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Linear Algebra 1 - 40 Merged

(1) The document discusses vector spaces and subspaces. It defines concepts like linear combinations, span, basis, and dimension. (2) Examples are provided to illustrate key ideas such as the definition of a subspace and finding a basis for subspaces. (3) Theorems are stated but not proved, such as every subspace U of V has a basis consisting of vectors in V.

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Kshitiz Sinha
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0% found this document useful (0 votes)
238 views209 pages

Linear Algebra 1 - 40 Merged

(1) The document discusses vector spaces and subspaces. It defines concepts like linear combinations, span, basis, and dimension. (2) Examples are provided to illustrate key ideas such as the definition of a subspace and finding a basis for subspaces. (3) Theorems are stated but not proved, such as every subspace U of V has a basis consisting of vectors in V.

Uploaded by

Kshitiz Sinha
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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Q in _CLiwniwoOMa Veo
b
e V Thum hu
05 V Auwh hat

. u)

Mcle V._

Vecla
CLLaLLd a
aa

ahee Lal
Ld tqalo

-P

Z0
healh w b p a s
Qw
ipuah V. bo
al

Su (1) aLal Jt P h

Ouch
m

+ Pm n
i,
+ pno n

P2n mn
haw aheuw
P

an

2 nn)

t
0. n
LX OLAa- )1 E b

n) be
soamolal
alsud I

En

1
n

(1, o 0) - (o,!, O--), : 'o,0..


h n)
, 0 - 0) ab,,0-0)+. +
nl 0,oL)
n En

Cak (2)
al mww.lh J.t be
ww.hu. malunl

P -Aun
Cos

ll P Coso
- Ane CoAO

aelesLCesao) An ena)
Vecle 472)
Date
Page-
let L1 Cex 9
An
LAu CoO

Cr
Aun
Cea

- 0+ Ce

walu

4 5
2

ww.io

P
Y
Ys

Th I leclau
4, , o)
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eclas

P -21
2
INEARRANISE0RMA

V Laok
DEFINITION wea pasu l
daamsaLsalen
ale Auunh. lhat
TC+A) = c T + T(A)
V all
Asalaa

isaumpl verlatu
Damsauaalen , Ju I
te V. T
Suashauaalan 0. = O a wab
kwndasmalen

V
alysaaal w.lu

,K
)= Co+G +Ca+.

K-1
e 2, + - +k Ck
04)() =

wa aaufasmalan
- loumat ans maL@W

Aba mXm mA L

weLum

T(X) = Ax
Mx
mx)
Janasnalusn
xal 4 H
l l
Amalu
x malu
AL_E

TA) PAQ
aeuen dyuus
Tusm
usonaiaaualuan

5ecauaL

lLeA+ BB) CA+B)


c PaPB) e PA+ Pag
CT(A) + T(s)

Exanpl 5
ummloLH t 1
all_ ale R Ale 1R
T
Conlnusu

TD) dt

L uasnaema uen

nla V. meler
Lanunueus Jul LalLmuus alsials
ual

D
TP 9)
HEOKEM V
L N A L N

E Neale pat
eelsuel Sonu V. beO
veclo
pate
b sad Vecleu hum
Auammsammalien

ti 2

ott LA

AAL
allesa
V t O ww.qu 42... n)
Auch +Rt

T
ace

NAslo V Necls

a
L lmLa

be V uAm dsalae. Naw,-


Cntnt
LA+

_T)+ T(p)=
Td)+ Tp)
Amua wAamoa malatm
n.ta u -
ulh U 2 9 T
a Neclau ham

U
U(o)
-

hat U JA-

T
luanddanauos
m
po

pa aLO.um Jt
Quly

2, m

kat._7 umau ollununus


th staueladl baa Weclsuu dtaiaen

C 2 tm

Td

mx N alu

lecla Aans

T th
, h lm Bp. 8,
T) m
Bn

Obasan en T JA-
0 eakaLmalien

V W. nhAag
u b A p a c u ah l ,

RT aug T a
Nenln Ihal = ld
RT mal
ALONASA_ hw
eeleu el d 9v
L
Lma

Je+da) cT+ T
hah Ahenn ial ep eptBo.
RT
( et ALbopacL otualLal LLMLaL

Ceamounaluen. th t N CoMALAlung

th eeletva Auueh that 4uueh


duueh

T 0ubbpa.eu V beaun
Rat_N .
) Tk) Tt)=0, J

TC da) = T Td C.o+0 0

R Ctdo

DEI TO Weela
w.a
Jeaaater
LLA_ Auush

olLanns0mal
aul a T
A- CLLaLmaLeM

tke
w.L hpatu

HEOREN RANK AlJLITy HEOR.EM

V_Aul u k be etau
lmuax
mle l N
Thun
aak T)+ m (T =_d
Apaa hsu Nesleu
V wh . . d}
We ha TdvA

Td Td cstauny Spau
T
amgu Qunol T
Tdy
ha vealatu malkmda
,

Apa _ ha ARalsa uab Jhat

hat T . AseALalngku

Veslo

wuat_ salasa b ba bRuh dhat

LMLA opuelnt
ww

mun Cn D
b 2 = k=CkT=

HanK Laalhat

that - m-k
dAmLAAL au _oke

Cr (T)

C Ca Th .t (n Tn = O
(Ckee)+ Cdeso) Ten) =6
CCe e4 Cr+ ra 2 + + Cadn)

eMull sp
AA , K a
Acalasa 1 6 . .. b uL L
b
,bt -
- Cn n= 0

, Aba? V

-Ck4 -Ca
b nb b = -Cra1
Cu Cea Ce3 = Cw 0
HEOREN A Qn mxY mOl

fh
Sts ak A)- lamklA

ALGEGRA O LiNEAR IRANISRORHATION

HEOREM V al de veata
t
anaarmaluen
T+U
U)(a) - T
LwaLau dua awma uen
eaaal

leT
V dt
all oia lacusomaliowms
W
Asad
Aunalau mltblicate LLa_C

Verlou

IHEOREN L V J n=_o ueclou pas

owminaina Vcl
LV, D LALnnLtna
wwwoLM mm.

V W = SpaA all a anudLe


wnb W
uosual
ch
Loch
oa luguu . ay h m anol
Lmas
E
. V
E

scceul Thuo gwm

Jeaaswnadsen n V unlo
T lae ramiseemakt
a hasu

-
a oa amsfaunnalen a V tW
A An
U
LO-_Lolmaulu Vele
olsuo saa

T Apf PP .)

Apq, E )

Lwwa anaunaluew w

()
hamal
Ud Ap E la)

Ap
m

P=

2)
Ahenn ha
Rat dekualnt
Bt a hal
uamAmalm

U=
P
Auamaaumalen ha U =0
Y

O
Qwa

ExPLANAT|ON

eluud nu a
o
EP :) Pp . (1

3
=

Vaua usudaly

Fo E ()=u P = Pi
El ) =

2 (0) =
A,(e)

E ) = Su Bi = °. E a ) = daa p
4. Fov 9 - , =

5Fo -2 E (o) =
dia 3 =o

.Fon 2 2, =3 , _ E () =
d2/3 o , E ()
do $3 3

rem Jaum_de bua y


V
..(I)
loahew_EL1tpem, lq, *n bon

oesoaen
T an elunsun LAAL

A Ai Aw

A p+ Aaj * A
12
P-
T A P t Ap $ +Ami3m
T A1e p A22 p t . Am Pm

Tn Amt An p t Amn
Amn 33m
m

T
P E

i,e- (Au E AgE.. + Arn E


( A E +A E . An E")
+
Am E Ama E"

Z Apq,
P
Ul) 2 Apa )
PI
Apq ja PP
Ari Fp T 12.
U nbanheho V
hunu

T pa E P:ay
14pm, 1 m

Next a E
eEm. TEye ndepsdel

A E A1 E'2. E A E +
Aunphe
.2,2 + E
Ap EnE"+
TTy2 mn 7
Am
ZApa P o

Thur 2APE (;)


Lasb n

uan B m
arb

Thu (B) lnel 3E P:V


Ce
n-
HEDREH Qud vaeta
bea unma ua,savummauon
sle wLa an fanamaluon
m A _uALa wwn.uon
UT_dud (UT)A) UIT))
himLau
rai aluen Lsa V umlo Z

UT)lep) -Tc)

c. WT)) t (UT) (B)_

E PINIION .

