Assignment no 1

1.1 Boiler
A steam boiler or steam generator is a closed vessel in which water is heated, vaporized and
converted into steam at a pressure higher than atmospheric pressure.

A Boiler is the biggest and most critical part of a thermal power plant.

Fig 1.1

Definition of Boiler according to IBR Act 1923 (Indian Boiler Regulation), A steam boiler
means any closed vessel exceeding 22.75 liters in capacity and which is used expressively
for generating steam under pressure.

1.2 Applications of Boiler:

We use a boiler for:

 Operating steam engines.

 Operating steam turbines.
 Operating reciprocating pumps.
 Industrial process work in chemical engineering.
 For producing hot water required to be supplied to room in very cold areas.
 In thermal power stations.
 The heat content of the steam is large and thus it is suitable for process heating in many
industries like sugar mills, textile mills, dairy industry and also in chemical industries.

1.3 Some useful terms used in Boiler:

 Boiler shell: The boiler shell consists of a hollow cylindrical body made up of steel plates
riveted or welded together.
 Furnace: Furnace is that part of the boiler in which the fuel is conveniently burned to
produce heat. This heat is utilized in generating steam in the boiler.
 Grate: The grate is a space on which the fuel is burnt. It consist of a combination of
several cast-iron bars so arranged that the fuel may be placed on it. Some space is always
provided in between two consecutive bars so that may flow to the fuel from below the
great and ashes may drop into the ash pit provided beneath the Grate. Grate may be
circular or rectangular in shape.
 Grate area: The area of the great upon which the fuel burns is called great area. Grate
area is always measured in square meters.
 Heating surface: The heating surface is the surface of a boiler which is exposed to hot
gases on one side and water of the other.
 Water space and steam space: Water space is the volume of the boiler which is occupied
by water. The remaining space is called steam space because it is needed for storage of
steam in the boiler until it id s drawn off through the steam pipe.
 Flue gases: Flue gases are hot gases produced due to the combination of fuel in the boiler
furnace. Flue gas usually contains water vapor (H2O), Carbon dioxide (CO2), Carbon
monoxide (CO), Nitrogen (N2). Flue gas includes complete and incomplete products of
combustion of fuels.

1.4 Classifications or Types of Boiler:

There are large number of boiler designs, but they may be classified according to the following
ways:

1.4.1 According to the circulation of gases:

 Fire-tube boiler
 Water-tube boiler

 Fire-tube boiler:
Fire tube boilers are those boilers in which hot gases produced by the combination of fuel in
the boiler furnace while on their way to chimney pass through a number of tubes (called
fuel tubes or smoke tubes) which are immersed in water.
Heat is transferred from the hot gasses to water through the walls of tubes.
Example of fire tube boilers are Cochran boiler, locomotive boiler etc.

Fire tubes boilers are also known as a smoke tube boiler.

Fig 1.2

 Water-tube boiler:
Water-tube boilers are those boilers in which water flows through a number of tubes (called
water tubes) and the hot gases produced by the combustion of fuel in the boiler furnace while
on their way to chimney pass surrounding the tubes.

The heat from the hot gases is transferred to the water through the walls of the water tubes.

Examples of water tube boilers are Bab-cock and Wilcox boiler, Benson boiler, etc.

Fig 1.3
1.4.2 According to Circulation of water:
 Free circulation
 Forced circulation

 Free circulation:
In any water heating vessel heat is transmitted from one place to another not by condition but
by convection because water is a bad conductor of heat.

Let vessel containing water be heated at its bottom, as the water in the bottom portion is
heated therefore its density becomes reduced in comparison to the density of water in the
upper portion of the vessel, as a result, the less dense water at the bottom portion of the vessel
rise up and comparatively more dense and cold water at the upper portion of the vessel comes
down to take its place and thus a convection current is set up in the water until temperature
off all water becomes the same.

The method of circulation of water described above is known as free circulation.

In boilers like Lancashire, Babcock, and Wilcox, etc. free circulation of water takes place.

 Advantages of free circulation:

The advantages of free circulation are:

 Free circulation of water helps to maintain a uniform temperature true everywhere

within the boiler so that unequal expansion of various parts of the boiler is prevented.
 Free circulation of water facilities the escape of steam from the heating surface as
soon as it formed. If steam does not escape quickly after its formation the boilerplates
do not remain constantly in touch with water and as a result, these plates may be
overheated.

