UNIT-3

PART-A
1. Write short notes on mixture requirements of SI engines.
ANS:-Air-fuel Requirement in SI Engines

The spark-ignition automobile engines run on a mixture of gasoline and air. The amount of mixture
the engine can take in depends upon following major factors:

(i) Engine displacement.

(ii) Maximum revolution per minute (rpm) of engine. (Hi) Carburettor air flow capacity.

(iu) Volumetric efficiency of engine.

There is a direct relationship between an engine’s air flow and it’s fuel requirement. This relationship
is called the air-fuel ratio.

Air-fuel Ratios

The air-fuel ratio is the proportions by weight of air and gasoline mixed by the carburettor as required
for combustion by the engine. This ratio is extremely important for an engine because there are limits
to how rich (with more fuel) or how lean (with less fuel) it can be, and still remain fully combustible
for efficient firing. The mixtures with which the engine can operate range from 8:1 to 18.5:1 i.e. from
8 kg of air/kg of fuel to 18.5 kg of air/kg of fuel. Richer or leaner air-fuel ratio limit causes the engine
to misfire, or simply refuse to run at all.

Stoichiometric Air-Fuel Ratio

The ideal mixture or ratio at which all the fuels blend with all of the oxygen in the air and be
completely burned is called the stoichiometric ratio, a chemically perfect combination. In theory, an
air fuel ratio of about 14.7:1 i.e. 14.7 kg of air/kg of gasoline produce this ratio, but the exact ratio at
which perfect mixture and complete combustion take place depends on the molecular structure of
gasoline, which can vary somewhat.

Engine Air-fuel Ratios

An automobile SI engine, as indicated above, works with the air-fuel mixture ranging from 8:1 to
18.5:1. But the ideal ratio would be one that provides both the maximum power and the best
economy, while producing the least emissions. But such a ratio does not exist because the fuel
requirements of an engine vary widely depending upon temperature, load, and speed conditions. The
best fuel economy is obtained with a 15:1 to 16:1 ratio, while maximum power output is achieved
with a 12.5:1 to 13.5:1 ratio. A rich mixture in the order of 11:1 is required for idle heavy load, and
high-speed conditions. A lean mixture is required for normal cruising and light load conditions.
Figure 9.36 represents the characteristic curves showing the effect of mixture ratio on efficiency and
fuel consumption.

. Effect of air-fuel ratio on efficiency and fuel consumption.

Practically for complete combustion, through mixing of the fuel in excess air (to a limited extent
above that of the ideal condition) is needed. Lean mixtures are used to obtain best economy through
minimum fuel consumption whereas rich mixtures used to suppress combustion knock and to obtain
maximum power from the engine. However, improper distribution of mixture to each cylinder and
imperfect/incomplete vaporization of fuel in air necessitates the use of rich mixture to obtain
maximum power output. A rich mixture is also required to overcome the effect of dilution of
incoming mixture due to entrapped exhaust gases in the cylinder and of air leakage because of the
high vacuum in the manifold, under idling or no-load condition. Maximum power is desired at full
load while best economy is expected at part throttle conditions. Thus required air fuel ratios result
from maximum economy to maximum power. The carburettor must be able to vary the air-fuel ratio
quickly to provide the best possible mixture for the engine’s requirements at a given moment.

The best air-fuel ratio for one engine may not be the best ratio for another, even when the two engines
are of the same size and design. To accurately determine the best mixture, the engine should be run on
a dynamometer to measure speed, load and power requirements for all types of driving conditions.

With a slightly rich mixture, the combustion flame travels faster and conversely with a slightly weak
mixture, the flame travel becomes slower. If a very rich mixture is used then some “neat” petrol enters
cylinder, washes away lubricant from cylinder walls and gets past piston

to contaminate engine oil. A very sooty deposit occurs in the combustion chamber. On the other hand,
if an engine runs on an excessively weak mixture, then overheating particularly of such parts as
valves, pistons and spark plugs occurs. This causes detonation and pre-ignition together or separately.

The approximate proportions of air to petrol (by weight) suitable for the different operating conditions
are indicated below:

Starting 9 : : 1

Idling 12 : : 1

Acceleration 12 : : 1

Economy 16: : 1

Full power 12 : : 1

It makes no difference if an engine is carburetted or fuel injected, the engine still needs the same air-
fuel mixture ratios.

2. With neat diagram explain the working of carburetor.

ANS:- A carburetor (American English) or carburettor (British English) is a device that mixes air and
fuel for internal combustion engines in the proper air–fuel ratio for combustion. It is sometimes
colloquially shortened to carb in the UK and North America or carby in Australia.[1] To carburate or
carburet (and thus carburation or carburetion, respectively) means to mix the air and fuel or to equip
(an engine) with a carburetor for that purpose.

Carburetors have largely been supplanted in the automotive and, to a lesser extent, aviation industries
by fuel injection. They are still common on small engines for lawn mowers, rototillers and other
equipment.
WORKING:-
Carburetors vary quite a bit in design and complexity. The simplest possible one is essentially a large
vertical air pipe above the engine cylinders with a horizontal fuel pipe joined onto one side. As the air
flows down the pipe, it has to pass through a narrow kink in the middle, which makes it speed up and
causes its pressure to fall. This kinked section is called a venturi. The falling pressure of the air
creates a sucking effect that draws air in through the fuel pipe at the side.
The air flow pulls in fuel to join it, which is just what we need, but how can we adjust the air-fuel
mixture? The carburetor has two swiveling valves above and below the venturi. At the top, there's a
valve called the choke that regulates how much air can flow in. If the choke is closed, less air flows
down through the pipe and the venturi sucks in more fuel, so the engine gets a fuel-rich mixture.
That's handy when the engine is cold, first starting up, and running quite slowly. Beneath the venturi,
there's a second valve called the throttle. The more the throttle is open, the more air flows through the
carburetor and the more fuel it drags in from the pipe to the side. With more fuel and air flowing in,
the engine releases more energy and makes more power and the car goes faster. That's why opening
the throttle makes a car accelerate: it's the equivalent of blowing on a campfire to supply more oxygen
and make it burn more quickly. The throttle is connected to the accelerator pedal in a car or the
throttle on the handlebar of a motorcycle.