V anemal

EMMA

Qm elummn
ay Tu -UI U
U(T, +T,)-UT+ T T+T)U - 7U+T
C) UT = l¢U) T Uc T)

Val all alyua


t Du t aakalee
Jt
multLualLn
T()= t)

DT- T0
DTTD
oly

OEFINITIOA L n nto callu ut.bl


wahn U l te
UT
wwelum aual Tu

weluww _
olaslo ulhmw A

T Eat TA Tp p-
A Raale Jhat_ amg alla

-HEOREM Aune he ecla


www.aL an malon
le w. T uwmws unaLen
T usms tamnalum

T
ww.quus ollununal www.s clanT
V_
umeuo n V, mal TT t,
wounllyH-
Je Ahaw thatV
w.iwow
AMIA%
utLL
ahe

Lt pAuelpa l e u W
at

hle b h _ hent lhai


Arala

T(LA p) IA,tIa

E dbe
Lt de =
hat T
LMLO
= T+ Tda

h +da Jh LsAAqUAL verla


wllo
Ba d

ept Ba T t T

uAAacpu Nerlne

T (cpt Ba Cotd
T Tp)+Tp)

NoTE
LmLak
AMA MAmaltn
le asae
CD .
ne Z m UT
Asa (uT)= T
Vies Ral T'y)(UT) = (UT)T) =I
DEEINITIOA1
ALsa mnasenaluen
nl pa

JA
Enialently

a l a

Nul pau Thun T) = 0-Ttb)


Ao, Nul SpauoT>1of.
Ceweauly Jt Nl

TCa) Tp 63 TR- TC«) TCA) =


d-peNulspas o L

HEDREN Que enlu


T en wgu lan
ask ianly nalLkenenlaht
e

V ale mLaul

pla lt
e naepsmen auk e V.
Neulou uw
nauendunt
Werleu TdT d
eT) CTY -

T angula

2 da t . +Ck d =0
C
deh allerua hal tach =
inolpnakal
Decauo
Jhat
The
nolpranaknl
Shas La
nle
siapaudlauba
Ncteu
Neate V Thw
tenalung h erlo arelupuaat.
WsnAAalLng

T 0 beraa
Cenaalhang Neslou alcsa
hen

mon=AngulLas

tFJ
waLau
saleu

Ti ) ( + ,7)
L Amagulas bAsaua

0. hle alae
e J Z, Za)
lo aayNesleu
hathat (Z, Z) U t
ne
Aur hat

oluten a Z -Z:
Comlaen
T'
T (Z1 79)
(7,-Z),
HEORCM wtolnamalwealau pa
Ausb fat_olu d l
uat _ ansdausal.es teW
LAnsaln

Tdi T
Tdn
basu V Aab
Rat To Td .Tán bac W.

Lset
Baak (T+ullit (T)
Nu nqula
nui T = AmAL

T
vnulli

ngulan

T ) = W_a CnalLa

sataL

) liu)
wwasn= wimalan i d . da.. n
Bunppas
b boo V Thn 7d T«- Td
osany w.elupenau t urta.
aual AimaL oluminsan
t LA- ban W.
i) ( ) quunl Cmmnl

(V (i
thwu
V T T Tn
S. T
ang

mul pass L

(C C do - +Cn dn,
T)+ CnT n ) = Ob

T
C = O o=0. hamu
wn T T
wen AGula Gan T akutl
PAGE NO.:
DATE:

JbOMORHIsM A

lsalat hans nnmalem V AA.

ialld le
hu Xuobb

that

NLat V LA.

sale bag

uammepe

wamvnekhuam A

becaaAL
Anuehsam

ilat

HEOREM C n- dumaadBAAal leole pas

h 120aM

_ T
(4 .. dn)
teunalaa
I
= t A2da+- -. + nn
PAGENO.:
DATE

EPRLSEATATIDN Oe leANIA£oRMATLONIS y MATRICES

V b n
e lau

AAL-

gualutual

Lssas

I tsd

ah wnas
n-etas
Cassabhoalun
wsqlyexuas

2A Anb
Balan A

dcnling ekmaks (1)

mm- Asalau A
malua A_dLa Ar
lals
Lallus

laaal

al nabu
tL t
AX .

haad
saaalta

dcala- A
cluM aluat AX
ala Aalsat A
ML mx m maluio P

Jwial

HEOREN Lt a
Nle pot

ALM b W
waLau_
Jeanewaln V
A.
A_
nlu AuAdw. LatL

V.
TA

Cwo
VwdeNLv. w))
al
EEOREM
V be m dammaana acls pa
tt a t m=_cliswnnaikaa

Necke pas -Asa pa


solal

t
t
amoaaphua LL
L v lal)
f hth p.os mx L_ luam n
ma l t
M_ malusu eusIE aiaaLL
LAba a
d mx n ma lua IE

uam malssm VLnle hl d


TCX) AX t a
aaalegauala Alanolauaban
Jk Nenls J enx 1-
X all
eanlusA
t
ba, Vecla
umx JL eih
Laalu tt
malua la
MnaHua A Te
ma luuAL AX cumM A
=

LOJnx

Jm* Jmx

Y
1 A lAar be
- a l u

T V
1X) =_AX N
T ula

Tx) = Ax
T») [Au
=A Ao A
Aa Ano Aan

LAm An . Ano

A
A

Am mx
An
.+

6 mx
mx

Aaa Tx2) AXq A


nx
Ae . Aa
mx
Avn
T(xn)

TAm
Agm Ar Av

Amm m

AmalaL ulalw l aud AA

Au A A
Toe As Ap An

Am
Am Am

CAaap 2 I b.e
I u.al T( ) -(%1,0
alanalau ad2
Aualuud haa
o ) auol (o,)
TU,o) (o) .
N Di- Te (,o)
TCe) T(o.,1) O. E O .
T olual

2X
L Vht Spa L
haapuaamaak wcuass R R
(n)=

wwelaAM_
aluq Ihiu T dluuhaLa
ala D naa wnle L _
alugu csLaa
V_eua
we.luan
4
J-

D)) = O -+O+0

D ) = . + O. + 6. + o.

= 0- + 2. +O. +.

3n . + 0. + 3. 2 +.

t malu D

0 O
O o 2
O
3
O O O
o 4x 4
HEO REi V
adosal

km V_ W
d n l e

aualue

A
ulaia a
lalu L I

n a l
UT lal
C=A

l emisaltama Vecla
HEOREM

pas
heauelud

P .. P
P-.

CTl P
2 - .m hw

LTTe'

iA_aud
DEFINTiON that_
Auma Las_

_Ld IF._le
A fALLh lat
ma lu P A P _

equssaraluAAL La hon
an
Amalari
t i
mx
mab
LNEAR fUNCTIONA

DEFINI TmoN a Weels poto


Lam V la
lLatau ddnaetmaluam
tala atd IF aloe Call.d lena uneenal
n V

LxANPLE 1 L F a aund G0
U
Atalasa

(4 , an) =

hn a
esal
elalus
klamelaud ol _asme h

C.

( u y mma w. Pna oLLn


t Lmmmidiale

h d en Aimua wnsma becauas


t

EvANCE_2: Hou
unuguu md
A emleuw
ucc A J &cala
A = A 4 A9
A22 + A nn.

