Gymnosperm

The gymnosperms ( pronunciation lit. revealed seeds), also

known as Acrogymnospermae, are a group of seed-producing Gymnospermae
plants that includes conifers, cycads, Ginkgo, and gnetophytes, Temporal range:
forming the clade Gymnospermae. The term gymnosperm comes
from the composite word in Greek: γυμνόσπερμος (γυμνός,
gymnos, 'naked' and σπέρμα, sperma, 'seed'), literally meaning
'naked seeds'. The name is based on the unenclosed condition of
their seeds (called ovules in their unfertilized state). The non-
encased condition of their seeds contrasts with the seeds and
ovules of flowering plants (angiosperms), which are enclosed
within an ovary. Gymnosperm seeds develop either on the
surface of scales or leaves, which are often modified to form
cones, or solitary as in yew, Torreya, Ginkgo.[1] Gymnosperms
Various gymnosperms.
show alternation of generations; and have a dominant diploid
sporophytic phase, a reduced haploid gametophytic phase which Scientific classification
is dependent on the sporophytic phase.
Kingdom: Plantae
The gymnosperms and angiosperms together compose the Clade: Tracheophytes
spermatophytes or seed plants. The gymnosperms are divided
into six phyla. Organisms that belong to the Cycadophyta, Clade: Spermatophytes
Ginkgophyta, Gnetophyta, and Pinophyta (also known as (unranked): Gymnosperms
Coniferophyta) phyla are still in existence while those in the
Pteridospermales and Cordaitales phyla are now extinct.[2] Divisions

By far the largest group of living gymnosperms are the conifers Pinophyta (or Coniferophyta) –
(pines, cypresses, and relatives), followed by cycads, Conifers
gnetophytes (Gnetum, Ephedra and Welwitschia), and Ginkgo Ginkgophyta – Ginkgo
biloba (a single living species). About 65% of gymnosperms are Cycadophyta – Cycads
dioecious,[3] but conifers are almost all monoecious.[4] Gnetophyta – Gnetum, Ephedra,
Welwitschia
Some genera have mycorrhiza, fungal associations with roots
(Pinus), while in some others (Cycas) small specialised roots See text for extinct division.
called coralloid roots are associated with nitrogen-fixing
cyanobacteria.

Contents
Classification
Extinct groupings
Diversity and origin
Uses
Life cycle
Genetics
References
Bibliography
External links

Classification
A formal classification of the living gymnosperms is the
"Acrogymnospermae", which form a monophyletic group within
the spermatophytes.[5][6] The wider "Gymnospermae" group
includes extinct gymnosperms and is thought to be paraphyletic.
The fossil record of gymnosperms includes many distinctive taxa
that do not belong to the four modern groups, including seed-
bearing trees that have a somewhat fern-like vegetative
morphology (the so-called "seed ferns" or pteridosperms).[7] When
fossil gymnosperms such as these and the Bennettitales,
glossopterids, and Caytonia are considered, it is clear that
angiosperms are nested within a larger gymnospermae clade,
although which group of gymnosperms is their closest relative
remains unclear.

The extant gymnosperms include 12 main families and 83 genera

which contain more than 1000 known species.[1][6][8]

Subclass Cycadidae

Order Cycadales
Family Cycadaceae: Cycas
Family Zamiaceae: Dioon, Bowenia, Macrozamia, Encephalartos sclavoi cone, about
Lepidozamia, Encephalartos, Stangeria, 30 cm long
Ceratozamia, Microcycas, Zamia.

Subclass Ginkgoidae

Order Ginkgoales
Family Ginkgoaceae: Ginkgo

Subclass Gnetidae

Order Welwitschiales
Family Welwitschiaceae: Welwitschia
Order Gnetales
Family Gnetaceae: Gnetum
Order Ephedrales
Family Ephedraceae: Ephedra

