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186 views200 pagesTechnical Data Handbook
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© © All Rights Reserved
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/ 200
TECHNICAL
— ,DATA
_HANDBOOK Technical Data Handbook
THIRD EDITION
FIRST PRINTING — 1986
Copyright ©1982 by The Hartford Steam Boiler In-
spection and Insurance Co., Hartford, CT 06102.
Printed in the United States of America.
The material presented in this handbook is based
on information contained in available literature,
developed by The Hartford Steam Boiler, or pro-
vided by other parties and is believed to be cor-
rect. While every precaution has been taken in the
preparation of this handbook, the publisher as-
sumes no responsibility for errors or omissions.
Neither is any liability assumed for damages re-
sulting from the use of the material contained
herein. _ TECHNICAL
DATA
HANDBOOK
FOREWORD
The Authorized Inspector (Al), as well as the
ASME Code fabricator, are constantly faced with
many different and complex problems arising from
the design, fabrication and inspection during con-
struction of items to minimum requirements of the
various ASME Code Sections.
In this handbook, we have tried to incorporate
technical material to aid primarily the Al and ASME
Code fabricator in designing, fabricating and in-
specting those Code items, though others may find
the material informative.
For easy reference, much of the material is pre-
‘sented in table, chart or graph form.
We believe that some portion of this handbook
can be useful in providing information to make your
job easier. TABLE OF CONTENTS:
Forward... 1
Acknowledgments I
Major Agencies Issuing Codés and Specifications ut
General Definitions 1
Geometric Formulas 16
Multiplying Prefixes .. 19
‘Squares, Cubes, and Square and Cube Roots . 20
Chord Lengths Table 22
Conversion Factors . 23
Decimal Equivalents of Fractions.. 48
Minutes. Converted to Decimals of a Degree. 49
Solution of Right-Angled Triangles ... : 50
Natural Trigonometric Functions Table. 51
Drill Sizes for Pipe Taps. . 53
‘Tap and Drill Sizes. 53
Water Pressure to Feet Head Table 54
Feet Head of Water to PS! Table. . 54
Total Thermal Expansion of Piping Material in inches Per 100
Feet Table .... 55
Hardness Conversi n Numbers Table 56
Comparative Table of Wire Gages...
ANSI B16.5 Flanges & Flanged Fittings, List of Applicable
‘ASTM Material Specifications
ANSI B16.5 Flanges & Flanged Fittings Pressure - Temperature
Rating Tables
Class 900
Class 1501
Class 2500
ANSI B16.5-Flange Dimension:
Class 151
Class 300
Class 600
Class 900.
Class'1500
Class 2500
Gasket Dimensions for ANSI B16.5 Flanges
Class 150.
Glass 300...
Class 600...
Class 900 ..
Class 1500
Pipe Flange Bolt Hole Layout
Flange Bolt Tightening Sequenc Table of Contents (Cont.)
Dimensions of ANSI'B16.9 Lap Joint Stub Ends 83
Dimensions of ANS! 816.9 Caps... a4
Dimensions of ANS! 836.10 Welded and Seamless Wrought
Steel Pipe 85
Nominal Weights of ANSI 836.10 Welded and Seamless
Wrought Steel Pipe
Dimensions of ANSI 836. jeamless Stainless
Steel Pipe
Weight of Seamless Brass and Copper Pipe .. 89
Takeout Aliowanc 90
Welding Terms & Definitions
sesenees a1
Causes and Cures of Common Welding Troubles 147
Examples of Good and Bad Beads. 150
Effect of Electrode Displacement o
Circumferential Weld: 152
Recommended Electrode Lead for Circumferential Welding... 182
Standard Welding Symbols 153
More on Standard Welding Symbols 187
Lens Shade Selection Table 160
Recommended Welding Machine Cable Sizes.
Shielding Gases and Gas Mixtures for GMAW
ASME Code Section tl, Part C, Welding Materi
ASME Code Section IX, F and A Numbers. .
Relative Ratings of Factors Affecting Preliminary Selection of
Electrodes.
Typical Current Ranges for Mild Steel Electrodes 174
Suggested GMAW Welding Procedures 175
Characteristics. of Steel Electrodes. 176
Current Ranges for Stainless Welding (SMAW). 77
Suggested SMAW Welding Conditions for Austenitic Chromiui
Nickel Steels.
Schaeffer Constitution Diagi feld Metal... 179
Delong Constitution Diagram for Stainless Steel Weld Metal
General Requirements for @TAW Welding of Stainless Steel
Typical Conditions for GTAW Hot-Wire Automatic Welding .
Schematic Diagram of GTAW Hot-Wire Welding Syste!
‘Typical Joint Designs for GTAW.
Uses of NDTE Symbols.
Table of Radiographic Density Tole ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
‘The publisher acknowledges with thanks the following con-
Iributions which appeer in this handbook, as well as, those
anonymous individuals who aided in its preparation and
publication:
1.) Definitions courtesy of Josaph T. Ryerson & Son, Inc.:
from "Steel & Aluminum Data Book,” copyright ©1975, pages
244 through 257.
2, Solution Of Right-Angled Triangles reprinted from “Handy
Multipliers ang Trigonometry Tables For Engineers,” copy-
right ©1971, Carr Lane Manufacturing Co.
3.) Pages 169 through 171 from “Mechanical Trades Pocket
Manual,” by Carl Nelson, copyright ©1974 by The Howard W.
Sams Co., used with permission of the publisher, The Bobbs-
Merrill Co. Inc. :
4.) Table 2, pages 13-43 from the “Standard Handbook For
Mechanical Engineers” ~ Seventh Ed., by Baumeister and
Marks, copyright ©1958, 1967 by McGraw-Hil, Inc. Used with
the permission of McGraw-Hill Book Co.
5.) Tables 2-150, 2-300, 2-600, 2-900, 2-1500, 2-2500; and
Tables 8, 9, 11, 12. 17, 18, 20, 21, 23, 24, 26, 27 from ANSI
816.5-1977 with permission Irom’The American Society of
Mechanical Engineers. -
Tables 7. 8 from ANS! 816.9-1978 with permission from The
American Society of Mechanical Engineers.
Tables 5, 6, 8, 9, 10 from ANS| 816.21-1978 with permission
from The Américan Society of Mechanica Engineers.
Portion of Table 2 from ANSI 836.10-1975 with permission
from The American Society of Mechanical Engineers.
Table 2 trom The American Society of Mechanical Engineers*
publication ANSI 636.19~1976.
6.) Standard Welding Symbols, Uses of NDTE Symbois and
Relative Ratings Of Factors Affecting Preliminary Selection Of
Electrodes table reprinted with permission of the American
Welding Society.