Jhu
Auacn mnlen a ma naenal hna
bpace
caua CA+ b)_= cAcA:: * Bi)
A

(A)+ (e)

EANLE 3 t V t Spac

Jum L V. . wsaLea..

Lal _Lash
wsaLa one lmal
molse

XANPLE 4 a b c l o o d wleaal
aanl [e fa. b1) J
damumued a b
lhin Llg)=

L a elTa b])
Werlou po
DuAL SeacE: meLLAMA.

th csllclen al m a

Malau LvJE).hleduali t s
H eual p a
acall Ih
pa
N
Lv.f)

OunsmLBMal_ m
V d
alus doepes
KaassRat

pace aan
da V _d V

- n h a o V.

Acesolung

Vm

Jmua- welgnos

V
2
alen

Taula atemal
hw t declaa C
lONa
nanlyd
y dde
T b eall dual

HEOREN V be oot-dawr vela pon


Dn _ = ,da dn
bas Tn dual

tors ash eonl

aww

ww.qL
dudusd_
Ama
lesal_enen V Ihur
he beumual

sco lasa-

elen V
o. na
DUAL OPACE Ja
Verlon po
calcluen n a l u onN
Maleal
pat
J Spass (V, IF) hle duet Utt
asmal tall ual spau

= Lv. f)

V dumGLamal tasalelan

VT e n
d v= d \

oa V
hu sash i)
mqu wueuwal

tha

4
Vm
a a
Vwmuan eluenoy

2 weiuonak
alon dlupmaal.

patda enal
hwi
Lal 0._Ne Ummasly u n d o n n
J
hu Kana hal dommaue
mul

basu V ealld_dual bas

HEOREN Vbe vec lo opas


L amal t dny
baau hu dunl

tos each aLas


V

honim ae
dual
uemal n V n
nbwnauen
calas wen
SwLa

ALalan J
AxpuooLm
Umia
Lonnbuolluom K d

Cx PLAAIATON

, ,

2.n

S, ( ) = dm: 0

Ahe Ci ( *Cnn
Thn,

2 n

1 +0

2 n

C C
n O, {f LI.
olu V _d V
ANe

We ha wu
NAeh (
V V on

Two

= t2.. M
T

Ca)

Veclou spa all


ANPLE
nle IR huh

han 2 t ttaaud t 3
MmbL42
dolnwl

Litp)
Tn L La, Ls_
Thue neenal malypedim

Se Tun
L()= Li)

L( L ) =t s ( ) = t

Nen, CL+CaLa +
s =D
hen
Thum e,L Ca La sy)a) =o

(C, L CaLa t Ls) a) =O


c LCn)+ Ca La(a) +e (r) = o

C Ct èt tt o .. (2)

C L+ la + G l3) («) =
C, L, ( ) + Lla") + Ls ( ) = o
2
8)

L
t

No
t t o wwwe
4 t
Aumn bans , da V- das V.
wn
baa V
Nt,
N t uL_th hbaad
n 4 L La, _L V,_

nhnch
LL olual
Lp =

t ) du- ) o, t ) - o
)
2
-o t)- (a)-o
aue t ) =o H.) = 0 )=o

t a ) (-ta)
t-t)Ct, -t)
-t,) (a-t)
tta-t)(t -ts)
( - t ) (ox- ta)
(t-ta (t-t)

IUoSERVATION 2
ank Scaua
nAn=_2eD uhspe Lcalar 2Ls
b I Aralan ale J L wweun 2pa V_
al th ank l l

N dhal ll apa N aa
olN de V-

m werle pac LmasmALM

bpo wmmmALSMO_ m L aalld a hySpo

ANNIHILA ToA Op A SaseT aVelo

pa aMd
auka V,
AnhalnL lmmanu
Jentuna uch hal z O
URAERVATIDN 0 hspas V I
ubspas

-8
OAubspass a 1 /

HEOAEM I V_ba a dunae»a Wee


Wbe aubipae
hn
oV

We eheve Melatu dvn, dkra.,


V e halfn{4. abas

y7
dual b.au
Cla KA9 a bai.
asadulale

zht1
brcaaL

anal d=0 ke
em ul llersa hal ex z = 0
Lembuwoluom
,
enelpalr
w

No

Rat

e ham kawsaa Ral d hl K ER aun


eIl=m-ls,

COAOLLAR wbspa
m CumuwmLemM Vela apac .
n-L)
n-k) by spac
AL_ Oopas
aw.waienal Veclas pa V eiawen

bpas
Neslee w he

Apin W W
La Auseh

LXPLANATIO
. , b
basd
be

) = d k . O,
A

all

5 V k

S A t
k
han

KA

A 9
O
Cxawe COwoislua
weeamalh

(1,22, s , 4)= +2Mo + 2M + 4


o4 M2, 3 4) = 2dn + 4
4, , g ) =
- 2 A 34
Jb aubapaa IR amallata

4) e N, haL

( tI2 4 , X4) 2 + 4 =

I 2 3 , 4) O
4)= 2 - 42 + 3 14 = O

2 O

2 o -+3

R Ro+2R R3 Rs -Ra
2

12 5 4

(, a , , 4) =_ 2 g
Jnn lasak
( n , 4) =

Aam wubapaez a da
an lau Aam Auwbapas
lhaaubaspnes amolaluelL

2a

Spam H

oJ

9 2
IRSpam d (Q2,-2, 3, 4. 4)
d 1 1, 2 S, 2)_
(0, (0, 0 1, 9, 3
-23,
TRun he huah
4xS walleu A auth
n 4 Ou

la uduue_een Malu R
uu quanl J A

A 5 2
2 S2 -234 -1
- I -2 O O -3

2 3 |L -1. 2 3o

2 5 2 2

0
2 -3 2 -3

O4 s 2 Lo 2 4
2
O 5
O

2 4

-1 L O
o o
2

a iAMLa L JAasse luenal R t


. s) Csss
( a . zs) = O
Aunphesa

, o, . o)
Nae pamnuo
O, 0, o, 0, 1
, 0, 0 2, 0)

o ) = 0, , 0 , 0, 1, 2, o)=o
,
Lo, o, 0,0 ) E

4 = C C4 =0
C- -
2C
0

e allah a eena
ame
CA
bans
( 2, 74 s ) =
2 3 + M4
DoueLE DuAL

Vele 2pas
Callu

dauble dlual Quol da

Vleu
wcuen mau L

Lf) =) V
Ihn L a
L cf+
l)la)+gta)

L 4y
esER VÄTIDN - Amll LuwnAkmal

esh tu luenal
weh 1 a

Aes V ) d

baau V

tach
tach
Vecles d V _ l -dsnk
tk
+F + n n
V (p)
d=Jd O. t
+0.n
Hex

JhAA2_a
L

tEREN
V naua Vela pac

vecle V_d

L = ft) V
L Om
ownakan

als)ILt saah d
a l e Jale ho
mia
Alet aha tRal
L
L L

Lcanp 4) - (c-)
ett (8)_
=lel + Lp) G),e vV
e L f)+ Lelf
0 Lear p
Th hesu
V V
wen= ngulase, duacwmLd
drams sumaluen

mgular Lisod
a
Noue, l o y**

sama Len.
dumV demV*
Aumas- L
tcunle
,**

e V 8lo V
CoRoLLAR be a
Veclou Bpate L
Lumuao
enal dual
Spor
Necle wn V Auek. at
P
L
w N".

be w. ClimaLwmLma
Nerlou pas
baa dual 4
Saa .

uoe
boa V
baai
Ausb
L:4) = d
derellas ab ack
Neelg V
L f) = f )
i, L=La
P
V
EOREN
nae V () t
Abona