The fuel inlet to a carburetor is slightly more complex than we've described it so far. Attached to the
fuel pipe there's a kind of mini fuel tank called a float-feed chamber (a little tank with a float and
valve inside it). As the chamber feeds fuel to the carburetor, the fuel level sinks, and the float falls
with it. When the float drops below a certain level, it opens a valve allowing fuel into the chamber to
refill it from the main gas tank. Once the chamber is full, the float rises, closes the valve, and the fuel
feed switches off again. (The float-feed chamber works a bit like a toilet, with the float effectively
doing the same job as the ballcock—the valve that helps a toilet refill with just the right amount of
water after you flush. What do car engines and toilets have in common? More than you might have
thought!)
In summary, then, here's how it all works:

1.Air flows into the top of the carburetor from the car's air intake, passing through a filter that cleans
it of debris.
2.When the engine is first started, the choke (blue) can be set so it almost blocks the top of the pipe to
reduce the amount of air coming in (increasing the fuel content of the mixture entering the cylinders).
3.In the center of the tube, the air is forced through a narrow kink called a venturi. This makes it speed
up and causes its pressure to drop.
4.The drop in air pressure creates suction on the fuel pipe (right), drawing in fuel (orange).
5.The throttle (green) is a valve that swivels to open or close the pipe. When the throttle is open, more
air and fuel flows to the cylinders so the engine produces more power and the car goes faster.
6.The mixture of air and fuel flows down into the cylinders.
7.Fuel (orange) is supplied from a mini-fuel tank called the float-feed chamber.
8.As the fuel level falls, a float in the chamber falls and opens a valve at the top.
9. IMPORTANT PROPERTIES OF SI ENGINE FUEL
The fuel characteristics that are important for the performances of
Internal combustion engines are
• Volatility of the Fuel
• Detonation Characteristics
• Power and Efficiency of Engines
• Good thermal properties like heat of combustion and heat of evaporation
• Gum Content
• Sulphur Content
• Aromatic Content
• Cleanliness
IMPORTANT CHARACTERISTICS OF SI ENGINE FUELS
Every SI engines are designed for a particular fuel having some desired qualities. For a good
performance of a SI engine the fuel used must have the proper characteristics.
The followings are requirements of a good SI engine fuels or Gasolines.
It should readily mix with air to make a uniform mixture at inlet, ie. it must be volatile
It must be knock resistant
It should not pre-ignite easily
It should not tend to decrease the volumetric efficiency of the engine.
It should not form gum and varnish
Its Sulphur content should be low as it is corrosive
It must have a high calorific value
VOLATILITY OF THE FUEL
It is the most important characteristics of a SI engine fuel. Volatility is a physical concept that loosely
defined as the tendency to evaporate at a temperature lower than their boiling temperature. It is the
most dominant factor that controls the air-fuel ratio inside the combustion chamber.
One of the most important requirements for proper and smooth combustion is the availability of a
highly combustible air-fuel mixture at the moment of the start of the ignition inside the combustion
chamber.
A highly volatile ( of low molecular weight ) fuel generates a rich fuel air ratio at low starting
temperature, to satisfy the criteria at the starting of the ignition. But, it will create another problem
during running operation, it creates vapour bubble which choked the fuel pump delivery system. This
phenomenon is known as vapour lock.

A vapour lock thus created restricts the fuel supply due to excessive rapid formation of vapour in the
fuel supply system of the carburettor.
High volatility of fuel can also result in excessive evaporation during storage in a tank which will also
pose a fire hazards.
Low volatile fuel like kerosene and distillates can be used for SI engines for tractors.
VOLATILITY AND ITS EFFECT ON ENGINE PERFORMANCES
Volatility greatly affects the engine performances and fuel economy characteristics. The most
important of them are
Cold and Hot starting
Vapour Lock in fuel delivery system
Short and Long trip economy
Acceleration and Power
Warm Up
Hot Stalling
Carburettor Icing
Crankcase Dilution
Deposit formation and Spark Plug Fouling
When the percentage evaporation of the fuel is 0% ~ 20%, it is called front end of volatility curves,
and there are 3 major problems that we encounter in this region of volatility curves which is also
known as Distillation curves. They are
• Cold Starting
• Hot Starting
• Vapour Lock
If front end volatility is very low of a SI engine fuel the engine may show the symptoms of " Cold
Starting. "
THE CONCEPT OF COLD STARTING
In order to start an engine a highly combustible mixture rich in fuel is needed at starting temperature
near the spark plug.
As the ambient temperature is low during starting condition, hence the fuel-air mixture must be rich to
ensure the start of combustion as sparking of spark plug is not able to start a chemical reaction of
combustion near the spark plug.
The limit of air-fuel mixture at the start is
• for rich mixture it is 8:1
• for lean mixture it is 20:1
MECHANISMS OF COLD START:
At low ambient temperature, only a small fraction of total fuel fed to the combustion chamber is able
to be effectively evaporated and it creates a insufficiently lean fuel-air mixture that is unable to
combust and sustain the combustion process. As a result, the combustion never be able to provide a
steady rate of heat supply and engine never starts in this condition.
This phenomenon is known as cold starting of an IC engine.
To get rid of this problem, we generally apply Choking Process at the start of an engine at ambient
temperature. When an Engine becomes hot enough to engineered a sufficiently rich fuel air mixture,
the combustion becomes steady and it is known as Warming Up of an IC engine.
Choking is a process generally used to control or regulate air flow into the carburettor where fuel gets
mixed with air homogeneously and been fed into combustion chamber. By decreasing air-flow rate
into the carburettor, a rich mixture of fuel and air is prepared and fed into the cylinder or combustion
chamber, one can increase the vapour content of fuel in the mixture as the reduced air makes the
mixture fuel rich and the mixture becomes a combustible inside the combustion chamber.