Portions of pages 1 through 75 tiled “Terms and Definitions”
rinted from American Welding Society publication A3.0-80
with permission.
7) Lens Shade Selector table, Suggested GMAW Welding
Procedures table, Current Ranges For Stainless Welding
table, Causes And Cures Of Common Welding Troubles, and
Examples Of Good And Bad Beads reprinted with the permis-
sion of Hobart Brothers Co.
8) George E, Linnert, "Welding Characteristics Of Stainless
Sieets," Joining Of Stainless Stee!s, American Society for
Metals, 1967, p.10.
Raymond P. Sullivan, ‘Fusion Welding of Stainless Steels,”
Joining OF Stainless Steels, American Sociely for Metals,
4967, ppg. 17.21. 22.
9.) Drill Sizes For Pipe Taps table, Tap And Drill Sizes table,
‘Weight Per Foot Of Seamiess Brass And Copper Pipe table,
Water Pressure To Feet Head Table, Feet Head Of Water To
PSI table, Total Thermal Expansion Of Piping Material in
Inches Per 100 ft. Above 32°F table, and Hardness Conver-
sion Numbers table reprinted with permision of ITT Grinnell
orp.
10.) Comparative Table of Wire Gages, Figure 6-53, Table
6-23, Page 16.1-26 of Reference Saction, Table 13-34 and
Table 4-51 reprinted with the permission of the Lincoln
Electric Co.
" MAJOR AGENCIES ISSUING CODES AND SPECIFICATIONS
Department of the Air Force
WPAFB (EWBFSA)
Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, OH 45433
American Association of State Highway Officials
444 N. Capital
Washington, DC 20001
‘American Bureau of Shipping
65 Broadway
New York, NY 10006
American institute of Steel Construction
400 N. Michigan Ave., Eighth Floor
Chicago, Ik 60611
American Iron and Stee! institute
1000 16th St., NW.
Washington, DC 20036
‘American Petroleum Institute
2101 LSt., N.W.
Washington, OC 20037
‘American Society of Civil Engineers
‘945 East 47th St.
New York, NY 10017
‘American Society of Mechanical Engineers
Boller and Pressure Vessel Code Committee
345 East 47th Street
New York, NY 10017
‘American Society for Testing Materials
1916 Race Street
Philadelphia, PA 19103
American Water Works Association
6666 W. Quincy Ave.
Denver, CO 80235,
‘American Welding Society
2501 N.W. 7th Street
Miami, FL 33125
Lloyd's Register of Shipping
17 Battery Place
New York, NY 10004
Department of Nav;
Naval Supply Depot
5801 Taber Avenue
Philadelphia, PA 19120
Society of Automotive Engineers
400 Commonwealth Dr.
Warrendale, PA 1096
‘American National Standards institute
1430 Broadway
New York, NY 10018
Tubular Exchanger Manufacturers Association
707 Westchester Avenue
White Plains, NY 10604 GENERAL DEFINITIONS
AGING - The spontaneous change in the properties of a metal
usually associated with the recovery of metal from an unstable
condition produced'by quenching (quenchaging) or by cold
working (strainaging). Age hardening and aging are terms com-
monly used synonymously. See also “Precipitation Hardening.”
AIR HARDENING (Air Quenching) - A hardening process
wherein the steel is heated to the hardening temperature and
cooled in air. Unless steel is high in carbon or alloy, or both, it
will not show much increase in hardness when air hardened.
ALLOY ~ A material. with metallic properties composed of two
or more elements of which at least one is a metal.
ANNEALING ~ Annealing generally refers to the heating and
controlled cooling of solid material for the purpose of removing
stresses, making it softer, refining its structure or changing its
ductility, toughness or other properties. Some heat treat-
ments covered by the term annealing include full annealing,
graphitizing, malieabilizing and process annealing.
AS ROLLED ~ When bars are hot rolled and allowed to cool
in the air, they are said to be in the “as rolled” or natural
condition.
AUSTEMPERING ~ A patented heat treating process that
consists of quenching an iron-base alloy from a temperature
above the transformation range in a medium having a high rate
of heat abstraction, and then maintaining the metal, until trans-
formation is complete, at a substantially uniform temperature
which is below that of pearfite formation and above that of mar-
tensite formation.
AUSTENITE ~ A phase in steels which consists of the gam-
ma form of iron with carbon in solid solution. Austenite is
tough, non-magnetic and tends to work-harden rapidly when
cold worked in those steels which are austenitic at ordinary
temperatures.
AUSTENITIC STEEL - Steel which has a stable austenitic struc-
ture at normal (room) temperature.
BARK ~ Decarburized skin found just beneath the scale.
BEND TEST ~ A test commonly made by bending a cold sample
of specified size through a specified circular angle. Bend tests
provide an indication of the ductility of the sample.
BILLET — A semi-finished rolled ingot of rectangular cross sec-
tion or nearly so. In general the term “billet” is used. when the
cross section ranges from 4 up to 36 sq. in., the width always
being less than twice the thickness. Small sizes are usually
classed as bars or ‘‘small billets.” The term “bloom is prop-
erly used when the cross section is greater than about 36
sq. in., though this distinction is not universally observed.
BLISTER A defect in metal produced by gas bubbles either on
the surface or formed beneath the surface while the metal is Definitions (Cont.)
hot or plastic. Very fine blisters are called pinhead or pepper
biisters.
BRINELL HARDNESS TEST — This test consists of forcing a
ball of standard diameter into the specimen being tested under
standard pressure, and judging the hardness of the material by
the amount of metal displaced.
BURNING ~ Heating steel to’a temperature sufficiently close to
the melting point to cause permanent injury. Such injury may be
caused by the melting of the more fusible constituents, by the
penetration of-gases such as oxygen into:the metal with conse-
quent reactions, or perhaps:by the segregation of elements al-
ready present in the metal.
CAMBER - In sheet or strip: the greatest deviation of a side
from.a straight line: In structurals: the curvature from the plane
ofa flange in the length of the section, either leg of an angle
being taken as the flange. (Also see Sweep.)
CARBIDES - As found in steel, carbides are compounds of car-
bon and one or more of the metallic elements, such as iron,
chromium, tungsten, etc. +
CARBO-NITRIDING ~ A process of case hardening an iron-
base alloy by the simultaneous absorption of carbon and nitro-
gen through heating in a gaseous atmosphere of suitable com-
position, followed by cooling at a rate that will produce desired
properties.
CARBON STEEL - Steel whose major properties depend on its
carbon content and in which other alloying elements are
negligible.