Aubac
hat W nWd.
Ruplnsiy
di+ d = V o(2)

uem

Rub 2p oc +R

J1la Aubspat pamud

a l lE
all
ww
hue
awwy
al
al .2.
e S Jhn )= O

C (e)
(a)
Ao

INEAR RANSoRMA TION


RANSPoSE

t N ud hl be veelet pa.cu
JHEOREMM
wa bams saumalkem
eash t
deuoomkaumal.en
w.cpaAL

Tg l(e)= (T)
uh Lal
A

t ha a
a h a l l a la
l ll T
* Qnd

J
Asala
(TA)
ColTIA) T) T T
2

t
all d V_

Rhat

NEOREM

V_wleW. L null pa.ae


aabala J Ha T d

0 a k (T) =Muk (T)


T
Spoa

mm
= (T))

lhin (T)L)= Tt)


0 T)
0 T))

L4aLALL

annibila e Ama ww
mual_how (T))=0 o n V
0 IT)=o lanu _ V
ku (r)
8hww ull
Spaa
aneblal
lage
Vam
dLwnnm
wmwesma amd tht

ank o T i, dwwmesm
Thn don
RT pac em
(RT) t d (RT) =
ol R = m-

ALLL T da (RT)°_ m-
aaallet UL, (T)+_Rank (Tt)
lN*

m- t Ramk (Tt) Raat (Tt)=


=Rank (T

e I muull p
J T t
lal
T
NT
TA))

T N
-
d N=_du
o
dem V-dm RT) dR)
k T

t Umun Xacly be Np
werlau
EOREM be O l u m i n o e m a l

Spacs t
V wlh dual
a
eu baau
La
olual bae
V o Lt A bu
hamemalen
maleua
aulal . t
t waus sulatan
amd Lt B b
te hun A
GHARACIE RIBTIG VALUES

EAINII1ON t b a Veslsu pa

chasasluala Aaluu
Btalau 1 duuc +Rat
wt T =CA
o. basasusuaLe Alaus
T
Calls
haosuu Vcle 0scallol
LOnAscLAlla.
uth J hnunnlsuake valuu C
Lalllasew all
Ta Quchthat
Calle ChauasluMale
seLals lh

06sERVATON T w.as
ual awe
Veel ALuch
Ihat
bapanu V
olS\u V J
T,=c
T, o T A T
haaalsube e s
eheralu Veslot Onescuo

ehanasuuac asCLaled sth C


EDooala T-I
ma

LO 3 Cu ALubopauin , -C
h cunedscu pac VCIE) 2
lneLenal - T-eI
henb
dlumunaml
AumMAALge loRLalLen

EOREM
L T pales Lmsnalmal

calas Th l n4
2pat

oudvalsml

chanaalahe Aalu e
rale -eT las mslnuLL).
T-L)

ON A al
a

ohauaelual A_ IE ALa lau

uek thal mauUL A-TL) o alas o e l


tl .

DEINITION shannaule aualu a


Spheas A-

.
mAlAAl A
ckt (A-eI) ane e MAoe

ANMAAL dt (aI-A) )
hanaslouahe nauua A

Acalaa OLAb that


call.a
h hm dgsuxaell

LEMNA wmalua ham Aaum LALAloula


alymcanal

A
um cmalsun
P_kuew Rat B= PAP h
diI -B)- d t - Far)
-di PP PAP)
dt e (a-IA) P)
dtP)dt e-TA). dttP)
ddeZd P) dt (z-1A)
_dt (a-IA)

ErANPLE mLaH eala


el I
slaelane bons wmlu

A 0-
Lkanarlual
T (faA
A(T-A) 2

Laus
U
a l u t
Poge
slandeud
Düsa dupauainluab A. th
chwwneduruakc ul a

seriPLE 2 A Jual 3x3 CUwlsus


-
2

m- hauaclunt
(I - A)
dt
-3
2

2
-2

(- r-1) e (-2 + 4 (42(a-a)=o

o -) (-3) + 2(-3) -

2n+2 2 =

o (-1) (z-3)+ 2-6 -2h + 2 +2a =o


-e(a-3)
(a-3)+ (2-4)
o 2 ) (a -3) 2 (x -2)

-2) a-s) + 2) = o
Sot+ 2)
Yx-9) =6
-9) ( -1)( - 2) = o

nLalu
epaler en R
A dh alasalasd
supaaunk
LAAd_ t ia chasuaclunle vcles
Chaanaine skalu wel 2

Nau A-I

Kak (A-I) -2 hw AL.t, A-I)=3-2


charaalaualie pau aonteual
S
chaaaeaLualu

, 7s)
A
-17
- I
2 2

|2

O o

|2 O -

2 0 2 =D
2 73
hauacktuel p

( 1) e 1R 2 , o

spa po -27
A 2T) =O
- 1
2
2 2 Lo
L
2

2 73= O

2
212
nasuusue
2
3
22 RR
Spom
2
DEFINITIDN
t T be L
dumsena pa hat I
dngenala

Vesle haaalLuale Neeler T

Juu dudL baa


eash chaaaeluale
Nesle Jlh J wmalu
T& C
end baa dagmal
C 0
T
C2

Cn

Ceulol oln
dingnalaa.bl chaaeloule
Ve pan
olagualahl

ehasnsliahe

T T Jhn
usua by a
dageinalau h hoo
t calao C ask uual
numk mu
ol malun han Jh

blesk

IT1
O

dheo xd a (tt)
(@) JsemJ Rat hanaelaute
o

dod
-)x-ca).-On)

(b)Alao, mal
t

supuenaluen B, Mumku_
C

ouLal
Öpatu hasacluake
kosaelesuhe Lalun
ample

2 shanosuu
lynimal
-)?(n -2) C -) .
Thun boa
eu Couushendn
A O
(

MAmMA.

A
( 1 ) (x -2)r-3)

A Jat n R be sb
wels Lasenals
Thn

(A-I )

ahu L
bpoc
vectu
( . 7 , 0, 0) c I
pom , o , 0, ), Co,1, 0. o)
pam
tugm 6p e e 2
u
LEMMA Ouere hal T
smwal J T)a
O+.
+Qno
uwe Aubhea T +anT
a o 0T + an
hen d (T) a T) (
(a+0T + T+
INouD (T)() ()+.. +anT (
OoI )
+
a, Tt) +O

2
+ ancd
E
Ao +a C 4

+ C +On t . Onc)

T C hn T )
T (e
2
T) C(u) =c*
3
T(T)) Tc T)= ((Cc

amo

LEMMA h
ot dana p
skanasloalue waluin T
d h 2pa shasactesua
ealus h Jke chanasuuae a
C W-k+Wa t t klk,
dum h .

. + dm kle

t
= ( ..
OLLohrud kl
ASSMAt
Date
Page
bpae =
chasalul VveaaL
pavnun

aA
Juppuae

e shnla

thal

TO = T T) +

Jt hum Spams
Jh ubpacu
unnanly-ehndenl Vecles

JMLaL lal belu


Neclaus haa

CAmbMaLM_
Vedes Lw
A AAmIAA

www lash
hau n l y
pnalunlL.

lauen
PLANA TION
On

7) fa ) )o =
O

Cheeasel
0,

Hw,
G-a) (cG -,).. ( - Ce )

(-) - (g41))-. (a-Ca)


-c) (G -(,)Ca -Ca)

Ihm T)(Bt pat. * ) =9(T)0 o

1.2.. K

O lud ha
B ,63, m
Aubspoc
. Ahos

w Bx -. k.. kpj
m O , O, On ., m.
b, ba. b,
+Jm+ (osb, +Sby nm
,
Date

Page

p P'eW

d , -dz -.dn
heM ( dp 0
A E O R E M
a ac a e a saena
Neclou LaL
h a s a e u a i

alus ase tW
T-cIT lssg
C)I alAagemaluaa

hasaeeuale dpmama
d
(o-)
C2) da - CE)
2- . k

t dum s2 t t dlun bNs = d V


u aln

k(u)
ee Je ha aluay esasud hat (
haaeuaL al

t dk_ daa V
d tdt aual
ehasaclisa
(
olm
lesmua AL mua ha
Skea4 ( ) holdh hosaleuele
i
Vaclas T 2pan
lugtmntaluu aus LgLmielsick

3
pales n IR
alerua baau
ALawelauel
uanlL
A 5 -
-1 4
6 1
3
T dLagnaueal
h mabun D ulal
oliagbna.
malwo P R
PAP D

A
NNTHILATN G loLynOMIALS.