3. Explain Knocking (or) Detonation (or) Pinging in SI Engine?

ANS:- Knocking (also knock, detonation, spark knock, pinging or pinking) in spark-ignition internal
combustion engines occurs when combustion of some of the air/fuel mixture in the cylinder does not
result from propagation of the flame front ignited by the spark plug, but one or more pockets of
air/fuel mixture explode outside the envelope of the normal combustion front. The fuel-air charge is
meant to be ignited by the spark plug only, and at a precise point in the piston's stroke. Knock occurs
when the peak of the combustion process no longer occurs at the optimum moment for the four-stroke
cycle. The shock wave creates the characteristic metallic "pinging" sound, and cylinder pressure
increases dramatically. Effects of engine knocking range from inconsequential to completely
destructive.
Knocking should not be confused with pre-ignition—they are two separate events. However, pre-
ignition is usually followed by knocking.
The phenomenon of detonation was first observed and described by Harry Ricardo during
experiments carried out between 1916 and 1919 to discover the reason for failures in aircraft engines
Knock detection -
Due to the large variation in fuel quality, a large number of engines now contain mechanisms to detect
knocking and adjust timing or boost pressure accordingly in order to offer improved performance on
high octane fuels while reducing the risk of engine damage caused by knock while running on low
octane fuels.
An early example of this is in turbo charged Saab H engines, where a system called Automatic
Performance Control was used to reduce boost pressure if it caused the engine to knock.[4]
Various monitoring devices are commonly utilized by tuners as a method of seeing and listening to
the engine in order to ascertain if a tuned vehicle is safe under load or used to re-tune a vehicle safely.
Knock prediction-
Since the avoidance of knocking combustion is so important to development engineers, a variety of
simulation technologies have been developed which can identify engine design or operating
conditions in which knock might be expected to occur. This then enables engineers to design ways to
mitigate knocking combustion whilst maintaining a high thermal efficiency.
Since the onset of knock is sensitive to the in-cylinder pressure, temperature and autoignition
chemistry associated with the local mixture compositions within the combustion chamber, simulations
which account for all of these aspects[5] have thus proven most effective in determining knock
operating limits and enabling engineers to determine the most appropriate operating strategy.
Knock Control-
The objective of knock control strategies is to attempt to optimize the trade-off between protecting the
engine from damaging knock events and maximizing the engine’s output torque. Knock events are an
independent random process.[6] It is impossible to design knock controllers in a deterministic
platform. A single time history simulation or experiment of knock control methods are not able to
provide a repeatable measurement of controller’s performance because of the random nature of
arriving knock events. Therefore, the desired trade-off must be done in a stochastic framework which
could provide a suitable environment for designing and evaluating different knock control strategies
performances with rigorous statistical properties.
4. List the Important Characteristics and explain briefly about SI Engine Fuels.
ANS:- Petrol or gasoline is usually used as fuel for spark ignition (SI) engines. Gasoline is a mixture
of a number of low boiling point paraffins, naphthenes, and aromatics of varying proportions. There
are certain properties that a particular gasoline should have to qualify as SI engine fuel. These
properties have been discussed below:
1) Volatility: The gasoline should be volatile; a certain part of it should vaporize at room temperature
to allow easy starting of the engine. Better vaporization of the fuel facilitates its even distribution
inside the cylinders, which in turn leads to better acceleration of the vehicle.
2) Dilution of the lubricating oil in crankcase: As the fuel is splashed in the cylinder, some lubricating
oil from the crankcase is also washed away with it. This leads to overall decrease in the quantity of
the lubricating oil and poor lubrication of the engine’s moving parts. To prevent such possibilities, it
is important that the type of gasoline used for the engine should vaporize before it gets combusted.
3) Antiknock qualities of the fuel: Abnormal burning or detonation of the fuel inside the engine leads
to the effect known as engine knock. During detonation large amounts of heat is released inside the
engine which excessively increases the temperature and pressure inside the engine, drastically
reducing its thermal efficiency. The fuel should have the tendency to avoid creating the situation of
detonation; this quality of the fuel is the antiknock property of the fuel.

The antiknock property of the fuel depends greatly on the self-ignition properties of the fuel, the fuel’s
chemical composition, and its chemical structure. The fuel most suitable for the SI engines is the one
that has highest antiknock property, enabling the engine to work with high compression ratios of fuel,
which in turn leads to higher fuel efficiency and higher power production.
4) Gum deposits formed from the fuel: When gasoline is stored for longer periods of time, it has the
tendency to oxidize and form gummy, solid substances. When used with an engine, such gasoline will
cause sticky valves and piston rings, carbon deposits in the engine, gum deposits in the manifold,
clogging of carburetor jets, and enlarging of cylinders and pistons. The gasoline used in the engine
should have a tendency to form lower gum content and have a lower tendency to form gum during
storage.
5) Low sulfur content: Hydrocarbon fuels may contain sulfur in various forms like hydrogen sulfide
and other compounds. Sulfur is corrosive in nature and it can cause fuel line corrosion, carburetor
parts, injection pumps, etc. Sulfur also promotes knocking of engine; hence its content in the gasoline
fuel should be kept to a minimum.
5. Write short notes on fuel injection system in CI engine.
ANS:- Fuel supply system is a seperate system used to deliver diesel at correct time in correct
quantity, to a diesel engine (or C.I engine), for smooth and efficient operation.
The operation of a diesel engine is different from that of a petrol engine. In a petrol engine, air-fuel
mixture is supplied by a carburetor to the engine, at the beginning of the suction stroke. But in a diesel
engine, fuel (without air) is supplied at the end of the compression stroke, by means of a fuel supply
system.Fuel supply system is the food pipe of a vehicle.
Diagram of fuel supply system in diesel engine:

Components:
Fuel supply system in diesel engine is made of the following components:
1.Diesel tank or reservoir
2.Low pressure pump
3.Filter
4.Fuel injection pump
5.Fuel injectors
1. Diesel tank or reservoir:
Whenever you supply fuel to a diesel engine vehicle, it is stored in the diesel tank. Diesel tank
temporarily stores diesel that is to be supplied to the engine.
2. Low pressure pump:
It pumps the diesel at a low pressure to the fuel injection pump through a filter.
3. Filter:
Before diesel is supplied to an engine, it must be filtered to remove any unwanted impurities. Filter is
used for this purpose.
4. Fuel injection pump:
This is the most important component of the fuel injection system.
Fuel injection pump pressurizes the fuel to the required level and injects it correctly at the end of the
compression stroke, during each cycle of operation of the engine.
5. Fuel injectors:
Injectors are devices used to inject the fuel to the cylinder. In diesel engine, when fuel is injected, it is
automatically atomized.
Working:
Diesel is pumped from the diesel tank by a low pressure pump. It is passed through a filter. The filter
removes any unwanted impurities in the diesel.
Filtered diesel is supplied to the inlet port of the fuel injection pump. The fuel injection pump
automatically pressurizes the diesel to the required level and supplies it to the fuel injector. The fuel
injector forces the fuel into the cylinder at the end of the compression stroke, during each cycle of
operation of the engine.
Fuel injection pump is operated by means of a cam shaft. CAV fuel injection is the most common fuel
injection pump used in diesel engines.
Any leak-off diesel from the fuel injection pump is supplied back into the filter as shown in the
diagram above.
6. Explain briefly about common rail fuel injection system.
ANS:- Common-rail direct fuel injection is a direct fuel injection system for diesel engines.
On diesel engines, it features a high-pressure (over 100 bar or 10 MPa or 1,500 psi) fuel rail feeding
solenoid valves, as opposed to a low-pressure fuel pump feeding unit injectors (or pump nozzles).
Third-generation common-rail diesels now feature piezoelectric injectors for increased precision, with
fuel pressures up to 2,500 bar (250 MPa; 36,000 psi).[1]
High pressure injection delivers power and fuel consumption benefits over earlier lower pressure fuel
injection, by injecting fuel as a larger number of smaller droplets, giving a much higher ratio of
surface area to volume. This provides improved vaporization from the surface of the fuel droplets, and
so more efficient combining of atmospheric oxygen with vaporized fuel delivering more complete and
cleaner combustion.In petrol engines, it is used in gasoline direct injection engine technology.
Principles:-
Diagram of the common rail system-
Diagram of the common rail system