Subclass Pinidae
 Order Pinales
Family Pinaceae: Cedrus, Pinus, Cathaya, Picea, Pseudotsuga, Larix, Pseudolarix,
Tsuga, Nothotsuga, Keteleeria, Abies
Order Araucariales
Family Araucariaceae: Araucaria, Wollemia, Agathis
Family Podocarpaceae: Phyllocladus, Lepidothamnus, Prumnopitys, Sundacarpus,
Halocarpus, Parasitaxus, Lagarostrobos, Manoao, Saxegothaea, Microcachrys,
Pherosphaera, Acmopyle, Dacrycarpus, Dacrydium, Falcatifolium, Retrophyllum,
Nageia, Afrocarpus, Podocarpus
Order Cupressales
Family Sciadopityaceae: Sciadopitys
Family Cupressaceae: Cunninghamia, Taiwania, Athrotaxis, Metasequoia, Sequoia,
Sequoiadendron, Cryptomeria, Glyptostrobus, Taxodium, Papuacedrus, Austrocedrus,
Libocedrus, Pilgerodendron, Widdringtonia, Diselma, Fitzroya, Callitris, Actinostrobus,
Neocallitropsis, Thujopsis, Thuja, Fokienia, Chamaecyparis, Cupressus, Juniperus,
Calocedrus, Tetraclinis, Platycladus, Microbiota
Family Taxaceae: Austrotaxus, Pseudotaxus, Taxus, Cephalotaxus, Amentotaxus,
Torreya

Extinct groupings
Order Bennettitales
Family Cycadeoidaceae
Family Williamsoniaceae
Order Erdtmanithecales
Order Pentoxylales
Order Czekanowskiales

Diversity and origin

Over 1000 living species of gymnosperm exist.[1] It is widely accepted that the gymnosperms originated in
the late Carboniferous period, replacing the lycopsid rainforests of the tropical region.[9][10] This
development appears to have resulted from a whole genome duplication event around
319 million years ago.[11] Early characteristics of seed plants are evident in fossil progymnosperms of the
late Devonian period around 383 million years ago. It has been suggested that during the mid-Mesozoic
era, pollination of some extinct groups of gymnosperms was by extinct species of scorpionflies that had
specialized proboscis for feeding on pollination drops. The scorpionflies likely engaged in pollination
mutualisms with gymnosperms, long before the similar and independent coevolution of nectar-feeding
insects on angiosperms.[12][13] Evidence has also been found that mid-Mesozoic gymnosperms were
pollinated by Kalligrammatid lacewings, a now-extinct family with members which (in an example of
convergent evolution) resembled the modern butterflies that arose far later.[14]

Conifers are by far the most abundant extant group of gymnosperms with six to eight families, with a total
of 65–70 genera and 600–630 species (696 accepted names).[15] Conifers are woody plants and most are
evergreens.[16] The leaves of many conifers are long, thin and needle-like, other species, including most
Cupressaceae and some Podocarpaceae, have flat, triangular scale-like leaves. Agathis in Araucariaceae
and Nageia in Podocarpaceae have broad, flat strap-shaped leaves.
Cycads are the next most abundant group of gymnosperms, with
two or three families, 11 genera, and approximately 338 species. A
majority of cycads are native to tropical climates and are most
abundantly found in regions near the equator. The other extant
groups are the 95–100 species of Gnetales and one species of
Ginkgo.[2]

Pteridospermatophyta †

Gymnospermae Zamia integrifolia, a cycad native to

Spermatophyta Acrogymnospermae Florida

Angiospermae

Uses
Gymnosperms have major economic uses. Pine, fir, spruce, and cedar are all examples of conifers that are
used for lumber, paper production, and resin. Some other common uses for gymnosperms are soap, varnish,
nail polish, food, gum, and perfumes.[17]

Life cycle
Gymnosperms, like all vascular plants, have a sporophyte-
dominant life cycle, which means they spend most of their life
cycle with diploid cells, while the gametophyte (gamete-bearing
phase) is relatively short-lived. Like all seed plants, they are
heterosporous, having two spore types, microspores (male) and
megaspores (female) that are typically produced in pollen cones or
ovulate cones, respectively. As with all heterosporous plants, the
gametophytes develop within the spore wall. Pollen grains
(microgametophytes) mature from microspores, and ultimately
produce sperm cells. Megagametophytes develop from megaspores
Example of gymnosperm lifecycle
and are retained within the ovule. Gymnosperms produce multiple
archegonia, which produce the female gamete. During pollination,
pollen grains are physically transferred between plants from the
pollen cone to the ovule. Pollen is usually moved by wind or insects. Whole grains enter each ovule
through a microscopic gap in the ovule coat (integument) called the micropyle. The pollen grains mature
further inside the ovule and produce sperm cells. Two main modes of fertilization are found in
gymnosperms. Cycads and Ginkgo have motile sperm that swim directly to the egg inside the ovule,
whereas conifers and gnetophytes have sperm with no flagella that are moved along a pollen tube to the
egg. After syngamy (joining of the sperm and egg cell), the zygote develops into an embryo (young
sporophyte). More than one embryo is usually initiated in each gymnosperm seed. The mature seed
comprises the embryo and the remains of the female gametophyte, which serves as a food supply, and the
seed coat.[18]

