying its inverse function 𝑓 −1 to 𝑦
gives the result 𝑥, and vice versa. That is,
𝒇(𝒙) = 𝒚 if and only if 𝒇−𝟏 (𝒚) = 𝒙
We say that a function 𝒇−𝟏 is the inverse of 𝒇 if
 for every 𝑥 in the domain of 𝑓, (𝑓 −1 ∘ 𝑓)(𝑥) = 𝑥, and
 for every 𝑥 in the domain of 𝑓 −1 , (𝑓 ∘ 𝑓 −1 )(𝑥) = 𝑥
The domain of 𝑓 is the range of 𝑓 −1 and the range of 𝑓 is the domain of 𝑓 −1

Given the function 𝑓 (𝑥), we can find the inverse function, 𝑓 −1 (𝑥) by following these steps:
1. First, replace 𝑓 (𝑥) with 𝑦.
2. Replace every 𝑥 with a 𝑦 and replace 𝑦 with 𝑥.
3. Solve the equation from Step 2 for 𝑦 and replace 𝑦 with 𝑓 −1 (𝑥)
4. Verify your work by checking that (𝑓 −1 ∘ 𝑓)(𝑥) = 𝑥, and (𝑓 ∘ 𝑓 −1 )(𝑥) = 𝑥

Example 37: Find the inverse of the following functions:

1. 𝑓(𝑥) = 3𝑥 − 2
2. 𝑔(𝑥) = √𝑥 − 3
𝑥+4
3. ℎ(𝑥) = 2𝑥−5
Solution:
1. 𝑓(𝑥) = 3𝑥 − 2
𝑓(𝑥) = 3𝑥 − 2
𝑦 = 3𝑥 − 2 Replace 𝑓(𝑥) with 𝑦
𝑥 = 3𝑦 − 2 Replace every 𝑥 with a 𝑦 and replace every 𝑦 with an 𝑥
𝑥+2
3
=𝑦 Solve the equation from Step 2 for 𝑦
𝒙+𝟐
Hence, 𝒇−𝟏 (𝒙) = 𝟑 . To check, let us recall the composition of functions and show
that (𝑓 −1 ∘ 𝑓)(𝑥) = 𝑥, and (𝑓 ∘ 𝑓 −1 )(𝑥) = 𝑥:
3𝑥−2+2
 (𝑓 −1 ∘ 𝑓)(𝑥) = 𝑓 −1 (𝑓(𝑥)) = 𝑓 −1 (3𝑥 − 2) = 3 = 𝑥
𝑥+2 𝑥+2
 (𝑓 ∘ 𝑓 −1 )(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑓 −1 (𝑥)) = 𝑓 (
3
) = 3( 3
)− 2=𝑥

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 2. 𝑔(𝑥) = √𝑥 − 3
𝑔(𝑥) = √𝑥 − 3
𝑦 = √𝑥 − 3 Replace 𝑔(𝑥) with 𝑦
𝑥 = √𝑦 − 3 Replace every 𝑥 with a 𝑦 and replace every 𝑦 with an 𝑥
2
𝑥 +3 = 𝑦 Solve the equation from Step 2 for 𝑦
Hence, 𝒈−𝟏 (𝒙) = 𝒙𝟐 + 𝟑. You may also check (𝑔−1 ∘ 𝑔)(𝑥) = 𝑥, and (𝑔 ∘ 𝑔−1 )(𝑥) = 𝑥

𝑥+4
3. ℎ(𝑥) =
2𝑥−5

𝑥+4
ℎ(𝑥) = 2𝑥−5
𝑥+4
𝑦 = 2𝑥−5 Replace ℎ (𝑥) with 𝑦

𝑦+4
𝑥 = 2𝑦−5 Replace every 𝑥 with a 𝑦 and replace every 𝑦 with an 𝑥
Solve the equation from Step 2 for 𝑦
𝑦+4
𝑥 = 2𝑦−5
2𝑥𝑦 − 5𝑥 = 𝑦 + 4 Multiply both sides by 2𝑦 − 5
−5𝑥 − 4 = −2𝑥𝑦 + 𝑦 Combine all terms containing 𝑦
−5𝑥 − 4 = 𝑦(−2𝑥 + 1) Factor out 𝑦
−5𝑥−4 5𝑥+4
= 𝑦 or =𝑦
−2𝑥+1 2𝑥−1
𝟓𝒙+𝟒
Hence, 𝒉−𝟏 (𝒙) = 𝟐𝒙−𝟏
. You may also check (ℎ−1 ∘ ℎ)(𝑥) = 𝑥, and (ℎ ∘ ℎ−1 )(𝑥) = 𝑥

Learning Reinforcement 3

Directions: Write your solutions and answers on a clean sheet of

paper, or you may print this page and answer there. Submit the
image of your HANDWRITTEN SOLUTIONS as a single pdf file in the
submission bin for this activity in the Classroom. You may use
image scanning apps on your phone (CamScanner or Tap
Scanner) to save several images into one pdf file, or place your
images in a document and save them as a pdf file.

1. Specify the set 𝐴 by listing its elements, where

𝐴 = {𝑥: 𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑤ℎ𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑙𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑛 100 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑏𝑦 16}.
2. Specify the set 𝐵 in set-builder form by giving a written description of its elements,
where 𝐵 = {0, 1, 4, 9, 16, 25}.
3. Consider
𝐴 = {𝑚, 𝑎, 𝑡, ℎ} 𝐶 = {𝑥: 𝑥 = 3𝑛, 1 ≤ 𝑛 ≤ 4, 𝑛 ∈ 𝑁}
𝐵 = {𝑠, 𝑡, 𝑒, 𝑚} 𝐷 = {𝑥: 𝑥 = 2𝑛, 1 ≤ 𝑛 ≤ 6, 𝑛 ∈ 𝑁}
a. What is 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵? b. What is 𝐶 ∪ 𝐷?

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 5. Solve the following problem using a Venn diagram: Consider the following data
among 110 students in the college dormitory: 30 students are on a list A (taking
Accounting); 35 students are on a list B (taking Biology); and 20 students are on both
lists. Find the number of students:
a. on list A or B
b. on exactly one of the two lists
c. on neither list
5
6. Let 𝑔(𝑥) = . Find the domain of 𝑔(𝑥).
𝑥−4
2
2𝑥 −3𝑥+7
7. Let 𝑓(𝑥) = 5𝑥 2 −2𝑥
. Find 𝑓(3).
8. Suppose 𝑓(𝑥) = √𝑥 − 3 and 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 + 5. Which of the following is a formula for
(𝑓 ∘ 𝑔)(𝑥)?
9. Suppose 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 + 3 and 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑥 − 2. Which of the following is a formula for
(𝑓 − 𝑔)(𝑥)?
10. Using the figure on the right and 𝑈 = {𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐, 𝑑, 𝑒, 𝑓, 𝑔, ℎ} being the universal set, find the
elements of the set (𝑋 ∩ 𝑌) ∪ 𝑍.

11. consider the following sets:

𝑈 = {−5, −4, −3, −2, −1,0,1,2,3,4,5},
𝐴 = {𝑥: 𝑥 2 = 25},
𝐵 = {−5, 0,1,2,3,4, 5}
𝐶 = {𝑥: 𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 + 6 = 0}.
a. What is 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵?
b. Which is equal to 𝐵\𝐶?
c. Which set is equal to (𝐵\𝐴)𝑐 ?
d. What is the cardinality of a countably infinite set?

Well done! It’s time to answer Quiz 1 (60 points).

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