 Forced Circulation:
In forced circulation, pumps are used to maintain the continuous flow of water in the boiler. In
such a case, the circulation of water takes place due to pressure created by the pump.

The forced circulation system is adopted in more high pressure, high capacity boilers of all of
which are water tube type boiler.

 Advantages of forced circulation:

The advantages of forced circulation are:

 The rate of heat transfer from the flue gases to the water higher.
 Tubes having comparatively smaller diameters can be used. This reduces the
overall weight of the boiler.
 The number of boiler drums required may be reduced.
 Less scale formation in the boilers is required.
  Steam can be quickly generated.
 The fluctuation of load can be easily met without taking the help of any complicated
controlled device.
 Chance of overheating of the boilerplates in minimum.
 Weight per unit mass of steam generated is less.

1.4.3 According to the number of tubes used:

According to the number of tubes, Boilers may be classified as:

 Single tube boiler

 Multi-tube boiler

 Single tube boiler:

Cornish boiler may be termed as a single tumbler boiler because it has only one flue tube.

 Multi-tube boiler:
Cochran boiler may be termed as multi-tube boiler because it has a number of flue tubes.

1.4.4 According to the nature of use:

According to nature use, boilers are classified as

 Stationary boilers
 locomotive boilers
 Marine boilers.

 Stationary boilers:
For the generation of thermal power and for process work (in chemical, sager and textile
industries) boilers used are called stationary boiler.

 Locomotive boilers:
Boilers used in locomotive steam engines are called locomotive boilers.

 Marine boilers:
Boilers used in steamships are called marine boilers.

1.4.5 According to the nature of the fuels used:

According to the nature of the fuel used boiler may be:

 Fuel-fired
 Gas fired
  Liquid fuel fired
 Electrically fired
 Nuclear fired

1.4.6 According to the pressure of the boiler:

 High-pressure boiler
 Medium-pressure boiler
 Low-pressure boiler

 High-pressure boiler:
The pressure of the boiler above 80 bar.

 Medium-pressure boiler :
It has a working pressure of steam from 20 bar to 80 bar. It is used for power generation or
process heating.

 Low-pressure boiler:
This type of boiler produces steam at 15-20 bar pressure. This is used for process heating.

1.4.7 According to the position of the axis of the boiler shell:

According to the position of the axis of the boiler shell, boilers are classified as:

 Vertical boiler
 Horizontal boiler

 Vertical boiler:
If the boiler axis is vertical, it is called a vertical boiler. For example, Cochran boiler.

 Horizontal boiler:
If the boiler axis is horizontal, it is called a horizontal boiler.

For example, Lancashire boiler.

So this are the classifications of the Boiler, now see the schematic diagram of a Boilers

1.5 Types of Fuel Used in Boiler:

I have been categorized the fuel in three formats:

 Solid Fuels:
Wood, Coal, Briquettes (a block of compressed coal dust ), Pet Coke, Rice Husk.
 Liquid Fuels:
LDO (Light Diesel Oil), Furnace oil.

 Gaseous Fuels:
LPG (Liquified Petroleum Gas), LNG (Liquified Natural Gas), PNG (Piped Natural Gas) can
be used to carry out the combustion for a specific purpose.

1.6 The Necessity of Boiler:

 The most common function for any boiler, whether it is an industrial or residential
boiler, is to serve as the central heating mechanism for a home, business facility,
hospital, commercial complex, etc.
 No matter what setting they are used in, boilers operate with the same basic functions
and mechanisms that work together to create a contained, heat-generating combustion
process.
 Boilers draw natural gas from gas lines running through our streets and use this gas to
fuel the combustion process for heat creation and distribution throughout a building.
 The boiler system relies on a burner to initiate the combustion process, and then heat
in the form of steam or hot water moves through the system using pumps, radiators,
and heat exchangers.
 Boiler manufacturers are making use of rapidly improving technology to build
equipment that is cost-efficient, environmentally friendly, and powerful.
 Assignment no 2

2.1 VALVES

2.2 Definition
A valve is a device for isolating or regulating the flow rate of gases, liquids and slurries
through pipework and launder systems.