Genetics
The first published sequenced genome for any gymnosperm was the genome of Picea abies in 2013.[19]
References
1. "Gymnosperms on The Plant List" (http://www.theplantlist.org/browse/G/). Theplantlist.org.
Retrieved 2013-07-24.
2. Raven, P.H. (2013). Biology of Plants. New York: W.H. Freeman and Co.
3. Walas, Łukasz; Mandryk, Wojciech; Thomas, Peter A.; Tyrała-Wierucka, Żanna; Iszkuło,
Grzegorz (2018-09-01). "Sexual systems in gymnosperms: A review" (https://www.sciencedir
ect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1439179117304498). Basic and Applied Ecology. 31: 1–9.
doi:10.1016/j.baae.2018.05.009 (https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.baae.2018.05.009).
ISSN 1439-1791 (https://www.worldcat.org/issn/1439-1791). S2CID 90740232 (https://api.se
manticscholar.org/CorpusID:90740232).
4. Walas Ł, Mandryk W, Thomas PA, Tyrała-Wierucka Ż, Iszkuło G (2018). "Sexual systems in
gymnosperms: A review" (http://eprints.keele.ac.uk/4961/1/29052018_1-s2.0-S1439179117
304498-main.pdf) (PDF). Basic and Applied Ecology. 31: 1–9.
doi:10.1016/j.baae.2018.05.009 (https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.baae.2018.05.009).
S2CID 90740232 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:90740232).
5. Cantino 2007.
6. Christenhusz, M.J.M.; Reveal, J.L.; Farjon, A.; Gardner, M.F.; Mill, R.R.; Chase, M.W. (2011).
"A new classification and linear sequence of extant gymnosperms" (http://www.mapress.co
m/phytotaxa/content/2011/f/pt00019p070.pdf) (PDF). Phytotaxa. 19: 55–70.
doi:10.11646/phytotaxa.19.1.3 (https://doi.org/10.11646%2Fphytotaxa.19.1.3).
7. Hilton, Jason, and Richard M. Bateman. 2006. Pteridosperms are the backbone of seed-
plant phylogeny. Journal of the Torrey Botanical Society 133: 119–168 (abstract (http://www.
bioone.org/perlserv/?request=get-abstract&doi=10.3159%2F1095-5674(2006)133%5B11
9%3APATBOS%5D2.0.CO%3B2&ct=1))
8. Christenhusz, M. J. M.; Byng, J. W. (2016). "The number of known plants species in the
world and its annual increase" (http://biotaxa.org/Phytotaxa/article/download/phytotaxa.261.
3.1/20598). Phytotaxa. 261 (3): 201–217. doi:10.11646/phytotaxa.261.3.1 (https://doi.org/10.
11646%2Fphytotaxa.261.3.1).
9. Sahney, S.; Benton, M.J. & Falcon-Lang, H.J. (2010). "Rainforest collapse triggered
Pennsylvanian tetrapod diversification in Euramerica". Geology. 38 (12): 1079–1082.
Bibcode:2010Geo....38.1079S (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2010Geo....38.1079S).
doi:10.1130/G31182.1 (https://doi.org/10.1130%2FG31182.1).
10. Campbell and Reece; Biology, Eighth edition
11. Jiao Y, Wickett NJ, Ayyampalayam S, Chanderbali AS, Landherr L, Ralph PE, Tomsho LP,
Hu Y, Liang H, Soltis PS, Soltis DE, Clifton SW, Schlarbaum SE, Schuster SC, Ma H,
Leebens-Mack J, Depamphilis CW (2011) Ancestral polyploidy in seed plants and
angiosperms. Nature
12. Ollerton, J.; Coulthard, E. (2009). "Evolution of Animal Pollination". Science. 326 (5954):
808–809. Bibcode:2009Sci...326..808O (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2009Sci...326..80
8O). doi:10.1126/science.1181154 (https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.1181154).
PMID 19892970 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19892970). S2CID 856038 (https://api.se
manticscholar.org/CorpusID:856038).
13. Ren, D; Labandeira, CC; Santiago-Blay, JA; Rasnitsyn, A; et al. (2009). "A Probable