Solenoid or piezoelectric valves make possible fine electronic control over the fuel-injection time and
quantity, and the higher pressure that the common rail technology makes available provides better fuel
atomisation. To lower engine noise, the engine's electronic control unit can inject a small amount of
diesel just before the main injection event ("pilot" injection), thus reducing its explosiveness and
vibration, as well as optimising injection timing and quantity for variations in fuel quality, cold
starting, and so on. Some advanced common-rail fuel systems perform as many as five injections per
stroke.
Common-rail engines require a very short to no heating-up time, depending on the ambient
temperature, and produce lower engine noise and emissions than older systems.
Diesel engines have historically used various forms of fuel injection. Two common types include the
unit-injection system and the distributor/inline-pump systems. While these older systems provide
accurate fuel quantity and injection timing control, they are limited by several factors:
They are cam driven, and injection pressure is proportional to engine speed. This typically means that
the highest injection pressure can only be achieved at the highest engine speed and the maximum
achievable injection pressure decreases as engine speed decreases. This relationship is true with all
pumps, even those used on common-rail systems. With unit or distributor systems, the injection
pressure is tied to the instantaneous pressure of a single pumping event with no accumulator, thus the
relationship is more prominent and troublesome.
They are limited in the number and timing of injection events that can be commanded during a single
combustion event. While multiple injection events are possible with these older systems, it is much
more difficult and costly to achieve.
For the typical distributor/inline system, the start of injection occurs at a predetermined pressure
(often referred to as pop pressure) and ends at a predetermined pressure. This characteristic results
from "dumb" injectors in the cylinder head which open and close at pressures determined by the
spring preload applied to the plunger in the injector. Once the pressure in the injector reaches a
predetermined level, the plunger lifts and injection starts.
In common-rail systems, a high-pressure pump stores a reservoir of fuel at high pressure — up to and
above 2,000 bars (200 MPa; 29,000 psi). The term "common rail" refers to the fact that all of the fuel
injectors are supplied by a common fuel rail which is nothing more than a pressure accumulator where
the fuel is stored at high pressure. This accumulator supplies multiple fuel injectors with high-
pressure fuel. This simplifies the purpose of the high-pressure pump in that it only needs to maintain a
target pressure (either mechanically or electronically controlled). The fuel injectors are typically
ECU-controlled. When the fuel injectors are electrically activated, a hydraulic valve (consisting of a
nozzle and plunger) is mechanically or hydraulically opened and fuel is sprayed into the cylinders at
the desired pressure. Since the fuel pressure energy is stored remotely and the injectors are electrically
actuated, the injection pressure at the start and end of injection is very near the pressure in the
accumulator (rail), thus producing a square injection rate. If the accumulator, pump, and plumbing are
sized properly, the injection pressure and rate will be the same for each of the multiple injection
events.
7. Explain the phenomenon of knocking in C.I engine.
ANS:- Knocking is the phenomena commonly occurring in a CI engine. You may know that in a CI
engine the combustion occurs due to self ignition of fuel at high temperature generated due to
compression of air. The fuel is injected in the cylinder at the correct timing by a fuel injector nozzle
which sprays the fuel into fine droplets.
Now let us visualise the process going on in the cylinder before, during and after combustion. Firstly,
the air is sucked in the cylinder during the suction stroke of piston. During the compression stroke the
air is compressed which generates high temperatures. But just before the piston reaches the TDC at
the end of compression stroke the fuel injector sprays the fuel.
Here comes the main story behind knocking. When the fuel is sprayed in the cylinder, the very first
few droplets take some time to ignite which is termed as ignition delay. During this delay next few
droplets have also entered the cylinder and the piston has reached the TDC. At this point the pressure
in the cylinder is maximum and thus is the temperature. This ignites the first droplets which further
elevate the temperature. During this period the fuel supply is going on. The droplets which enter
during this period get ignited rapidly due to high temperature generated. This leads to sudden ignition
of a fuel mass which generates a loud sound. This is what we are discussing, a ‘knock’. All this
activity happens in a period of microseconds. But we are playing it in slow motion to have a look at
each frame.
The knocking happens because of long ignition delay period which causes large amount of fuel to
enter the cylinder simultaneously. This fuel when ignites suddenly causes knocking. Thus to prevent
knocking the fuel must be chosen for minimum possible ignition delay as less fuel will accumulate in
the cylinder preventing knock. But certain ignition delay is necessary for homogeneous mixing of fuel
with air for complete combustion.
Thus in a CI engine the phenomenon of ‘knocking’ or abnormal combustion happens in the start of
combustion while in a SI engine this happens at the end of combustion. In the case of SI engine this
abnormal combustion is called ‘detonation’.
Detonation happens generally due to the collision of two flame fronts causing high pressure
generation and a loud sound is produced.
This is the most accepted phenomena behind knocking.
Knocking, in an internal-combustion engine, sharp sounds caused by premature combustion of part of
the compressed air-fuel mixture in the cylinder. In a properly functioning engine, the charge burns
with the flame front progressing smoothly from the point of ignition across the combustion chamber.
However, at high compression ratios, depending on the composition of the fuel, some of the charge
may spontaneously ignite ahead of the flame front and burn in an uncontrolled manner, producing
intense high-frequency pressure waves. These pressure waves force parts of the engine to vibrate,
which produces an audible knock.
Causes of Knocking
1. Low Quality Fuel
2. Carbon Deposits in the Cylinder Wall, and
3. Advanced or Delayed Sparking
4. Improper fuel supply.
8. Explain the important of air motion in diesel engine?
ANS:- The air motion inside the cylinder greatly influences the performance of diesel engines. It is
one of the major factors that controls the fuel-air mixing in diesel engines. ... The air motion inside the
cylinder mainly depends on manifold design, inlet and exhaust valve profile and combustion chamber
configuration
9. List the important characteristics and explain briefly about CI engine fuels.?
ANS:- Fuel for CI engines should have certain qualities to be the ideal fuel for these engines. Diesel is
used as the fuel in CI engines because it possesses the qualities that are desired from the fuel. Some of
the desired characteristics of these fuels are:
1) Knocking characteristics: In case of the CI engine the burning of fuel occurs due to compression of
air. It is desired that as soon as the fuel is injected into the cylinder, it starts burning, but in practical
situations this never happens as there is always a time lag between the injection of the fuel and
burning of the fuel. As the duration of ignition lag increases, more and more amounts of fuel get
accumulated in the cylinder head. When the fuel is finally burnt, excessively large amounts of energy
is released, which produces extremely high pressure inside the engine. This causes the knocking
sound inside the engine, which can be clearly heard. Thus the engines should have a short ignition lag
so that the energy is produced uniformly inside the engine and there is no abnormal sound. The
ignition of the fuel also affects starting, warming, and production of exhaust gases in the engine.
The knocking capacity of the fuel is measured in terms of cetane rating of the fuel. The fuel you are
using for your CI engine should have a cetane number high enough to avoid knocking of engine.
2) Volatility of the fuel: Thorough mixing of the fuel and air when fuel is injected in the cylinder head
ensures uniform burning of the fuel. The fuel should be volatile in nature within the operating
temperature range of the cylinder head so that it gets converted into a gaseous state and mixes
thoroughly with compressed air.
3) Starting characteristics of the fuel: The smooth starting of the vehicle depends greatly on the fuel
used for the vehicle. For easy starting of the vehicle it is important that the fuel has good volatility so
that it mixes with the air uniformly and it readily forms into the combustible mixture. The high cetane
number of the fuel ensures that the ignition of the fuel will be fast, which in turn will lead to faster
starting of the vehicle.
4) Smoke produced by the fuel and its odour: The exhaust gases produced from the fuel should not
have too much smoke and odour.
5) Viscosity of the fuel: The fuel should have a viscosity low enough so that it can easily flow through
the fuel system and the strainer at the lowest working temperatures.
6) Corrosion and wear: The fuel used for the CI engine should not cause corrosion of any components
of the engine before or after combustion.
7) Easy to handle: Large quantities of fuel for a CI engine have to be transported from one place to the
other, hence it should be easy to handle and transport. The fuel should have a high flash point and
high fire point to avoid it catching fire during transport.