2.3 Mode of Operation

The force required to operate a valve can be carried out either manually (by hand) or
mechanically. Mechanical attachments (actuators) to a valve are usually either electrically or
pneumatically operated. The actuators can be controlled manually or by the plant control
system.

2.4 Types of valves

 Ball
 Butterfly
 Knifegate
 Diaphragm (Saunders)
 Non Return or Check
 Tech Taylor
 Pinch
 Pressure Relief

2.4.1 Ball Valves

Ball Valves, as the name implies, have a ball with a hole drilled
through the center swivel mounted within the valve body. When the
hole in the ball is orientated in the same direction as the pipe, this will
result in full flow rate. As the hole in the ball is oriented away from the
direction of the pipe, the flow rate will be restricted and finally cut off
completely when the hole is oriented at 90 degrees to the pipe direction.
Note that the hole in the ball is a lesser diameter than the nominal bore
of the pipe.

Fig 2.1
2.4.2 Butterfly Valves
Butterfly valves use a similar principle to ball valves. However,
instead of a ball mounted in the valve body a circular disc (called a
butterfly because the two half circles around the vertical shaft
appear like wings). Again the orientation of the butterfly determines
the flow rate. When the butterfly is oriented in the same direction as
the pipe (i.e presenting the least cross sectional area to the moving
fluid), this will result in full flow. As the butterfly is oriented away
from the direction of the pipe, the flow rate will be restricted by the
increased area of obstruction to the fluid and finally cut off
completely when the butterfly is oriented at 90 degrees to the pipe
direction. Fig 2.2

2.4.3 Knife gate Valves

Often just called gate valves, these are used as isolation valves. The
principle is simply a knife or gate which is dropped in front of the
flow. Knife gate valves should never be used in a restrictive role (ie
half open) as the base of the knife gate will wear rapidly and not seal
properly when closed. Knife gate valves come in all sizes and can
have manual hand wheels or pneumatic actuators to raise and lower
the knife gate.
Fig 2.3
2.4.4 Diaphragm (Saunders) Valves
Diaphragm valves (commonly known as a Saunders, after a popular
brand name) work on the principle of a rubber diaphragm or
bladder opening and closing. Saunders valves are ideal for
restrictive or flow control duties (ie valve half closed to reduce
flowrate). There are two main types of Saunders valve body types:

• Weir type
Fig 2.4
• Straight through type the diaphragm action can be actuated manually o r with a pneumatic
actuator (the valve body base remains the same).

2.4.5 Check (Non Return) Valves

Check valves or non-return valves are designed to ensure one way
flow only. Usually used in water pipework systems and installed
immediately after the pump. The most common check valve is the
disc type (horizontal or vertical). When flow is sufficient the disc is
pushed out. When flow reduces (or reverses if the pump fails) then
the disc falls back into a seat blocking the flow.

Fig 2.5
2.4.6 Tech Taylor Valves
Tech Taylor Valves (supplied by Warman International) are
designed for duty/standby applications where two pipes join into
one. The Tech Taylor valve operates on a simple principle where a
rubber coated ball is allowed to move freely within the valve body.
The ball is forced over to one side to block the standby inlet by the
fluid motion entering through the duty inlet and out the exit.
Usually used in conjunction with slurry pumps, Tech Taylor valves
are rubber lined for wear resistance. The rubber lining and the ball
will need to be periodically replaced.
Fig 2.6

2.4.7 Pinch Valves

Pinch Valves are used for flow control application, usually to
regulate another parameter such as slurry level or thickener
underflow % solids. The valve operating principle relies on a
flexible section of pipe being flattened between (pinched) two
moving bars (like a vice). The tighter the pinch the lower the
flowrate. The pinching mechanism can be manual but is usually
pneumatically operated and controlled by a PLC system. The
rubber section will perish with time and will need to be
periodically replaced.
Fig 2.7
2.4.8 Pressure Relief Valves
Obviously as the name suggests pressure relief valves are a safety
device designed to open when system pressure (ie in a vessel or
pipework) becomes too great and may damage equipment or
endanger personnel if not relieved. The most common type is the
spring operated valve. A valve feather under spring pressure is
seated in the valve body and exposed to system pressure. When
the system pressure overcomes the spring pressure the valve
feather will move in the seat creating an exit to atmosphere
allowing the system gas or liquid to escape.