CARBURIZING - Adding carbon to iron-base alloys by absorp-
tion through heating the metal at a temperature below its melt-
ing point in contact with carbonaceous materials. Such
treatment followed by appropriate quenching hardens the sur-
face of the metal. The oldest method of case hardening.
CARBURIZING COMPOUND - Mixtures containing carbona-
ceous solids which will give up carbon to steel in the presence
‘of heat, Gas rich in carbon is sometimes.used in the carburizing
process.
CASE - The surface layer of an iron-base alloy which has been.
made substantially harder than the interior by the process of
case hardening.
CASE HARDENING - Carburizing, nitriding, or cyaniding and
subsequent hardening, by heat treatment, all or part of the sur-
face portions of a piece-of iron base alloy.
CAST STEEL - Any object made by pouring molten steel into
molds.
CASTING STRAINS - Strains produced by internal stresses re-
sulting from the cooling of a casting.
CHARPY TEST ~ A test made to determine the notched tough- Definitions (Cont.)
ness, or impact strength, of a material. The test gives the en-
ergy required to break a standard notched ‘specimen supported
at the two ends. -
CHECK ANALYSIS ~ Analysis of metal after it has been rolled
or forged into semi-finished or finished forms.
CHEMICAL ANALYSIS ~ Qualitative analysis consists of sepa-
rating a substance into its component elements and identitying
them. In quantitative analysis the proportion of all component
elements are determined.
CHIPPING — One method of removing surface defects such
as small fissures or seams from partially worked metal. If not
eliminated, the defects might carry through to the finished ma-
terial. If the defects are removed by means of a gas torch the
term “deseaming” or "'scarfing" is used.
CHROMIUM - A hard, corrosion resistant metal widely used as,
an alloying element in steel and for plating steel products.
CLEAVAGE PLANE ~ Crystals possess the property of break-
ing more readily in one or more directions than in others. The
planes of easy rupture are called cleavage planes.
COLD FINISHING - Changing the shape of, or reducing the
cross section of steel while cold—usually accomplished by roil-
ing, drawing through a die or turning:
‘COLD HEADING - Forcing cold metal to flow into dies to form
thicker sections and intricate shapes.
COLD ROLLING ~ See “Cold Finishing.”
COLD SHUT - An area in metal where two portions of the metal
in either a molten or plastic condition have come together but
have failed to unite into an integral mass.
COLD WORKING - Permanent deformation of a metal below its
recrystallization temperature, which hardens the metal.
COMBINED CARBON - Alli of the carbon in iron or stee! which
is combined with iron or other elements to form carbide.
COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH - Yield: Maximum stress that a
compressed meta! can withstand without a predefined amount
cof deformation. Ultimate: Maximum stress a brittle metal can
withstand without fracturing when subjected to compression.
CONTROLLED COOLING - Cooling from elevated temperature
in a pre-determined manner to avoid hardening, cracking or in-
ternal damage, or to produce a desired microstructure. Such
cooling usually follows the final forming operation.
CORE ~ The center portion of a piece of stee! which may be of
different chemical composition than the outside, as in the. case
of carburized parts, or which may have different physical prop-
erties than the outside due to the failure of penetration of heat
treatment effect.
CREEP — Plastic deformation or flow of metals held for long
periods of time at stresses lower than normal yield strength. Definitions (Cont.)
Especially important if temperature of stressing is near recrys-
tallization temperature of the metal. .
CREEP STRENGTH ~ The maximum stress which can be ap-
plied to steel at a specified temperature without causing more
than a specified percentage increase in length in a specified
time.
CREEP TEST - A number of samples, each loaded to a differ-
ent stress, are placed in heating coils and held at a constant
predetermined temperature. Tests are conducted for periods
Fanging from 1000-2000 hours during which time the samples
stretch. The elongation is measured and recorded at regular in-
tervals. The results show the amount of elongation which can
be expected when the steel is subjected to a given stress and
temperature within a given time.
CRITICAL POINTS OR TEMPERATURES - The various temper-
atures at which transformations occur in steel as it passes
through its critical range—on either a rising or falling tempera-
ture. (See Transformation Range.)
CRITICAL RANGE ~ A temperature range in passing through
which steel undergoes transformation. The preferred term is
transformation range (q.v.)
CRYOGENICS - Working with materials in environments near
«absolute zero (~459.69° F.).
‘CUP FRACTURE - A type of fracture—which looks like a cup
having the exterior portion extended with the interior slightly
depressed—produced in a tensile test specimen. Usually an in-
dication of ductility.
DECALESCENCE - The absorption of heat, due to internal
changes, which occurs when steel is heated through the critical
temperature range.
DECARBURIZATION - The loss of carbon from the surface of
solid steel during heating, forging, hot rolling, etc.
DEEP DRAWING - The process of working metal blanks in dies
‘ona press into shapes which are usually more or less.cup-like
‘in character.
DEEP ETCHING - Etching, for examination at low magnifica-
tion, by a reagent that attacks the metal to a much greater ex-
tent than is normal for microscopic examination—may bring out
such features as abnormal grain size segregation, cracks or
grain flow.
DEOXIDIZE - The removal of oxygen; present as iron oxide,
from-molten steel by adding a deoxidizing agent such as man-
ganese, silicon or aluminum.
DIAMOND PYRAMID HARDNESS TEST - An indentation hard-
ness test employing a 136 diamond pyramid indenter and varia~
ble loads enabling the use of one hardness scale for all ranges Definitions (Cont.)
of hardness from soft lead to tungsten carbide.
DISTORTION ~ A change in shape (usually refers to changes of
shape caused by internal stress.
DRAWING - Drawing may refer to the pulling of steel through a
die, as in drawing wire, or deforming steel in dies on a press
{deep drawing).
DRAWING BACK - Reheating after hardening to a temperature
below the critical for the purpose of improving the ductility and/
‘or lowering the hardness of the steel.
DRAWING QUALITY - Fiat rolled steel which can withstand ex-
treme pressing, drawing or forming, etc. without creating de-
fects. Produced from deep-drawing rimmed steels or extra
deep-drawing aluminum-killed steels which are special rolled
and processed.
DUCTILITY - The ability to permit change of shape without
fracture. In steel, ductility is usually measured by elongation
and reduction of area as determined in a tensile test.
ECCENTRICITY OF TUBING - Variation on wall thickness,
when the wall is lighter on one side and heavier at a point’ 180°
away, resulting in the I.D. of the tube being not concentric with
the O.D,
EDDY-CURRENT TEST ~ Nondestructive testing method in
which eddy-current flow is induced in the test object. Changes
in the flow caused by variations in the object are reflected into a
nearby coil or coils for subsequent analysis by suitable instru-
mentation and techniques.