PART-B
1. With sketches explain mono point and multi point fuel injection system?
ANS:- Single-Point or Throttle-Body Injection-
The earliest and simplest type of fuel injection, single-point simply replaces the carburetor with
one or two fuel-injector nozzles in the throttle body, which is the throat of the engine’s air intake
manifold. For some automakers, single-point injection was a stepping stone to the more complex
multipoint system. Though not as precise as the systems that have followed, TBI meters fuel with
better control than a carburetor and is less expensive and easier to service.
Port or Multipoint Fuel Injection-
Multipoint fuel injection devotes a separate injector nozzle to each cylinder, right outside its
intake port, which is why the system is sometimes called port injection. Shooting the fuel vapor
this close to the intake port almost ensures that it will be drawn completely into the cylinder. The
main advantage is that MPFI meters fuel more precisely than do TBI designs, better achieving the
desired air-fuel ratio and improving all related aspects. Also, it virtually eliminates the possibility
that fuel will condense or collect in the intake manifold. With TBI and carburetors, the intake
manifold must be designed to conduct the engine’s heat, a measure to vaporize liquid fuel.
This is unnecessary on engines equipped with MPFI, so the intake manifold can be formed from
lighter-weight material, even plastic. Incremental fuel-economy improvements result. Also, where
conventional metal intake manifolds must be located atop the engine to conduct heat, those used
in MPFI can be placed more creatively, granting engineers design flexibility.
Sequential Fuel Injection-
Sequential fuel injection, also called sequential port fuel injection (SPFI) or timed injection, is a
type of multiport injection. Though basic MPFI employs multiple injectors, they all spray their
fuel at the same time or in groups. As a result, the fuel may “hang around” a port for as long as
150 milliseconds when the engine is idling. This may not seem like much, but it’s enough of a
shortcoming that engineers addressed it: Sequential fuel injection triggers each injector nozzle
independently. Timed like spark plugs, they spray the fuel immediately before or as their intake
valve opens. It seems like a minor step, but efficiency and emissions improvements come in very
small doses.
Direct Injection-
Direct injection takes the fuel injection concept about as far as it can go, injecting fuel directly
into the combustion chambers, past the valves. More common in diesel engines, direct injection is
starting to pop up in gasoline engine designs, sometimes called DIG for direct-injection gasoline.
Again, fuel metering is even more precise than in the other injection schemes, and the direct
 injection gives engineers yet another variable to influence precisely how combustion occurs in the
cylinders. The science of engine design scrutinizes how the air-fuel mixture swirls around in the
cylinders and how the explosion travels from the ignition point.
Things such as the shape of cylinders and pistons; port and spark plug locations; timing, duration and
intensity of the spark; and number of spark plugs per cylinder (more than one is possible) all affect
how evenly and completely fuel combusts in a gasoline engine. Direct injection is another tool in that
discipline, one that can be used in low-emissions lean-burn engines.
Multi point fuel injection (MPFI) system-
The MPFI is a system or method of injecting fuel into internal combustion engine through multi ports
situated on intake valve of each cylinder. It delivers an exact quantity of fuel in each cylinder at the
right time. There are three types of MPFI systems – Batched, Simultaneous and Sequential.
In the batched MPFI system fuel is injected to the groups or batches of the cylinders without bringing
their intake stroke together. In the simultaneous system, fuel is inserted to all cylinders at the same
time, while the sequential system injection is timed to overlap with intake stroke of each cylinder.
Multi Point Fuel Injection
Multi Point Fuel Injection
How fuel injection system works?