2.5 Malfunctions Fig 2.8

2.5.1 Valve Leaking or not sealing correctly

 Causes

 Wear
 Foreign material
 Corrosion
  Flange or flange bolt failure

 Effect

 Contamination of other streams

 Contamination of the environment
 Low pressure sequence Trips
 Bogging of pipework etc

 Actions

 Attempt to flush
 Remove and clear
 Contact maintenance and replace valve

2.5.2 Valve not operating correctly (ball, butterfly)

 Causes

 Corrosion of internal
 Foreign material
 Corrosion of handle

 Effect

 Valve not sealing

 Low pressure sequence
 Trips High pressure sequence Trips etc

 Actions

 Attempt to flush
 Remove and clear
 Contact maintenance and replace valve
 Assignment no 3

3.1 Safety in Power plants

Operating instructions usually deal primarily with the protection of equipment. Rules and
devices for personnel protection are also essential, regardless of the type of boiler design or
fuel. Safety training programs and written safety procedures are integral to the safe operation
of all plant equipment. While not exhaustive, the items listed here are based on actual
operating experience and point out some typical personnel safety precautions.

Fig 3.1

3.2Power plant safety:

3.2.1 A wise business move

Going to work in a controlled and safe environment is not an unreasonable expectation for
any worker. In many occupations, a level of danger is expected because it is inherent to the
job, but this is only more reason for companies to take employee safety seriously. The best
organizations are those that understand that a safe workplace is not only the right thing to do
for their employees, but also the right thing for their bottom line.

In recent decades, power plants and the power industry as a whole have made great strides
in improving their employee safety records. This positive trend can be attributed partially to
increased oversight and government regulation, but what is required to be in compliance with
regulators and oversight committees is only the tip of the iceberg in terms of what is
necessary to be an industry leader in safety.
The top performers in the power industry realize that implementing a safety program that
becomes imbedded in the culture of the organization will not only benefit its workers, but
also will help them become more competitive in the marketplace. These organizations realize
that the monetary cost associated with implementing an effective safety program is far less
than the indirect costs associated with a high frequency of injuries. The industry leaders in
safety have identified the most common hazards, developed safety programs, successfully
assessed these programs, and understand the correlation between employee safety and
profitability.

3.2.2 Common hazards

In any occupation, a level of risk can always be expected while on the job. Some
occupations are obviously more dangerous than others, and for many years, the power
industry had a reputation of being one of the most hazardous workplace environments. The
industry has worked hard to eliminate this reputation, and today it is a much safer work
environment than in the past. According to OSHA, there has been a consistent downward
trend in the number of annual fatalities and recordable injuries. OSHA reports that for
electric power generation and distribution, natural gas distribution, and water sewage and
other distribution companies, the number of annual fatalities has decreased from 73 in 2006
to 26 in 2009. The total rate of injury and illness cases has also declined during that same
time period from 4.1 cases per 100 workers to 3.3. Power companies typically have two sets
of safety exposures: those that exist in the plant and those that exist in the field. Field
workers are widely recognized as having the more hazardous occupation, but plant
employees also sometimes work under dangerous conditions. Three hazards account for a
large majority of the injuries: direct contact with electricity, fires and explosions of boiler
equipment, and contact with hazardous chemicals

Fig 3.2

3.2.3 Direct contact with electricity

Electrical shocks and burns account for thousands of injuries and many deaths every year in
the power industry. Electrical injuries are generally attributed to electric shocks
(electrocutions) as well as burns from arc flashes. The number of electric shock injuries has
decreased significantly in recent years due to an industry-wide focus in safety awareness in
this area. The same focus unfortunately has not been given to arc flash burns, and they
continue to be a safety issue that results in nearly three quarters of all electrical work injuries
The number of electric shocks has been minimized due to requirements that all individuals
working in electrical cabinets must wear proper safety protection. This necessary regulation
has reduced the number of injuries, but unfortunately, it does not go far enough. Other
workers on the job site, who do not have direct contact with electrical cabinets and are not
required to wear any protection, continue to be susceptible to burns from arc flashes, which
can travel several feet.