UpbERVATnoN
OuumaAcmal_ Öpas Cemocl Jh

I T T. T
2
cOLguuMAL alen
LIv,v). J
( V_TR Lvy)_ hoa LumisQLit
2
Thouee hal mt
be hamiany dupumnu ie,

AcaLaua vne al 3e

DEEiNTiDA -uala
MAMAAsmal verla
mnamal
a T 2

olug a l _Qhalalu T
f0
mwwmal
onsal__a aA pnalau
wgw

nnmal
O (3) Al
mAma
T
anhdalu
ogpuAmnalln

mabun umwwna
A al AL UM

LmLa opmalax T _A oal

LaLsd has UA A_Jn Iamd AP


hcan
Lpnanlhal h baa day
A) T) =0 ma 0nly (n) =O

P
malnusu
al
T
HËOREM T
Necle epac V_Ln, A ba am nxn naalud
ma plne I
huaslualu
utle
LAlhar
oimaL pelensraal L_LI
anL
btam
behe Acalan ha-
_ chasacloua Akalu

aa c)=0 lhu P
AA.
lqaaaaaal

Menal algnaooa
vales V_Aus
4,T) O hesas a

0 P (T)s
T-e)a/T)A.
T-eT)
a chaaaaluuals al o
Na, Auphes Jal

pT) _blo

NOTE Lt T a oliagenalal_l
a_
CR
Chanaelale unlun s T hun a

ihal mimLomal elgmcmal

-C -tp)... -C)

ahasaelouau vuler hun


- CII, T- I . T-GL
aeualeu .

Amdla 0.
T-4I) T-CI c = O
a thapaataua alask
J T-C
sualou
pT)= (T-gI)(T- Ca I)... T-CI)= 0

mumAma al kene
oaleu X apl

3
n R

daheh ia unlual A
t laelasal
A
2

2 2 O

Aharaeeunhe mawMAl

mMAmaL A Can
a-1)(o -2) 1 )-q)

(A-T)A -21) 2

2 L 2 O -L J
- 1

2
MAMAMmaN haa auguallaal
e-1) (-2 hanaeluae
2
hau (A-I)A-2I)=O. S
Leneuechaadushavaede
lidaaqLL Comel
o
A sanm vmAnimoa lpmana A
EOREM lAyLEy= HAtILTGN ht L a Qs as bunales
umimdJnas
Nerleuapor V -
en o J n

eAanaclauel lynans )=0


hauoh Jh muwmal dil

es
unnn n olumunoienal veala

V dJaia A =LaIn th wulm


apa
1 uamluol
s eitua baa
o
Thun, kwon ekanaclsuahe
y t uAALMA

t T

I-A) =O
2
= O
Po
Aralaa
aua4eabes I++A 2

A=
Aaa A-adpA =Al. T
A Ror -A,

1- A)aal T-A) « I -A I, e -t1)

Agaana_Gol o-A = S+B* 6, t.- + B-1


-

(1
oT A) (6+ B Bt.+Bm ) =pot ba+ b

- A b + ( 0 -A B ) « + 8 , - A b )2.

B- ABn-" mH

Abo = _o L
B = AB,.
-Abn= (2)

n-AB L
in
(n)

MLL, () A (2) A 2 ) b H
A
o

l l ti abm qualen
A ADo-A+ AB- A . . +Bn- - AB

A borA hoT++ Po At. t


2

I+A+ A t . + A- A - 0
Im-1
t C a l )
mA ()
dl thasaalusaue d
eyuseal 0 mabuoy A uam

a t h CA () analal A
mNmal
aMe

mAC) _ dumq
olugeueAad Omabalallu A
0
Ck)
ma ) 9 , ( ) + R )
CaC)
han R))< d a C)
CA CA.) =maCA)9,(A) + R(A)
m
0+RCA) O
N 0 Da RA) =

smal a Ampihelat A
anal
olugeu
ho
hihalenleuade lLen
lymual mA( ) C a l x ) .

0_ a a) = ma (o)9{a)
Rla)=

4x1 (saLnal)mal
xapl

mnAMAL

LNVARIANT ÖUBsPAcE
ba
DEPINIION -
DEFNITION V mel paeaud a
a obbpac
pualo n .
ala wmedu
AAAL_Aay
Wth Necle la
TN) Camlamd_ J

o ol T J
Ausbapo.ck h mg Dusl null
Opac aloe uan salse T.

Cn) 1 T da
ww.ad V
tethul th T TU -UT
a t N
nul Spae
uwalaunn T

Up -d Thn
Pat
Ta

Lke RasgU)
Ramy (U) wn Anl wnaon T
O

U =0
N UCT)- U TU) =Tto)
ww N _Gun humeL N
muauml wwelv T.

( 2
AL
aau_ R h
hatauelasuelBleud ac
A
2
Thun h ny LDALb p o IR h umiauaml
Thuo IR ne o.
aae Aubopas un OHLAn

hin hoo
A u e A O e W._ thu Ta = _ Cd
e IR i,e
Cauabasadluna- Lugnalue IR
4
Bul
o mLaluus.
hch muauanl.
LRLLh ap ate
IRL o.
Lwelks
DUM
ubapas eh
N
IN mmALoaAuuy Olumumeu

T
L m e l u u

Jh
ie L.

e R
sem Lugnnkalua IR Bu
Casub0Aaalina_

mLalus_

Oune

w n n a U a n

IK

h T a kU = T-
2T JJun TU =UT
pacL aesralal

t luGimaalu
xamplI)
apac ahasael Necleu
Gsualo h u t h ehanael a l ua

bubpa
ale apacs

hu www.aA a T ) = Ta)
T alama

ael baa w la- diw)_1 A LTIo,


m

2, A d
sud T t Neclo
T miouMA

TRat T
IL
hTwe Aha blek

A
D

x(n-)
webue D ( n - x (m-)mal

lh waluuM puay aluu

meuend exal

EMNA l sbapak T
he chanaslu emerual
uakuslusn tt
Charaaualt alymanmmal iMmal

mnMal
mamal

EFINTIoN ubqpasL I
Neclan T
1Senduelas o la W
all
Page

Eri Abapac s L. J
T
TR ne dd se.)
ll pmlalgshaoFEI

mllua

o
A alsurana ealsu
LEMNA
aales
hpa
dha l maeler T
V_Laech

xusha eele V
Seek Thu
wmaiAAL.

l W ( -cI)
aueha
ehasalosta valu e shnala

La

b ny Nsles
ba T-Lesadual AleW. The-
T
amo

L a lo

5;)slun Ltn duelex


Mwwwa) u T
alasaana -

wewa

Llnl
e
(o-C) -Ca) -C)
huau
athal
chos
hun

Coaans(
Nou
W t T-Cp L) T-eT) T)S
gT)

denala

(T)

kp-
k
LaaL
T T- Cael le
lyncmial uon eligtu Auch tR
IRAANGULABLE UPERKTORh osaln T Callnd
Asuangurlab
Loluud
aua
uanulas wmolu
lasSMate.
Dota

kEOREMdt V_k
Oumunaukna Nis
n V. lhm be La

eaeaona ugulas O

(o-e ( - ) . (-C mimal

LTle O4 - in

O22

b Onn

Puern
haL ouubpa 2pauaia
alant
wma

Nicl Th hlmmo

paanud ad h
d Nxt hnma e
paApannue auddme tonlme a

i a mamni.

argulaaa t
lekasatL T
Kaum
Date
Page

abac falau -0
mimanal
ecas

amalla e. Om- algsbraeally closial


muwmb LLIL.
mX wmalua &Lmalase

de bunngulas mauu

alqahaaueallycled
Qo+Qy(|t ag t - . amn

faala

HEORE .
Omenomal
o
Necleu

Tun
slogomal0.