MPFI includes a fuel pressure regulator, fuel injectors, cylinders, pressure spring and a control
diaphragm. It uses multiple individual injectors to insert fuel in each cylinder through intake port
situated upstream of cylinder’s intake value. The fuel pressure regulator, connected to the fuel rail by
means of an inlet and outlet, directs the flow of the fuel. While the control diaphragm and pressure
spring controls the outlet valve opening and the amount of fuel that can return. The pressure in the
intake manifold significantly changes with the engine speed and load.
Advantages of multi point fuel injection system-
The multi-point fuel injection technology improves fuel efficiency of the vehicles. MPFI uses
individual fuel injector for each cylinder, thus there is no gas wastage over time. It reduces the fuel
consumption and makes the vehicle more efficient and economical.
The vehicles with MPFI automobile technology have lower carbon emissions than a few decades old
vehicles. It reduces the emission of the hazardous chemicals or smoke, released when fuel is burned.
The more precise fuel delivery cleans the exhaust and produces less toxic byproducts. Therefore, the
engine and the air remain cleaner.
MPFI system improves the engine performance. It atomizes the air in small tube instead additional air
intake, and enhances the cylinder-to-cylinder fuel distribution that aid to the engine performance.
It encourages distribution of more uniform air-fuel mixture to each cylinder that reduces the power
difference developed in individual cylinder.
The MPFI automobile technology improves the engine response during sudden acceleration and
deceleration.
The MPFI engines vibrate less and don’t require to be cranked twice or thrice in cold weather.
It improves functionality and durability of the engine components.
The MPFI system encourages effective fuel utilization and distribution. .
Other benefits:-
Smooth operations and drivability
Reliability
Competent to accommodate alternative fuels
Easy engine tuning
Diagnostic capability
Initial and maintenance cost.
Mono point fuel injection system-

The earliest and simplest type of fuel injection, single-point simply replaces the carburetor with one or
two fuel-injector nozzles in the throttle body, which is the throat of the engine’s air intake manifold.
For some automakers, single-point injection was a stepping stone to the more complex multipoint
system. Though not as precise as the systems that have followed, TBI meters fuel with better control
than a carburetor and is less expensive and easier to service.
2. By clearly indicating the salient points in the pθ diagram explain the stages of combustion in
SI engines.
ANS:- 1)Ignition lag or delay period
2)Rapid combustion phase

3)After burning

1. Ignition lag or delay period- This first phase is the duration between the occurrence
of spark at spark plug and the deviation of combustion curve from motor curve (AB in
figure). This period tends to be very nearly constant in time. Factors influencing this phase
are:
i. Fuel- Higher the self-ignition temperature of fuel, longer is the ignition lag.

ii. Mixture ratio- Ignition lag increases as the relative fuel air ratio increases or decreases .

iii. Initial temperature- Ignition lag increases rapidly with increase in temperature of the air-fuel
mixture.

iv. Flame temperature- As the temperature of the flame between the spark plug electrodes increases,
the reaction time decreases and so the ignition lag decreases.

1. Rapid combustion phase- This second phase (BC) starts when combustion curve
deviates from the motor curve and extends till the maximum pressure is reached. In this
phase mean temperature of gases in the engine cylinder continues to increase beyond the
maximum pressure point. The time required mainly depends on the intensity of turbulence
or state of agitation of the air-fuel mixture. The duration of the phase is approximately
constant in terms of the crank-angle movement.
2. After burning- This third and final phase (CD) occurs between points of maximum
pressure and maximum temperature. After the flame front reached the cylinder walls about
25% of the charge is still not completely burnt. But at this stage it is difficult for the
remaining oxygen in the charge to react with the petrol vapours which slows down the rate
of combustion. Simultaneously heat is liberated due to chemical interaction caused by re-
association of the combustion products throughout the expansion stroke.
4. With simple sketches describe about the types of combustion chambers for SI engines
ANS:- Combustion Chamber
Have you ever wondered just how a train is powered? What about your car or the plane you took on
vacation last year? Okay, an engine was probably involved, but how do they work exactly? Well, you
have to burn fuel to create the energy to do work. In order to burn fuel, you need a space to do so.
That's where combustion chambers come in.
A combustion chamber is an enclosed space inside of a combustion engine in which a fuel and air
mixture is burned. Burning fuel releases a gas that increases in temperature and volume. When you
heat a gas, the atoms in the gas start bouncing off each other with more energy and vigor. The hard
bouncing causes them to get thrown out farther and the whole gaseous cloud expands.
Some engines don't allow the gas to expand when heated by confining the gas within a set volume.
Since the gas can't expand, the pressure increases. Other engines are designed to use the increase of
pressure to drive exhaust gases out at high speed. Engines are designed differently to increase either
the volume, pressure, or velocity of the gaseous mixture to generate work.
T HEAD TYPE -

The T-head combustion chambers were used in the early stage of engine development. Since the
distance across the combustion chamber is very long, knocking tendency is high in this type of
engines. This configuration provides two valves on either side of the cylinder, requiring two
camshafts. From the manufacturing point of view, providing two camshafts is disadvantage of T-Head
Type.
L HEAD TYPe-

A modification of the T-head type of combustion chamber is the L-head type which provides the two
valves on the same side of the cylinder and the valves are operated by a single camshaft.
I HEAD TYPE-

ADVANTAGE:-

1.Smooth engine operation-The aim of any engine design is to have a smooth operation and a good
economy.
These can be achieved by the following:
a. Moderate Rate of Pressure Rise-Limiting the rate of pressure rise as well as the position of the
peak pressure with respect to TDC affect smooth engine operation.
b.Reducing the Possibility of Knocking-Reduction in the possibility of knocking in an engine can be
achieved by,
Reducing the distance of the flame travel by centrally locating the spark plug and also by avoiding
pockets of stagnant charge.
Satisfactory cooling of the spark plug and of exhaust valve area which are the source of hot spots in
the majority of the combustion chambers.
Reducing the temperature of the last portion of the charge, through application of a high surface to
volume ratio in that part where the last portion of the charge burns. Combustion Chambers For SI
Engines

II.High Power Output and Thermal Efficiency

This can be achieved by considering the following factors:

a.A high degree of turbulence is needed to achieve a high flame front velocity.
Turbulence is induced by inlet flow configuration or squish

Squish is the rapid radial movement of the gas trapped in between the piston and the cylinder head
into the bowl or the dome.