Fig 3.3

In order to reduce the number of electrical related injuries, the power companies with the
best safety records have implemented safety programs that go above and beyond what is
required by OSHA. A few highlights of such programs include requiring all electrical
workers to wear flame-resistant clothing, frequently conducting electrical hazard and
awareness training, and requiring a safety review for every job profile to avoid complacency.

3.2.4 Boiler fires and explosions

Even with the advanced technology of today, boiler accidents in the power industry are still
far too common and result in a large number of workplace injuries. The causes of these
accidents can vary from equipment failure to operator error, but whatever the cause, the
results of working with these machines can be catastrophic. Because of this, power
companies need to focus on prevention and become proactive in reducing the number of
accidents.

Fig 3.4
In order to reduce boiler-related incidents, it is essential to develop a boiler safety program
that focuses on three key components: operator training, maintenance and testing of safety
devices, and upgrading equipment when necessary. By simply focusing on these core
areas, the risks associated with boiler fires and explosions can be reduced, and the cost of
lost production time and repairing damaged property can be nearly eliminated.

3.2.5 Contact with hazardous chemicals

Exposure to hazardous chemicals is the cause of thousands of worker injuries every year in
the power industry. Workers routinely come into contact with chemicals such as corrosives,
oxidizers and solvents. To reduce chemical-related injuries, OSHA has developed and
currently enforces hazardous chemical safety regulations.

Fig 3.5

OSHA’s safety regulations provide the foundation, but they leave it up to the employer to
identify what hazards exist, what type of safety equipment should be used, training on
proper use of the safety equipment, as well as testing and maintenance. A commitment to
reducing injuries due to chemical exposure requires a company to formally analyze its
specific situation and develop a comprehensive safety program that focuses on these core
areas.

3.2.6 Costs and benefits of safety programs

Organizational focus on employee safety can provide for higher morale and productivity in
the workplace. This is due to the perception that the company truly cares about the health
and well-being of its employees, thus creating a sense of pride for the organization. Increased
productivity as it correlates to safety and morale is a difficult metric to measure, but forward-
thinking organizations realize that it does exist and can therefore justify the costs of their
safety programs as compared to the productivity benefits that they provide.

In contrast to measuring productivity as it relates to safety, the indirect costs of employee

injuries are much more measurable. For example, a death or severe injury on the job site can
shut down a project for extended periods of time while it is under investigation, and lost time
equals lost money. Additionally, there is the cost of lost productivity of the affected
employee, increased insurance premiums, cost of replacing the injured worker, cost of
training the new worker and potential fines. These costs can be so severe that they may make
it difficult to run a profitable organization.
3.2.7 Safety assessments

One of the key components to any safety program is the ability to monitor its effectiveness. It
is essential that assessments be conducted as a way of measuring the safety program’s
compliance with both regulatory and company requirements. The purpose of the assessment
is to measure both the performance of the safety program as well as identify opportunities for
improvement.

Before a safety assessment is conducted, the company must first determine what tools should
be used to provide the best overall picture of its performance. Risk management professionals
in the power industry have developed various safety measurement tools. Some of the more
common ones include workplace inspections, work observations, employee safety perception
surveys, regulatory safety compliance audits and safety management audits. Companies with
a clear understanding of the objective of its safety assessment can then determine what tools
will provide the most accurate measurement.

Workplace inspections are visual inspections of facilities, equipment and tools to identify
hazards, physical deterioration and defects

 Work observations are developed as a way to monitor, coach and train workers on safety
while they are actually working on the job.
 Employee safety perception surveys are written evaluations of employees’ opinions
about the safety program and safety culture.
 Regulatory compliance safety audits are methods of assuring compliance with various
safety regulations, standards and codes.
 Safety management audits are a comprehensive method of providing a company with an
overall picture of the quality and effectiveness of its safety activities. Safety
management audits include:
 Review of documented safety policies and programs
 Manager, safety specialist and supervisor interviews
 Workplace inspections
 Workplace observations

Studies have showed that when employees perceive that safety is not a priority of the
company, their behaviors and attitudes are adversely affected. This can be a recipe for
disaster leading to increased workplace injuries, lower morale and decreased profitability. An
investment in a safety program that focuses on hazard identification, training, prevention and
assessment will not only help reduce losses and increase overall safety compliance records,
but it could be the difference between being an industry leader or just another run-of-the-mill
company