ELASTIC LIMIT ~ The maximum load per unit of area (usually
stated as pounds per square inch) that may be applied without
producing permanent deformation. it is common practice to ap-
ply the load at a constant rate of increase and also measure the
increase of length of the’ specimen at uniform load increments.
The point at which the increase in length of the specimen
ceases to bear a constant ratio to the increase in load, is called
the proportional limit. The elastic limit will usually be equal to or
slightly higher than the proportional limit
it.
ELONGATION ~ The increase in length of a test specimen after
rupture in a tensile test, expressed as a percentage of the origi-
nal length.
ENDURANCE LIMIT - Maximum dynamic stress to which mate-
rial may be submitted for an infinite number of times without
causing fatigue failure.
ETCHING — Revealing structural details by preferential attack of
reagents on a metal surface.
ETCH TESTS — Etching to detect inclusions in steel. A common
test is dipping a sample into acid which reacts with the inclu-
sions to disclose their presence,
EUTECTOID STEEL - Carbon steel with a 100 per cent pearl- Definitions (Cont.)
itie structure, which is the structure developed under normal
‘conditions of hot working and cooling when the proportion of
carbon is about .80 percent. Hyper-eutectoid steel has a
greater percentage of carbon, and hypo-eutectold steel has
jess carbon.
EXTENSOMETER - An instrument for measuting changes
caused by stress in a linear dimension of a body.
EXTRUDING - Shaping metal in continuous form by forcing it
through a die.
FATIGUE - The tendency for a metal to break under conditions
of repeated cyclic stressing below the ultimate tensile strength.
FATIGUE LIMIT - See “Endurance Limit.”
FATIGUE TEST — Highly polished samples are subjected to
stress while bending, which results in a reversal of stress for
‘every complete revolution. The stress is reduced on each
succeeding sample until the maximum stress a sample will
sustain for ten millon reversals has been reached. Since expe-
rience justifies the assumption that if steel can withstand ten
million reversals, it can withstand such. stress indefinitely. This
stress is reported as the fatigue limit.
FERRO ALLOYS - fron alloyed with some element suchas
manganese, chrome, or silicon, etc., used in adding the element
to molten steel.
FIBER — A characteristic of wrought metal manifested by a
fibrous or woody appearance of fractures and indicating direc-
tional properties. Fiber is due chiefly to the éxtension in the di-
rection of working of the constituents of the metal, both metallic
and non-metallic.
FIBER STRESS - Unit stress at a certain point when overall
section stress is not uniform.
FINISHED STEEL - Steel which is ready for the market without
any further work or treatment such as wire, bars, sheets, rails,
plates, etc. Blooms, billets, slabs, and wire rods are termed
semi-finished.
FINISHING TEMPERATURE ~ Temperature at which hot me-
chanical working of metal is completed:
FIREBOX QUALITY ~ Quality of plates for use in pressure ves-
sels which will be exposed to fire or heat and the resulting ther-
maf and mechanical stresses. ot
FLAKES - An internal steel fracture with a bright, scaly
appearance.
FLAME ANNEALING - The direct application of a high-temper-
ature flame to a steel surface for the purpose of removing
stresses and softening metal. Commonly used to remove
stresses from welds.
FLAME CUTTING ~ Commonly denotes the producing of Definitions (Cont.)
shapes from flat steel with single or multiple torch setups.
Torches may be guided by hand, mechanically or by an electric
eye.
FLAME HARDENING - In this method of hardening, the surface
layer of a medium or high carbon steel is heated by a high-tem-
perature torch and then quenched.
FLANGE QUALITY - Quality of plates for use in pressure
vessels which are not exposed to fire or radiant heat. Special
manufacturing, testing and marking are required.
FORGING ~ A piece of metal which has been shaped or
‘formed, while hot, by forging with a hammer (hand or power), in
a press, or by a drop hammer.
FORGING QUALITY ~ Semi-finished stee! produced for applica-
tions involving forging require manufacturing control for chemi-
cal composition, deoxidization mold practice, pouring, rolling,
‘card, cooling surface preparation, testing and inspection.
Purchaser's method of fabrication and end use is a vital consid-
eration in producing steel to this broad definition.
FORGING STRESSES - Stresses resulting from forging or from
cooling from the forging temperature.
FRACTURE ~ The surface of a break in metal,
FRACTURE TEST ~ Breaking metal to determine structure or
Physical condition by examining the fracture.
FREE MACHINING ~ A term used to describe a metal which
‘may be machined with less power at relatively high speed with-
out the development of excessive heat and from which the
chips will break off easily leaving a smooth surface. Free ma-
chining stee! has internal friction reduced by alteration of the
chemical composition through the modification of the carbon,
‘manganese, sulphur or selenium content or by addition of lead.
FULL ANNEALING - Heating to above the critical temperature
range followed by slow cooling through the range, producing
maximum softness.
FULL HARDNESS - Usually the hardness of heat treated stee!
after quenching and before tempering.
GRAIN GROWTH - The increase in the size of grains making
up the microstructure of steel such as may occur during heat
treatments.
GRAIN REFINEMENT ~ Reducing the crystalline or grain struc-
ture by heat treating, or by a combination of heat treating and
mechanical working.
GRAIN STRUCTURE ~ The type of crystalline structure as ob-
served by eye or under the microscope.
GRAPHITIZING — Annealing gray cast iron so that most of the
carbon is transformed to the graphitic condition. Controlled by
increasing silicon and by thermal treatment. Definitions (Cont.)
HARDENABILITY - (Of Steel) The ability of a steel to harden
when cooled from its hardening temperature, as measured by
its surface hardness and by the depth of hardening below the
surface.
HARDENING - (As applied to heat treatment of steel.) Heating
‘and quenching to produce increased hardness.
HEAT OF STEEL ~ The steel produced from one charge
in the furnace, and consequently practically identical In Its
characteristics.
HEAT RESISTING STEELS - Those steels which are used
for service at relatively high temperatures because they retain
much of their strength and resist oxidation under such
condition.
HEAT TREATMENT - An operation or combination of opera-
tions involving the heating and cooling of steels in the solid
state for the purpose of obtaining certain desirable mechanical,
mnicrostructural or corrosion-resisting properties.
HIGH STRENGTH STEEL — A specific class of low alloy steels
in which increased mechanical properties and, usually, good re-
sistance to atmospheric corrosion are obtained with moderate
amounts of one of more alloying elements other than carbon.
Preferably called high-strength, low-alloy steels.
HOT SHORTNESS - Brittieness in metal, at an elevated
temperature.