Squish can be induced in spark-ignition engines by having a bowl in piston or with a dome shaped
cylinder head.
b. High Volumetric Efficiency-More charge during the suction stroke, results in an increased power
output.
This can be achieved by providing ample clearance around the valve heads,
large diameter valves and straight passages with minimum pressure drop.
c.Improved anti-knock characteristics-
Improved anti-knock characteristics permits the use of a higher compression ratio resulting in
increased output and efficiency. Combustion Chambers for SI Engines.
5. By clearly indicating the salient points in the pθ diagram explain the stages of combustion in
CI engines?
ANS:- There are four stages of combustion in CI engine as follows: Ignition delay- During this stage
there is a physical delay period which is the time from beginning of injection to the attainment of
chemical reaction conditions. The fuel is atomized and mixed with air and its temperature is raised.

CI refers to compression ignition engines.

This means that combustion process is ignited due to compression of air, inside the cylinder, rather
than spark ignition of air-fuel mixture in the case of Spark Ignition engines.
So, during the suction stroke, only air is sent inside the cylinder of the engine.
Air is compressed during the compression stroke, while the fuel ( commercially, Diesel is widely
used) enters at the end of the compression stroke.
Since fuels used in CI engines, have a relatively lower self ignition temperature, (SIT) i.e, Diesel,
temperature rise attained during the compression of air alone is sufficient enough for the ignition of
fuel, thereby initiating combustion process.
Also, both the air and the fuel are in different states, thereby forming a heterogeneous mixture of
charge.
Compression ratio is generally higher when compared to their SI engine counterparts.
Spark plugs are replaced by fuel injectors.
In C.I. engines only air is sent into the combustion chamber during induction.The air is compressed
during the compression stroke and towards the end of compression stroke fuel(diesel) is injected with
the help of a injector.Fuel is injected at high velocity through nozzles in the injector tip.The fuel
atomises and penetrates into the combustion chamber.The droplets vaporise and mix with the high
pressure,high temperature cylinder air.
CI engine means compression Ignition engine.Air is sent to the combustion chamber during the
suction(or Induction) stroke.The air is compressed in the compression stroke .As air is compressed,
pressure and temperature of the air is increased. It increases above the self ignition temperature of the
fuel.Now the fuel is sprayed into the combustion chamber with high pressure. Both fuel and air are
mixed and hence combustion takes place.
6. Explain the importance of delay period in CI engine combustion and discuss the effect of
various engine variables on delay period.?
ANS:- The ignition delay in a diesel engine is defined as the time interval between the start of
injection and the start of combustion. This delay period consists of (a) physical delay, wherein
atomisation, vaporization and mixing of air fuel occur and (b) of chemical delay attributed to pre-
combustion reactions. Physical and chemical delays occur simultaneously. To reduce NOx, the
method adapted in modern engines is to reduce the ignition delay. For predicting heat release in
modern engines, therefore, the estimation of ignition delay is no more important. However, the ceiling
on NOx is dipping to such a low level that accurate prediction of ignition delay has become important
even if it is small. Ignition delay of diesel sprays is a strong function of ambient temperature and
pressure. However, the physical delay has not been modelled satisfactorily in the literature. In this
chapter, phenomenological calculations of the cooling of spray surface have shown that the physical
parameters and fuel type influence the temperature of the mixture of air and the vapour produced by
the first parcel of the injected fuel throughout its life up to ignition. A unique thin-ring like zone on
the spray surface is postulated where the preflame reactions have reached a critical level beyond
which uncontrolled reactions take place. The time, at which the spray just touches the ring, the
ignition is predicted. However, due to turbulence, ignition will take place at only a few points in the
neighbourhood of the ring. Detailed consideration of droplet formation, evaporation fuel and preflame
reaction has enabled prediction of delay period and location of the ignition accurately within the
experimental errors and errors in the input to the calculations.
Delay period is basically the time gap between starting of mixing of air and fuel and the start of
ignition.
This time gap is divided into 2 parts:
1.Physical delay
2.Chemical delay
Physical Delay is the time taken for the air and fuel to mix with each other properly.
Chemical delay is the time taken for the chemical reactions to take place till the time of start of
ignition.
The time taken together by both these delays is called as the delay period.

Factors that influence ignition delay in diesel engine (Compression Ignition or ‘CI’ engine) are
1. Compression ratio
2. Inlet air temperature
3. Coolant temperature
4. Jacket water temperature
5. Fuel temperature
6. Intake pressure
7. Air-fuel ratio and
8. Engine size
1. Compression ratio: With the increase in compression ratio reduces ignition lag, a higher pressure
increases density resulting in closer contact of the molecules which reduce the time of action when
fuel is injected.
2. Inlet air temperature: With the increase in inlet temperature increases the air temperature after
compression and hence decreases the ignition delay.
3. Coolant temperature: Increase in engine speed increases cylinder air temperature and thus
reduces ignition lag. The increase in engine speed increases turbulence and this reduces the ignition
lag.
4. Jacket water temperature: With the increase in jacket water temperature also increases
compressed air temperature and hence delay period is reduced.
5. Fuel temperature: Increase in fuel temperature would reduce both physical and chemical delay
period.
6. Intake pressure (supercharging): Increase in intake pressure or supercharging reduces the auto-
ignition temperature and hence reduces delay period. Since the compression pressure will increase
with intake pressure, the peak pressure will be higher. Also, the power output will be more air and
hence more fuel can be injected per stroke.
7. Air-fuel ratio (load): With the increase in air-fuel ratio (leaner mixture) the combustion
temperatures are lowered and cylinder wall temperatures are reduced and hence the delay period
increases, with an increase in load, the air-fuel ratio decreases, operating temperature increases and
hence, delay period decreases.
8. Engine size: The engine size has little effect on the delay period in milliseconds. As large engines
operate at low revolutions per minute (rpm) because of inertia stress limitations, the delay period in
terms of crank angle is smaller and hence less fuel enters the cylinder during the period. Thus
combustion in large slow speed Compression Ignition engines is smooth.