Coc-e) ( - ) C)
uminb

Ko nlL al hl 1
wmimemal_alyomua
mLaM

bpaaanu all
t skarasue
VM
oiapwa P.hLemy
O
veela
hanasluake ual
Auh Rt AL l
T-Ia) _ N. ww

W
+ Bo t +
K Vela
T) hCc) po
euy

Alaa
(-
Alat
2(T) -9)- ACT)- I)
hCT)

am A n
LT) T-T) (T)&
Vecla 9T)_
kou )= ww
aobuaouel fhal

9 (-(x-)... c) (-C)..(x-c)
(x -

x-G)-
-9) e (-)(-C).. ( - -1)/n -Cu)..

t G C« ) ( - -
-(G4 G

Agom
)-qIz (TI) k(T) -AIT) (T-G1)
ACT)
KT) T
Ao T) 9pl)*
) 9 )*- T)
T)s

0 E_ T) T(T-) a,T)
T T-J ) ()
9T)9T), T Ahnn

T 9T) A)
t ame
(2)

N 9(T) -9 ) = hT)p
T) -hT)p = 4) WW
m (1) 2 ( 9 ) nNLee luel 9 G) o
E6,umrlws ) le c )
e
L

alat
bare
A, T)-9tI)« _ AT) (T-T)

qCT) 9D 1T)

LT)d (T ) (T)
7 ))
9T)
T (t0

(2)

9T)
T) Tp=4)
tm (1) 2(9

W L

on
LabaoeLn.

DiRECT- SUM 1DecoNPo51T1ONS

DefINMTo
pa V_hle by h l
olnolunl
aJat .

Laeauelen. i,e, aelpund


laaonb boy

R 1 tk)n

J2

AubtapanSspunaud
a Neele I Ca

LaaLal
W

uolen habeu LApuonLA

qLULG

-P) + + (% -BK)

We wwaupunalal

We Aam aa MAL

k
IR a k- Jupla

LENNA t Vb XmumAAAMa pas

Auubhpa.cun
Jt
paaknl

(a) nalpundenT.(
wm
()
_n_ nWa.
-N )= o
C) M
aoluol baa or i k,

dequumt (, . (bR) d
Auum (a). t be le um.wunuauon

veslam
o

JUmu )+ 0 t- t0 =0

dangan shat

KI= O

(a) (C
A . i :
sulaliam mm
m

Cembmaken
VerYpiu m

elpuneleni iach pe u 0 .
ach
nlpanent , islaan
ha

ulale
S

10,
, Onn) + (bid, ba, + bn?n) +
elasSMAte
Date
Page

+Cd 2 t..

40e W
b b, bnn e
am dm Be

b be?, T... bn a e

Th
=

ba U

ha
, s, dp

Auwm

baas
Veclea
N. Than

anbuuaalum
wne
.

dpeudhanL.
DEFINITIDN a lne Cnolnuom
J
d
Jlal Auw
olsual

W W Ome

N W,.. .

ExaNPLE-) .t
auoulel h camp a numau
ucu

he aubhpac a
qwmnmleue A Aush ILal
AA Acubsspac all

Smmluc wwalome i, malkuaeu


A-A. Thin
A wwlu w Uww.cuL

A 0 AuummV malun
hu M-

A A+A2
A AtA
2
(A -A

L T a wanu ala
nAnssma. spal . _L . c .
ekasnaeleualLe uaua a s s e
t pa sasawua
Necle OAARtLalal nth hasuaauunlL
unespavnaleW

G Lelou bani

=
koJECTION J V
J
E VAmah hat
E-E
CeoERVATIo.NA E t R
Wh E ma N Null pass o E
A
Th esla u
2

E E m
Ep- E
EP
pEp
E

N R N
(3) punLew
R E+(- E

(
RON o A
E
Laoas E = 0 a lanadel.

E ( - E)
Th AN R

Th
LM NL V N
(1 ww.q

dbapaas e V ueh lat V =R@N,


Pakesa aer E
has- N
Nuull p
Lalhel Jeelhsmln R
Ang N
5 E aaal lgalil .
R
9 Laa
baa tn N,
+

dhnganaluge mabu uaialalsn

sth iakiel dagsena nlsos

aaaln saten o E

E
amal

E
E 0.4. a +0.t o.Kn

0, 0, . 1, *+ 0.

E
N

0 O. +.
0 0.
t-t0./
0. - 6.

O. +
0. 2 4. . Kn
[E

esh alldpa aw V
.

Aubzpa .+Hk
+W2 + -. k +
+
+ +

E ==o w.ass

aluall Vel

po In
hoss
+Ek

0, Ca neueu T - EE E «
EE, t t E

E O b becaa
Clanua nul hpac
E E E wwarl

+
Awsh
E,2

Lwodd
B

( E

C cE+ Ep.

E
HEDREH
N .
E E E Aueh that
or E (EE)D
E E =O

( E , + E, t TE

E
LL

E E L Lunta nla
(yt
aala Cenol i C

l.

Couallett

,1itAsAS
ycesokilen i),
E
V E a
aen

E
dud Cu)

EEp
L

l ,
ahens-
Jna

ale apac V-
IHEOREH
aus EL Ea Ex
el W hNa

naLaKan
Lach Abtat
C-mhMalks
ab
TE:_ET - ,

P hach
sach
evamulu E 11

TE E:TA)
T
hah hema TA
umdu

wwac

KALwm
amy
1deshalahelhal TE=E;T
Vec V.
wnawLAml

eele
Thn

To E t TE, t TE
E nataiar

T E) tzBr_
NecleB Th
TE p

E4 ETEx

Theldh

HEOREN
Apas V. olaganalald Land
CLasae Leale
Lua ualess
it_
= eE + eEt. + en Er
I E t E+

(iu)
E
E (E
oE ckasaslsake
LaaaAnaual
lk

Onauwa
nal
es En... tu
T ngonalizab
yalun

chagnkizabb,
Lhora uobun9. L

Josssuns

= . . . Ll

E
msinlu
n 1) ) ,
E L + . t Lnd

TE + + TEn
+En
T E, C En

pnla T
3 nales
a, ), G) aud ii) Su E
all
E A a TE E
ul pan
s Ez A (T-CI) bom

.
ll po (TC; L)
- oaLaeuahe
u al
-Orn olan.
T- E (3-) E (G-) E
CT CT
CC-e) Ee=
eclo him E o
HRat ha

T disgenalaa
nalzabde haamL

hantm A 3L0 vecl

LmguL Le a eauaclu Mele


I =E + E+-+ En
a hasacloualL vechou

fLalull pasu TCT) O

t
bcaAL

Z C C) E; =

C-Cc)E =o

d= Ed t t Eko
hen Rat

HEOREM (RimARY DEcoMPoSIlON HEOREML


t T n_
mustmal_ kcleu

heysmma
whu Q
olome wweui.
aud A W
T

GeDA NoRMAL Foa

pa
A V V_b

all
A -TI

o_ (A-
A-T) (A-41) (A-I)

peec.