HOT WORKING - The mechanical working of metal above the
recrystallization temperature.
IMPACT TEST - Determines the energy absorbed in fracturing
a test bar at high velocity. Test may be in tension or bending,
or may be a notch test (Izod V-Notch or Charpy Key-Hole) in
which the notch creates multiaxial stresses.
IMPACT VALUES ~ Resistance toshock and ability to distribute
localized stress as measured by impact test—usually ex-
pressed in foot-pounds.
INCLUSIONS ~ Particles of ‘non-metallic material usually oxides,
sulphides, silicates and-such which are entrapped mechanically
or are formed during solidification or by subsequent reaction
within the solid metal. :
INDUCTION HARDENING ~ A hardening process in which the
part is heated above the transformation range by electrical
induction.
INTERGRANULAR CORROSION - Electrochemical corrosion
along the grain boundaries of an alloy, usually caused because
the boundary regions contain material anodic to the center of
the grain.
IRON — A metallic element. However, In the-stee! industry, iron
represents the product of a blast furnace containing 92% to
94% iron. Blast furnace iron is also called pig iron or hot metal. Definitions (Cont.)
IZOD TEST ~ A test made to determine the notched toughness
of a material. The test gives the energy required to break a
standard notched specimen supported as a cantilever beam.
JOMINY END-QUENCH TEST - This is a hardenability test in
which a steel sample is heated to its proper quenching temper-
ature and subjected to a spray of water at one end, a quench-
ing method which provides a very rapid rate of cooling at the
end sprayed, with progressively slower cooling all the way up
to the other end.
KILLED STEEL - Steel to which sufficient deoxidizing
agents have been added to prevent gas evolution during
‘solidification.
KIP ~ A unit of load equalling 1000 pounds or 453.59
kilograms.
LADLE ANALYSIS - Determined by chemical analysis for
specific elements of a test ingot sample obtained from the
first part or middle part of a heat or blow during the pouring of
the steel from the ladie. This is the analysis reported to the pur-
chaser.
LAMINATIONS - Defects caused by blisters, seams or foreign
inclusions aligned parallel to the worked surface of a metal.
LAP ~ A surface defect appearing as a seam caused from fold-
ing over hot metal, fins, or sharp corners and then rolling or
forging, without welding them into the surface.
MACHINE STRAIGHTENING ~ Straightening metal bars by roll-
ing in a straightening machine.
MACROETCH TEST - Deep etching steel in a hot acid
solution to evaluate soundness and homogeneity without
magnification.
MAGNAFLUX TEST - A method of detecting cracks, taps, and
other defects by magnetizing the steel and applying fine mag-
netic particles (dry or suspended in solution). Presence of a
surface or subsurface defect is indicated by a particle pattern.
MAGNETIC-ANALYSIS INSPECTION - A nondestructive
method of inspection for determining the existence and extent
of possible defects in.terromagnetic materials. Finely divided
magnetic particles, applied to the magnetized part, are attracted
to and outline the pattern of any- magnetic leakage fields
created by discontinuities.
MALLEABILITY ~ The property of a metal to deform when sub-
jected to rolling or hammering. The more malieabie a metal is,
the easier it can be deformed.
MALLEABILIZING ~ An annealing operation performed on
white cast iron for the purpose of partially or wholly transform-
ing the combined carbon to temper carbon, and in some cases
to remove completely the carbon from the iron by decarburiza-
tion. Definitions (Cont.)
MARAGING STEELS - A group of high nickel martensitic steels
developed by the International Nickel Co. Their high strength
and ductility evolve primarily from the aging of a martensitic
matrix.
MARTENSITE - With most steels, cooling as rapidly as possi-
ble from their quenching temperature develops a distinctive
structure called martensite, In this form, the steel is at its maxi-
mum hardness. .
MATRIX - The ground mass or principal substance in which a
constituent is embedded.
McQUAID-EHN TEST - A test for revealing grain size of stee!
by heating above critical range in a carbonaceous medium. This
causes grains to be outlined sharply when polished, etched and
viewed under a microscope. Grain sizes range from No. 8 (finest)
to No. 1 (coarsest).
MEAN DIMENSION.- The average of minimum and maximum
‘mill tolerances; generally used in connection with tubing on
0.D,, ILD. or wall dimension.
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES - Properties of a material that re-
veal the reaction when force is applied, or that involve the rela-
tionship between stress and strain, such as modulus of elasticity,
tensile strength and fatigue limit. The term “mechanical proper-
ties" is preferred to “physical properties.”
MERCHANT BAR QUALITY STEEL - A standard steel, free
from visible pipe, widely used for general production and repair
work, bracing, machine parts, welding jobs, etc. It is not partic-
ularly recommended for forging, heat treating or complicated
machine operations.
MICROSTRUCTURE - The structure of metals as revealed by
examination of polished and etched samples with the micro-
scope.
MODULUS OF ELASTICITY - Within the proportional limit,
the stress (in Ibs. per sq. inch) is divided by the strain (stretch
inches per inch) a value will be obtained-which is called the
modulus of elasticity of the material. This value for steel is,
about 30,000,000.
NETWORK STRUCTURE - A structure in which the crystals
of one constituent are partially or entirely surrounded by enve-
lopes of another constituent, an arrangement that gives a net-
work appearance to a polished and etched specimen.
NICKEL STEEL — Alloy steel containing nickel as its principal
alloying element.
NITRIDING - Adding nitrogen to the solid iron-base alloys by
heating at a temperature below the critical in contact with am-
monia or some other nitrogeneous material,
NOMINAL DIMENSION — OD, ID, or wall thickness of tubing
specified by buyer, regardless of how the tolerances are
expressed.
10 Definitions (Cont)
NORMALIZING - Heating to about 100 °F above the critical
temperature and cooling to room temperature in stil air. Provi-
sion is often made in normalizing for controlled cooling at a
slower rate, but when the cooling is prolonged the term used is
annealing.
OIL QUENCH - A quench from the hardening temperature, in
which oil is the cooling medium,
OLSEN TEST - This is a cupping test made on an Olsen ma-
chine as an aid in determining ductility and deep drawing prop-
erties. The test simulates a deep drawing operation. It is
continued untii the cup formed from the steel sample fractures.
Duetiity and drawing properties are judged by the depth of the
cup, position of the break, condition of the surface after the
break, etc.
OUT-OF-ROUND ~ The difference between maximum and mini-
mum diameters of a bar measured at the same cross
section.
OUT-OF-SQUARE - The difference between two dimensions of
a square bar, each dimension being the distance between op-
posite sides and both measured at the same cross section.