7. With simple sketches describe about the types of combustion chambers for CI engines.

ANS:- Combustion Chamber:-

Have you ever wondered just how a train is powered? What about your car or the plane you took on
vacation last year? Okay, an engine was probably involved, but how do they work exactly? Well, you
have to burn fuel to create the energy to do work. In order to burn fuel, you need a space to do so.
That's where combustion chambers come in.
A combustion chamber is an enclosed space inside of a combustion engine in which a fuel and air
mixture is burned. Burning fuel releases a gas that increases in temperature and volume. When you
heat a gas, the atoms in the gas start bouncing off each other with more energy and vigor. The hard
bouncing causes them to get thrown out farther and the whole gaseous cloud expands.
Some engines don't allow the gas to expand when heated by confining the gas within a set volume.
Since the gas can't expand, the pressure increases. Other engines are designed to use the increase of
pressure to drive exhaust gases out at high speed. Engines are designed differently to increase either
the volume, pressure, or velocity of the gaseous mixture to generate work.
Internal Combustion Engines-
There are different types of combustion chambers for internal combustion engines:Piston engines
drive motorized vehicles such as cars and boats. They typically consist of a cylinder with a piston
inside. The piston slides tightly within the cylinder driven by the force created by exploding
combustion fuel. These engines have two types of combustion chambers. The combustion chamber
may be located in the cylinder head, the cap at the end of the cylinder, or on top of the piston, called a
'heron head' combustion chamber.
Combustion chambers in jet engines and gas turbines are called combustors and are configured
differently than piston engines. In combustors, air is pulled in and compressed through the
compressor. Some of this compressed air is channeled into the combustor to drive the combustion of
fuel.
The combustor then feeds the high-temperature gas back into the engine. This gas is either expelled
out of the exhaust with great speed, producing thrust or is run through a turbine. The primary
components of a combustor are the casing, liner, igniter, fuel injector, and exhaust.
In CI engines combustion chambers are mainly classified into two types:-
1.Direct-ignition chamber (where ignition takes place directly on Pistons head)………In this type
there are again 4 different types of chambers based on there piston head shape.
3. Indirect-ignition chamber(where ignition takes place in an pre-ignition chamber)………..
These are some of the indirect ignition chamber types….

8. Illustrate the fuel spray behaviour in CI engine through fuel injection, spray structure, spray
penetration and droplet size.
ANS:- The first step in the mixture formation process in the conventional, mixing controlled diesel
engine combustion is spray formation. Figure 1 shows a spray formed by injecting fuel from a single
hole in stagnant air [Henein 1972]. Upon leaving the nozzle hole, the jet becomes completely
turbulent a very short distance from the point of discharge and mixes with the surrounding air. This
entrained air is carried away by the jet and increases the mass-flow in the x-direction and causes the
jet to spread out in the y-direction. Two factors lead to a decrease in the jet velocity: the conservation
of momentum when air is entrained into the jet and frictional drag of the liquid droplets. Figure 1
gives the velocity distribution at two cross sections. The fuel velocity is highest at the center line and
decreases to zero at the interface between the zone of disintegration (or the conical envelope of the
spray) and ambient air.
 Figure 1. Schematic of a spray from a single hole nozzle

Primary Atomization. Near the injector nozzle, the continuous liquid jet disintegrates into filaments
and drops through interaction with the gas in the cylinder. This initial break-up of the continuous
liquid jet is referred to as primary atomization.
In general, the atomization of a jet can be divided into different regimes depending on the jet
velocity [Heywood 1988]:

 Rayleigh Regime. In this low jet velocity regime, breakup is due to the unstable growth of
surface waves caused by surface tension and results in drops larger than the jet diameter.
 First Wind Induced Breakup Regime. In this medium jet velocity regime, forces due to the
relative motion of the jet and the surrounding air augment the surface tension force, and lead to drop
sizes of the order of the jet diameter.
 Second Wind-Induced Breakup Regime. In this high jet velocity regime breakup is
characterized by divergence of the jet spray after an intact or undisturbed length downstream of the
nozzle. The unstable growth of short-wavelength waves induced by the relative motion between the
liquid and surrounding air produces droplets whose average size is much less than the jet diameter.
 Atomization Regime. At very high jet velocity, breakup of the outer surface of the jet occurs
at, or before, the nozzle exit plane. The average droplet diameter is much smaller than the nozzle
diameter. Aerodynamic interactions at the liquid/gas interface appear to be one major component of
the atomization mechanism in this regime.
Initial break-up in diesel fuel jets generally occurs in the atomization regime. The dominant
mechanisms driving this process are not entirely clear. Interdependent phenomena such as turbulence
and collapse of cavitating bubbles may initiate velocity fluctuations in the flow within the nozzle of
the injector that destabilize the exiting liquid jet. The unsteadiness of the injection velocity and drop
shedding also play an important role [Gorokhovski 2008].
For most diesel fuel injection systems, jet atomization at the nozzle exit plane occurs when:
√(ρa/ρf) < 18.3/√A (1)
where ρa and ρf are the densities of ambient gas and fuel, respectively, and A is a function of the
length/diameter (Lo/Do) ratio of the nozzle:
A = 3.0 + 0.28 (Lo/Do) (2)
Secondary Break-Up. After the initial disintegration of the liquid jet and the initial formation of
droplets, aerodynamically induced droplet breakup further reduces the size of the droplets as they
penetrate into the surrounding air. This secondary breakup combined with evaporation ensures that
droplets continue to decrease in size as they move along the x-axis (see Figure 1).
Secondary break-up is assumed to be controlled by the droplet Weber Number (We) which is defined
as the ratio of the inertia forces to the surface tension forces:
We = ρa Dd urel2 / σf (3)

where
ρa - ambient density
Dd - droplet diameter
urel - relative velocity between droplet and the ambient gases
σf - surface tension of fuel.

This secondary break-up can be classified into a number of different modes depending on Weber
number, as shown in Table 1 [Tonini 2008][Pilch 1987][Reitz 1987].

Table 1
Secondary droplet break-up classification

We Break-Up Mode

We ≤ 12 vibrational

12 < We ≤ 18 bag

18 < We ≤ 45 bag-and-steamen

45 < We ≤ 100 chaotic

100 < We ≤ 350 sheet stripping

350 < We ≤ 1000 wave crest stripping

1000 < We ≤ 2670 catastrophic

In modern diesel engines, the droplet Weber number are typically in excess of 100 indicating that
stripping and catastrophic regimes are the most important modes of secondary breakup. Secondary
break-up starts at a finite distance from the injector, on the order of several mm, and then stops about
15-20 mm from the injector. Further reductions in droplet size downstream of this distance can be
attributed almost entirely to evaporation.
 Droplets experience considerable deformation during break-up and are not in fact spherical. Droplet
distortion, as measured by the ratio of the long axis diameter of an elongated drop to a spherical drop,
can be about 5 under typical modern diesel injection conditions. This increases the surface area of the
drop by a factor of 7-10 and has a profound effect on fuel vaporization. This deformation ensures that
the fuel vaporization rate equals the injection rate shortly after the start of injection