A- CA-I)

=
O 2 (-1),
eA-a)v + C T) v
Co
C A- 3 ) v
C ) -o
c (B) eu) +

+ C ) =
) O
ualal COmmAm.
Qel 9-

al ACb) =LG) J)
96)g() Thn-

= B)a)) g.e)g.ce
(LAfB)

O+ g p).B) =

Bt k_t)eleu

Cmluaeuel Rat

hiumnn

R
ho<.
Bi
d nnladcln 91

A 2e
Cn O.
CyeLc VecToRöpACE Necleu opac
l calle
amd a emion e V
2
A-T)-sski.
A-T) (A-«I) v A - I )v als V
th uns wwm.-

(A T) (A I ) A-T)
aau bas calluol Jasala
baau V uapuel A
ma A

Oha that (A-«I) RLOMML A


A A -AT)A) =A-T A- I )
- 7) .
h k, A (Aa) = A-1) (A-I )
A (A-1) ) A A "C, A A C-1)C-))
(2
A C A.. C A A)
A ) A-I)
A A-/1) A - A-T)v A -xT\

-
A dT) O AAI) O.U
2
A A-3) v)E (A-T) 1 J (A-T) +0.(A -AT)

3 -3

ALLA-3) ) (A-dT) A-I) V

O A-JT) t_ A-) . (A- J ) + 0 A - A 1 )


o.
A A ' A : )
loo

A-) ny

. (A- T ) A- T)
.

RT duel
Aum A - wMauanl Aubapo.ci
At_sac N
auel Jaea tnch
V
bo V, Lallue
Jdan bd
basu mal
A up sL5 amlo
ho
CSERVATON S h black- wu

eLgunnalu an JThu oagessa he ha


O
Callu olaM mwaal A

J dam Caen hanaa elu


(oc A)" (z - An)... ( - 'K

=(«-A)(-Aa)"..-an
Oe mimimal aandanma.a wl)
lo)
J olan Caseacal as A

Dngesua n asoan Loaskamwal

walsa A ww uch
ugmuinlu

TUA)

() LLek
slhaqaunl laek enlans dam LLqumenkus._

t
lagesal
(a) . lagat Ah beek
uo() Alagema ab - Lleku ha

4) all Jadan blah au oungasa oa

5) d all ann TL wwwlm b


el)= (-18) m)=z-13)_
a
hasachwuale hsmal

At 2kad
Tavala Lameme

Alas adouona Taals blseka


JeLoLas ta84AAmal a alasalilall
lamsna

3
-15) auaon) =-13
Laael JealasaLamada

Ct)=(-)(-) m()==(z-)(*-)|
a

iehie walust all


Tala lamsmc mal.

en w eC)= ( - ) (o-2) auemln)= (a-)(«-2)


JoLalns Casaesonsa

3
O

O 2 Io

o 2 o
O

OTO
haunalu
Oss wma)=a-13)-
b Cln) = (13)
ua heww_maa Jsuolam

Jaolo
7- +
2 2
oo o o

O o oke oo
O o 13

3 3

3+2+

o 3

3++
elassMAt
Date
Page

A salu 4 k
A
A =AC4o). RaukA) 2anol

lagamaeade

aal A
A

(3) Teuelam hk A

Sala dlou. A awabu o-do 4


AT o A- A= 0_
aaasa A
ma oae A olau aanabilaia

lu )=, a mA)= _ A =O
LamklA) ==2 A 34a malka
Aupe mln) == m)=0 A= 0
l2)
hal AZ o
m (A) = O A-I =O
A=I t Los kanklA)=Kaak(T)=1
a Ilal_3auwk (A) 2
(A) wwln) -1), n A mua
oluagsalenle Amrl mwww.MA

LumLo

at A

5 hsn. A ww.uL

T
-),.
A ma m
mi wmal )
kaaeu s A
ths la-)

eAC) ). m7)= )
2

Can21 LO M

O )
O

S en Ca) = (), TR m)
JoLala lamsana al

hauk (A = 3.
hamklA) quuls
Q.
ww_ . )
LA k CaCa)
mA (a) )
(2)
D
a pac
mbu .
J ehaaauahe anel
mal T_
e
wwwme

t Jada. lam
Sneiqumn

guunu maluu nangulab


INNER RoDUI OPACE

2pacu al Vac
umkhn h-

LNIER RoQUCT
Pasul numk
pa
V naaa aleh
Vealia sralan-
O.
3 , p2 Jhal_
all dB
(a) +B,
( KCd, p
s al e V au *> -o
O

CeuaL (a2 (5D


elassmAte
Date
Page

bu

OTANDARD NNER RoDUeTS

ExANPLEI n
wlasadlaal

ExanPLE 2 (4,Ta)_ad = ij2


IR

S =

all Ke R
3

ames

nells (a (6), _ aaul ial


ELE 3 N J pa
mxn alkuau E Tkn V
wsauna

<A, B7 Ae BA)

EANPLE 4 T pae
au Jt wtwsl
mal

th

ExmeLE 5
2mAL

wnhoral ot.
a

EameLE 6 V Aana W
IE OAL

aasns malken
T
/t.
Lals
(p) Td T
Rseelue V.

S = Ta TA 20
laa

T e Onal
TA. T 20
dlleo d , ) O < > T T =o
TA =_O

wias

ExaNPLE : Lt V a

Nesl
d
Jaa
oLamelewal baa Nalsa
anafaeunl
V
l 2 --. .

alamelanal

JI

Ruenlurl <, =
ExnAMA TiON

Scalazn

T T
TE), T(4

j=

banueulas ak
O. ,
O. +
Thim
O.K,
O.

Co,0 . . (o,0.
) = k

asap 5 www 2lal


ullleales
T mLaL

Page No.
Ckk tat T dhu, T
mAON mgula

himeL = O_ A
Cenhaaaeul
o) =C
taaa) S,0 lonasel
V

[o. 1
Alen A [o.1s
t
Aay

UosERNAT/ONS
V Ceunpla Neslee paM
al
Rd. + Im s>.
kwms MAnmhiu

R ) , _ Ji
(4d )
P a d é No.
Re <d. B> + R , ip>,

DEfINLILON dnsl
edena es

uadksale o wmwmial
ww.ele ht eae
ere Arala

OasERVATIONS

d. tp
+

+1_
Nel
2 2

2
2 32
2-

Thuo- 44dp2
Ldp = 1 p - - p
(A)

3)
loLARISATION OENTTES

Id-B
un d - sl 4 R 4. A>
R d p
ip+ 2R d,.. ii
Ag.aw Id+p
l 1ivp 2 R ,

2 2 2

Ausnlasuy d-p u -2 R <«, ipp>


P

d, Ep = -pu
/2) and (

14 -p+214+Ep
- - s1 8)
4

(A) o d . . ( B ) calld elasidal

Qw

paa Lgaollaa

I V_ olimmLmal

dn
eolud bas
kLoluet n V
UMMLLU
tamplul
Page No.
J uaun

Vcelew

k=

.NGX

hhiuL X
aud abu
aaal

aluu We sal 1
poreskuct U

Heu X asal

,
(4x)-
. ,> .<4.>
Kd. , do>. k, 4

n,n>>

On Jn K

H n

,
Bhauwaluems i- 0_O G G Jnan
Kwon

A hal G= G
G i,t
wwluat
o X 0. d o,

O xX2 0
clalenalCen
LComalcls
l
Tho G Aaha
x* Gx 2o

nal
aALb
RxLah X_Ae hat
x*GX =0
X0 GX =
alee Alalsenl
alalmg
GX = O

GX UM

Con

o) Te

4)
EK 2 o
i.e emlu G all ke

5) asL nxnnasu

and tndien
mabu etoluat
.
y. , p GX
X (0LLO LAAal nal
aud

pas ,>

a) Aha all
( Ahesm that llf V,

0, + , p>
Salier (0o+o, B
+ o,

vall peV

S V_
T
WAm

ARALLELokRAN LAl i1 _
Vac paru
QuuLacluake
olulinmaLe
aaln
aaliagum
+ 2
2-

d, Sp, <2
2 R d,
d-plL
Adeesa
Page No
T aeluul pa
u a l
aueel pa
lagulhus
zpaea h a l po

honusm V_ ueeu spad


Meele V calan e

Cu) 1a >o
CI |24.p> L8
quall)

liea = <Ca, ca)

Ic

I&=
khe
alal._

p. d,

p. d Page No.
Date

p. p
D

d, p> <p.

p.
1d 2

&112

pn Ik4,P>|2
2
6

2
(1 + pl

2Rd,PZ +

1 2 u, p>|t B
11 2 , p>
2
2

licOt2
ALaluen - Cqunaly Ci ceL
ae

B
Liuay dpunall L
1<,C>|

= Icl l . 1 1

I1.