OVERHEATING — Heating to such a temperature that, while the
properties of the metal are impaired, it has not been burned
and can therefore be rendered by heat treatment.
PASSIVATION - Generally refers to a process for the surface
treatment of stainiess steels. Material is subjected to the action
of an oxidizing solution, usually nitric acid, which augments and
strengthens the normal protective oxide film enabling the mate-
‘to resist corrosive attack. The passivating process also re-
moves foreign substances from the surface which might cause
local corrosion.
PATENTING — Heating iron-base alloys above the critical tem-
perature range followed by cooling below that range in air, or in
‘molten lead or a molten salt maintained at a temperature usu-
ally between 800-1050°F, depending on the carbon content of
the steel and the properties required of the finished product.
PEARLITE - A relatively hard constituent of steel made up of
alternate layers of ferrite (iron), and cementite (iron carbide; that
is, a compound of iron and carbon). See “Eutectoid Steel.”
PERMANENT SET ~ Permanent change in shape due to appli-
cation of stress.
PHOTOMICROGRAPH - A photographic reproduction of an ob-
ject magnified more than 10 times. Used to study the grain
structure of steel.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES - Properties exclusive of those listed
under mechanical properties such as density, electrical conduc-
tivity and coefficient of thermal expansion. Term is often used
to describe mechanical properties but such usage is not recom-
mended,
"1 Definitions (Cont.)
PICKLING - Immersion of steel in a dilute solution of acid for
the purpose of removing the scale.
PIERCING ~ Process of spinning and rolling a billet over a man-
dret in such a way that a hole is opened in the center.
PIPE ~ A cavity formed in metal (especially ingots) during the
solidification of the last portion of liquid metal. Contraction of
the metal causes this cavity or pipe.
PIT A depression in the surface of metal occurring during its
manufacture.
PRECIPITATION HARDENING - The process of hardening an
alloy by heating it for the purpose of allowing a structural con-
stituent to precipitate from.a solid'solution,
PREHEATING - As a'general term, preheating means a heating
applied preliminary to some further. thermal or mechanical treat-
ment. It also has a specific meaning in describing the process
by which tool'steel is heated slowly and uniformly to a tempera-
ture below the hardening temperature, following which the steel
is transferred to a furnace in ~vhich the temperature is substan-
tially above the preheating temperature.
PROCESS ANNEALING-— Heating to a temperature below or
close to the lower limit of the critical temperature range and
then cooling as desired.
PROPORTIONAL LIMIT ~ The greatest load per square inch of
original cross-sectional area for which the elongation is propor-
tional to the foad.
PYROMETER ~ An instrument used for measuring tempera:
tures.
QUENCH HARDENING — Hardening a ferrous alloy by heating
within or above the transformation range and cooling at a con-
trolied rate. This usually involves formation of martensite.
QUENCHING - Cooling rapidly by immersion in oil, water, etc.
QUENCHING MEDIUM - The medium used for cooling steel
during heat.treatment—usually oil, water, air, or salts.
QUENCHING TEMPERATURE - The temperature from which
steel is quenched during a heat treating process
RADIOGRAPHY - A nondestructive method of internal examina-
tion in which metal or other objects are exposed to a beam of
x-ray or gamma radiation. Differences in thickness, density or
absorption, caused by internal discontinuities, are apparent in
the shadow image either on a fluorescent screen or on photo-
graphic film placed behind the object.
RECALESCENCE - The liberation of heat due to internal
changes, which occurs when ste! is cooled through the critical
temperature range.
RED SHORTNESS - See “Hot Shortness.”
REDUCTION OF AREA - The difference between the original
‘cross-sectional area of a tensile specimen and that of the
smallest area at the point of rupture. it is usually stated as a
12 Definitions (Cont.)
percentage of the original area; also called “contraction of
area.” *
REFINEMENT OF STRUCTURE ~ See “Grain Refinement.”
REFINING TEMPERATURE — A temperature employed in heat
treatment to refine structure, in particular, to refine the grain
size.
REGENERATIVE QUENCHING — Quenching carburized parts
from two different temperatures to refine case and core. (Often
called double quenching.)
RIMMED STEEL — A steel that is poured containing enough ox-
ygen to evolve appreciable gas during solidification. The gas
evolution results in a finished product having a very pure sur-
face with the impurities concentrated in the interior. The pure
zone which is readily shown by etching is referred to as the
eam
ROCKWELL HARDNESS TEST — Forcing a cone-shaped dia-
mond or hardened stee! ball into the specimen being tested un-
der standard pressure. The depth of penetration is an indication
of the Rockwell Hardness.
SCAB - A defect on the ingot caused by metal which splashes
during teeming; on rolled or forged products it apppears as a
silver-like defect partially welded or mechanically bound to the.
Parent metal surface.
SCALE ~ An iron oxide formed on the surface of hot steel,
sometimes in the form of large sheets which fail off when the
steel is roiled.
SCLEROSCOPE or SHORE HARDNESS TEST — This test con-
sists of dropping a small diamond tipped hammer from a stand-
‘ard height onto the surface of the specimen being tested. The
height to which the hammer rebounds is a measure of the sur-
face hardness of the specimen.
SEAM - An elongated discontinuity in metal caused by a blow-
hole or other defect which has been closed by rolling or forging
mechanicatty but not welded.
‘SECONDARY HARDENING - An increase in hardness following
the normal softening during the tempering of certain alloy
steels.
SEGREGATION - Concentration of the components of steel
with the lowest freezing point in parts of the ingot which solidity
last.
SEMI-KILLED STEEL - Characterized by variable degrees of
uniformity and compositions and have properties intermediate
between those of killed and rimmed steels.
SHEAR STRENGTH - The stress required to produce fracture
in the plane of a cross secticn, the conditions of loading being
such that the directions of force and of resistance are parallel
and opposite although their paths are offset a specified mini-
mum amount.
13 Definitions (Cont.)
SHORTNESS ~ Brittleness.
SILKY FRACTURE - A steel fracture having a very smooth, fine
grain, or silky appearance.
SKELP — Steel or iron plate from which pipe or tubing is made.
‘SKETCH PLATES — Plates cut to shapes other than rectangular.
SLAB - A thick rectangular piece of steel for rolling down into
plates.
SLAG - A result of the action of a flux on non-metallic constitu-
ents of a processed ore, or on the oxidized metallic constitu-
ents that are undesirable. Usually consist of combinations of
acid oxides and basic oxides with neutral oxides added to aid
fusibility.
SLIP BANDS - A series of parallel ines running across a crys-
talline grain. Slip bands are formed when the elastic it is
passed by one layer or portion of the crystal slipping over an-
other portion along a piane, known as the slip plane.