S b_
&2
2 2

Tho 1&I12
CLluen
Page No.
=
I . I131

B,K O

S
a L umavL olupunalunt.

hw- p
DEfINITIO Neclou
pac V. _ O
ALheg.enal
d_f =0 Auwe
aulhagtusalle , s
egnal. S
calleal
Ashegeaa
NecLoLA
ulhsgnal .ceimal
hagua al5 aalolta
R S

Nel heg.enal le Veclau

eca
Date-

anolauol
n

Esaup
olhemsmal uaeiel
t laclassel

exaumple 2 T Necle (o. IR asthegbmal


)
I Lanalasal wnnus

pneeuel

) = O

IR

ackuel BXaml 2
Qual

= (1,
)

.
heg.ema

3 9 1.
2

2
zpa
cao alud a a
J

A A ) E 2 Co 27n_ Li ga)=22

2nna (2 u 27 r d

2 rna) la ez) da

Clo7ng) dn J em)

E 2 2 n a n 27ma do m n

2A l21 mu)brna) dr A 2 m r

2 m-n)

Cur(97 ( r 27 mr)a
-
O
a(m-) n(mtn)

alainl

aual
Omn

ala
Camb.,Oto
n = t 2, -.
C0mbuma kew

heassmala

h Ceut 9 all unclues


27in 0

vealau
IHEDREMA Alhsgoua
nas

an Llhgemal
u 5 nitLealu Spac
Verlpus

QuL Vecle
Qee
Rat
C d t +
Cm

p, 7 =

C ,
abang

/3,
Page No.
B O

Lac k m

Venlee mod

Cembalam valhegomal
Veslus Jhim
Cambua luw
p.aslLoala
p.d>
k

J DuatAAA

k 4m.
p,
12
bea pwaxuunas
Veclau Neclasu

Auab thal ll6-d -4


Vacles

a.sn Lt_W bepa


V a p _

T a alen
L
authegassa Necla ww

ka a enalue Vee e
CLAA at maul.

OlLmaMo aduaa 4. J
hnsewmol
Kp,

Veclu

eodsalSpen
ua AL
Viclaua
haganal conplissun
Page No.
wbuch
alvea
eela

a bbpac

KCdp. O

hueLpaa
iall.a I lhsgema
LAAALAL Vecla _lhegssal
aai hal
LOLlhagossal Peele
Vecla
Lallo uhegesa V

L hegena 0lse

ueal pac
Ihe0.ia()
Abopae lnsayd4
allesd
V weskue apac
LsaaLsAAASMAL
Aubspas
pLLLLlawsal V W.
wappumg- Ep
Alhegeraal
Ddlc

Necls V.
LAD-

D
Fp pEp-4). huo

lp-4-Ep+Ip-Ep-70
- Ep)
LmlALalads Fp-
Nelans

<B-Ep. 12 K Ep. >

he

12 j

es Page No.
Date

hoLM ol ma ubapa
OLAA e spa E
aslhegoaal
E umsa eausesalon
NL
E

Veele

EEp al akkna.n
A
GAA- L
Tuo E (Es
EE

tAud
2 ba L
Veclus Aual
auhubau Aralas Tn hae (). d-E
2 p-Ep Alkagawal
eslu t. Ve l
Ex) + (p-Ep) (cdp)-( E: Ep)

alee langa E Ep
Aeslpr M
e
ECA)

ww.q L Ver l
Ep

ul po E Page No.
PFpelf-tp)

asn tat V= Wt N - {o
a Vecau
k, = 0. Thu
Auw W aun

CxPLANATlON
cnsalAuubhpaso
t

ONA JasA
Ep Z.

j
Ep .

e n?
J

hopa bapar v
Al-E)+ (p- Ep)
Na
V
bepas V
E
aw LC)- E leerp) lernp)-(cEs Lp
EC
Ep
V Ep J ueq Nular
E

NE) Epo
Al WON J ww , O
Loellay Ceualless
T-E I agaua
okunpellnt lusaLao aauess
osale W

Lellsay f t 14.*.. be Qhegenal


Vela prsalw

2120c0

equal

p. d 22
d
K

huw
H
Date

Tt A
p, d>|

n p laae
nlhemasmal Beaauk dniq-ua

Cak abpac panni

ual,.

w OMA V

EXa ( Z Rikt
t 14ert
(2) Ce e2*TRtt
Wz-v K -

+ 1 =2
2 Co 2t + 2 Ant) ott =
Span Spo
o
oluekosaal Abspaz o wwne
Spa B
b
e Wu de w

dulhsgan

2 int
e n 2.

2xt
: k e i ti, 12.2
A- ON i

4 O

Cee-2aikt
- 2nikl -2 uE
e

-2niut
Jhua

Ch e olt
- n

olt
LORMS O NINER& hoDue1
RODUC OPALE

D Aenqin
Lampuan Nesl pa-
walus
Acalu +Rt
(CAp
(

a a
gmnl; mueuab

I I Laa
LAq o m be.

Ohawalen V ame
Acala huek tLt
alae
Lan Aembuualen V
bepa
pac all Acolan- volud melu w
Vx

Vb
a -d unnw
uenlul 2pac

T. p>
al d Vool ah
w
uma
Lv, v).

uenal V._
. ) .p))
besn )

Weal- wwe.len 0
Tu

A +U
e E4Up + <*, U?>

. Uep)>
4 p) , 2)
T , , Up> + <«, U>

e Up +U1
all
all d,_p. 1 Vad alAcalan c
VAsel T-U
U PaneN0
T
alat
all

. T.p. 11
Ta- T
TA eTeT'.
&ach mquUJ

La

al p JM

Autala, hui

el).p

earh
a-
w
Lv.V2
T,p
A Rat

awobhaam
): OlumioCna
nn
pate
T
t = , p

Gu = .
aubuluai
FA
A
mal

lhehnal wau
wa
amsAmaln

A wwa leu

yAX

OLelnalwabu

n nx

Th 40Aaluu Aelhu bau


,P jm)
iw A P'AP
Ihuuw eto
nLvwonal umnu Gpae V.
ONB

alu

LLAmiAALLmA
tomh Spae Quuuol

ON hnal

tudmgualLs

Auue b
aert
all
Thugn (H)
ONS
ma lu
uamgulor
A maut

onau T

[41 ain

Pige No.
T
0

an,+ Ona

k +

Callo
a a _auel

NL f
ual

Chasaalissges.
40LLmA

hsom
Capka Veclau Spat
w V duuch a t fu )
Hesman

Vesle V.
vmuual hewe
(,) + ( p ) + .fa

p)
+p),

-i p+ p ) = -if)+ (p
=i p) , )

Maly b

o fal n)
Jasun lwsinauna
mww
par V Iou
OAl V h
chagenal ww.alsu lh_sal nlsus

losITIVE ORMS

Nec l apa V_ ugak


f uA V.
am- e J s . t o

Page
ll4o

NLal0) o
V Auap
M V.
al

wmal
acc t Ab
walua M bas t
A

*f)

A A

2A;
k
is 0 alldealasa
n

tat

(74, .)0, Lena


hanu olud
"AX
eolha àpa
0
ltowmn maabueu R0calas

D A Am n xm makun.
A
LAalasn A(A)

dt A
A Ae

ART

-I uen

mLOnDMAL Nu lsu pansV


A

A =A tt
A all

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