SOAKING ~ Holding stee! at a predetermined temperature for a
sufficient time to assure heat penetration and/or to complete
the solution of carbides.
SOLIDIFICATION RANGE - The temperature range through
which metal freezes or solidifies.
SOLID SOLUTION - A condition wherein one element is dis-
solved in another element while the dissolving element is in a
solid and not liquid condition.
‘SONIMS — Solid non-metallic inclusions in metal.
SPALLING - Cracking and flaking of a metal surface.
SPECIAL KILLED STEELS ~ Low-carbon aluminum-killed stee!s
mainly used for extra deep drawing sheet and strip.
SPECIFIED GRAIN SIZE — Grain size can only be spe
coarse (1 to 5) or fine (5 to 8) except in alloy steels which allow
a more restrictive requirement. (Also see McQuaid-Ehn Test.)
SPHEROIDIZING ~ Heating and cooling processes which make
carbides spherical in shape. Steels are commonly spheroidized
by prolonged heating at a temperature just below the lower limit
of the transformation range with subsequent slow cooling.
‘STATIC LOAD - A load which is sustained without motion—
such as weight hanging on a string:
STEP DOWN TEST ~ A sample of steel is machined down to
different diameters and inspected at different distances from
the surface.
STRESS - The load per unit area tending to deform a material.
STRESS RELIEVING — Reducing residual stresses in a metal by
heating to a suitable temperature for a certain time. This
method relieves stresses caused by casting, quenching, nor-
malizing, machining, cold working or weldirig.
SWAGING ~ Shaping metal by causing it to flow in a swage by
pressing, rolling or hammering (also called swedging).
14 Definitions (Cont.)
SWEEP - In reference to wide flange beams, sweep is the cur-
vature from the plane of the web in the length of the beam,
TEMPER CARBON - A form of graphite in iron-base alloys pro-
duced by heating below the melting point.
TEMPERING - Reheating after hardening to a temperature be-
fow the critical and then cooling.
TENSILE STRENGTH — The maximum load per unit of original
cross-sectional area obtained before rupture of a tensile
specimen.
TRANSFORMATION RANGE - The temperature range in which
various changes occur in the structure of stee! and above
which it is necessary to heat steel to effect complete structural
change. Normally, distinction should be made between the
transformation range when heating and the range when
cooling.
U.M. PLATE = Universal Mill Plate or plate rolled to width by
vertical rolls as well as to thickness by horizontal rolls. Edge
shearing is not necessary.
UPSETTING - Deforming a heated bar by end-pounding.
VACUUM DEGASSING - A steel making process which permits
cyclic degassing—plus the addition of alloying materials to mol-
ten steel in the absence of air prior to teeming. Undesirable ox-
ide content is reduced.
VACUUM INDUCTION MELTING - Steel is melted in an induc-
tion electric furnace in vaccum chambers which also contain the
ingot molds into which the melted steel is cast. Charging, melt-
ing and casting are all performed under vacuum, reducing un-
desirable oxide content.
VICKERS HARDNESS TEST - See "Diamond Pyramid Hard-
ness Test.”
WATER QUENCH ~ (In steel heat treatment) Cooling steel from
its quenching temperature with water.
WORKABILITY - The characteristics of a metal as applied to
forming into desired shapes.
WORK HARDNESS - Hardness resulting from mechanical
working.
YIELD POINT - The load per unit of original cross-section area
at which a marked increase in the deformation of the specimen
} occurs without increase in load. Usually calculated from the
load determined by the drop of the beam of the testing machine
or by use of dividers.
YIELD STRENGTH — The stress at which a material exhibits a
specified deviation from proportionality of stress and strain, An
offset of 0.2% is used for many metals.
ZYGLO INSPECTION - Metals are treated with a special dye
containing water washable oil which has the power to penetrate
extremely small surface cracks. The part is then illuminated
with short wave-length light called “black light,” causing the
dye to glow with fluorescence—thus indicating the size and lo-
cation of cracks or other defects.
15 GEOMETRIC FORMULAS.
A = plane area
V = volume
C = circumference
S = total surface area
L = arc onchord
PARALLELOGRAM '
»
Amah 4
=
TRAPEZOID wm a—e 1
" L\
A= 5a +b) oC £
A = Yafb(H + hy
+ ah + cH]
TRAPEZIUM fl
H
a4 bp —bod
REGULAR PENTAGON
A= 1.7202
REGULAR HEXAGON
A = 2.598 a? . <
REGULAR OCTAGON
A = 4,828 a
aa
CIRCLE
2nR
nD
mR?
<<
LX
16 Geometric Formulas (Cont.)
TRIANGLE
bh on
‘ve A}
J
SQUARE
A=b
RECTANGLE
A=ab |
ELLIPSE
A =7AB
A
c = nVXae + BR
SECTOR OF CIRCLE
mR L
360 <_ we
L = O1745Rx (p
CONE
S =nRH +R)
: = nR( VRP FP + A)
Rh
= 1.047R%
= 0.261802h
7 Geometric Formulas (Cont)
CYLINDER
S = 2nR(R +h)
ch oat
“an
SPHERE
S = 4nR2
= nD?
4
= tore
Vv = 3nR
= 1/6nD9
CUBE wy
S = 6b?
v=»?
os
=
RECTANGULAR SOLID
S = ab + be + ac) y
V = abe t
=
RING OF RECTANGULAR CROSS SECTION
ne
2 2
va (ea)
(035)
It
Ge
18 MULTIPLYING PREFIXES
Multiplication Factors Pretix [St Symbol
1.000 000 000 000 = 10" | tera T
1.000 000 000 = 10? | giga G
1.000.000 = 10° [mega M
1000 = 10° [kilo k
100 = 10? [hector] oh
10 = 10' |deka* | da
04 = 107! [decir d
0.01 = 10-2 | centi- ¢
0.001 = 10-3 _| mill m
0,000 001 = 10°¢ | micro H
0.000 000.001 = 107° [nano a
(0.000 000 000001 = 10- | pico Pp
0,000 000 000 000 001 = 10-' | temto t
(0,000 000 000 000 000 001 = 10-"* | ato a
“To be avoided where possible.
19 SQUARES, CUBES, AND
SQUARE AND CUBE ROOTS
ware | Cube
No. | Square ‘Cube loot Root
1 1 7 4.000 |” 7-000
2 4 8 1.414 | 4.260
3 9 27, 1.732 | 11442
4 16 64 2.000 | 1.587
5 25 125 2236 | 1.710
6 36 216 2.449 | 1.817
7 49 343 2.646 | 1.913
8 64 512 2.828. .|- 2.000.
9 8 729 3.000 | 2.080
10 100 1,000 | “3.162 2154
" 424 1,331 3317 | 2.224
12 144 1,728 3.464 | 2289
13 169 2197 3.606 | 2.351
14 196 2744 3.742 | 2410
15 225 3,375 3.873 | 2.466
16 256 4,096 4.000 | 2520
7 289 4913 | 4.423 | 2.571
18 324 5,832 4.243 | 2.621
19 361 6,859 4.359 | 2.668
20 400 8,000 4.472 | 2714
21 441 91261 4.583 | 2.759
22 484 10,648 4.690 | 2.802
23 529 12,167 4796 | 2.844
24 576 13,824 4.899 | 2.884
25 625 15,625 5.000 | 2.924
26 676 17,576 5.099 | 2.962
27 729 19,683 5.196 | 3.000
28 784 21,952 5.292 | 3.037
29 841 24,389 5.385 | 3.072
30 900 27,000 5.477 | 3.107
31 961 29.791 5.568 | 3.141
32 1,024 32,768 5.657 | 3.175
33 1,089 35,937 5.745 | 3.208
34 1,156 39,304 5.831 | 3.240
35 1,225 42,875 5.916 | 3.271
36 1,296 46,656 6.000 | 3.302
37 4,369 50,653 6.083 | 3.332
38 1,444 54,872 6.164 | 3.362
39 1524 59,319 6.245 | 3.391
40 1,600 64,000 6.325 | 3.420
41 1,681 68,921 6.403 | 3.448
42 1,764 74,088 6481 | 3.476
43 1,849 79,507 6.557 | 3.503
44 11936 85,184 6.633 | 3.530
45 2,025 91,125 6.708 | 3.557
46 2.116 97,336 6.782 | 3.583
47 2,209 103,823 6.856 | 3.609
48 2,304 110,592 6.928 | 3.634
49 2.401 117,649, 7.000 | 3.659
50 2500 425,000 7071 | 3.684
20 ‘Squares, Cubes, and Square and Cube Roots (Cont)
Square | Cube |
No. | Square Cube. Root Root
5t 2,601 132,651 7141 | 3.708
52 | 2\704 140,608 | 7.211 | 3.733
53 | 2/809 148,877 | 7.280 | 3.756
54 | 2.916 187.464 | 7.348 | 3.780
55 | 3,025 166,375 | 7.416 | 3.803
56 | 3,136 175,616 | 7.483 | 3.826
57 | 3,249 185,193 | 7.850 | 3.849
58 | 3,364 195,112 | 7.616 | 3.871
59 | 3.481 205,379 | 7.681 | 3.893
60 | 3,600 216,000 | 7.746 | 3.915
61 3,721 226,981 7810 | 3.936
62 | 3.844 238,328 | 7.874 | 3.958
63 | 3.989 250,047 | 7.937 | 3.979
64 | 4.096 262,144 8.000 | 4.000
65 | 4,225 274,625 | 8.062 | 4.021
66 | 4.356 287,496 | 8.124 | 4.041
67 | 4.489 300,763 | 8.185 | 4.062
68 | 4,624 314.432 | 8.264 | 4.082
69 | 4,761 328,509 | 8.307 | 4.102
70 | 4/900 343,000 | 8.367 | 4.121
71 5,041 357,911 8.426 | 4.141
72 | 8,184 373,248 | 8.485 | 4.160
73 | 5.328 39,017 | 8.544 | 4.179
74 | 5,476 405,224 | 8.602 | 4:198
75 | 5,625 421875 | 8.660 | 4.217
78 | 5776 438,976 | 8718 | 4.236
77 | 5,929 456,533 | 8.775 | 4.254
78 | 6,084 474,552 | 8.832 | 4.273
79 | 6,241 493,039 | 8.888 | 4.291
80 | 6,400 512,000 | 8.944 | 4.309
at 6,561 531,441 9.000 | -4.327
82 | 6,724 551,368 | 9.055 | 4.344
83 | 6,889 571,787 | 9.110 | 4.362
84 | 7,056 592,704 | 9.165 | 4.380
85 | 7,225 614,125 | 9220 | 4.397
a6 | 7,396 636,056 | 9.274 | 4.414
87 7,569 658,503 | 9.327 | 4.431
sa | 7,744 681,472 | 9381 | 4.448
so | 7,921 704,969 | 9.434 | 4.465
90 | 8,100 729,000 | 9.487 | 4.481
ot 8,281 753,571 9539 | 4.498
92 8,464 778,688 9.592 4514
93 8,649 804,357 9.644 | 4.531
94 | 8,836 930,584 | 9.695 | 4.547
95 | 9,025 857.375 | 9.747 | 4.563
96 | 9.216 884,738 | 9.798 | 4.579
97 | 9,409 912.673 | 9.849 | 4.595
98 9,604 941,192 9.899 4.610
99 | 9,801 970,298 9950 | 4.626
100 | 10,000 | 1,000,000 | 10.000 | 4.642
at LENGTHS OF CHORDS FOR SPACING OFF THE
CIRCUMFERENCE OF CIRCLES WITH A
DIAMETER EQUAL TO 1”
No. of ] Chord | No. of | Chord | No. of | Chord | No. of | Chord
Spaces | Length | Spaces | Length | Spaces | Length | Spaces | Length
a | esso2s |, “st | 61860 | 99 | oaizer| 147 | .cats69
| rori06 | sz | ‘060378 |. 100 | ‘oatato ] 148 | coas225,
s | serres| 53° | osse40}- 101 | oa1o99} 149 | .catoe2
8 | ‘s00000| 54 | -0s8144] 102 | coaoves | 150 | “ozose2
7 | 4sseea} 55 | ‘osvosa | 103 | ozoas8 | 151 | -ozo8oa
a | ‘aa6e3| $6 | 1086070 | 10 | coaozo2 | 152 | 020666
3 | ‘3ez020} 57 | ‘0ssoe7 | t05 | ‘oasets | 189 | co20ss1
10 | govorr | se | osaras.| 108 | o2seas |) 154 | 02098
tt | zarraz| 59 | ‘osseae’| 107 | ‘oasa55 | 155 | 020268
12 | 258819 | 60 | osaaas"} 108 | coaeces | 156 | ‘020197
13 | peas] 61 | ‘oste7a} 109 | ‘o2eei7 | 157 | ‘ozo000
14 | [222520] 62 | ‘os06a | 110 | o2esss | 158 | -orsese
15 | gori1) 63 | .ovgaes | 111 | 020296 | 159 | .o1g757 |
18. | “19s090 | 64 | ‘osgoe7 | 112 | ‘oze04s | 160 |