Pollination Mode Before Angiosperms: Eurasian, Long-Proboscid Scorpionflies" (https://ww
w.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2944650). Science. 326 (5954): 840–847.
Bibcode:2009Sci...326..840R (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2009Sci...326..840R).
doi:10.1126/science.1178338 (https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.1178338). PMC 2944650
(https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2944650). PMID 19892981 (https://pubmed.
ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19892981).
14. Labandeira, Conrad C.; Yang, Qiang; Santiago-Blay, Jorge A.; Hotton, Carol L.; Monteiro,
Antónia; Wang, Yong-Jie; Goreva, Yulia; Shih, ChungKun; Siljeström, Sandra; Rose, Tim R.;
Dilcher, David L.; Ren, Dong (2016). "The evolutionary convergence of mid-Mesozoic
lacewings and Cenozoic butterflies" (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC476017
8). Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences. 283 (1824): 20152893.
doi:10.1098/rspb.2015.2893 (https://doi.org/10.1098%2Frspb.2015.2893). PMC 4760178 (htt
ps://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4760178). PMID 26842570 (https://pubmed.ncb
i.nlm.nih.gov/26842570).
15. Catalogue of Life: 2007 Annual checklist – Conifer database (http://www.catalogueoflife.org/
show_database_details.php?database_name=Conifer+Database) Archived (https://web.arc
hive.org/web/20090115190412/http://www.catalogueoflife.org/show_database_details.php?
database_name=Conifer+Database) January 15, 2009, at the Wayback Machine
16. Campbell, Reece, "Phylum Coniferophyta."Biology. 7th. 2005. Print. P.595
17. Biswas, C.; Johri, B.M. (1997). "Economic Importance". The Gymnosperms (https://link.sprin
ger.com/content/pdf/10.1007%2F978-3-662-13164-0.pdf) (PDF). Springer, Berlin,
Heidelberg. pp. 440–456. doi:10.1007/978-3-662-13164-0_23 (https://doi.org/10.1007%2F9
78-3-662-13164-0_23). ISBN 978-3-662-13166-4.
18. Walters, Dirk R Walters Bonnie By (1996). Vascular plant taxonomy (https://archive.org/detail
s/vascularplanttax00walt). Dubuque, Iowa: Kendall/Hunt Pub. Co. p. 124 (https://archive.org/
details/vascularplanttax00walt/page/124). ISBN 978-0-7872-2108-9. "Gymnosperm seeds."
19. Nystedt, B; Street, NR; Wetterbom, A; et al. (May 2013). "The Norway spruce genome
sequence and conifer genome evolution" (https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fnature12211). Nature.
497 (7451): 579–584. Bibcode:2013Natur.497..579N (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/201
3Natur.497..579N). doi:10.1038/nature12211 (https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fnature12211).
PMID 23698360 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23698360).

Bibliography
Cantino, Philip D.; Doyle, James A.; Graham, Sean W.; Judd, Walter S.; Olmstead, Richard
G.; Soltis, Douglas E.; Soltis, Pamela S.; Donoghue, Michael J. (August 2007). "Towards a
phylogenetic nomenclature of Tracheophyta". Taxon. 56 (3): 822–846.
doi:10.2307/25065864 (https://doi.org/10.2307%2F25065864). JSTOR 25065864 (https://w
ww.jstor.org/stable/25065864).

External links
Gymnosperm Database (http://www.conifers.org/)
Gymnosperms on the Tree of Life (https://web.archive.org/web/20080409044237/http://www.
huh.harvard.edu/research/mathews-lab/atolHtmlSite/)
Albert Seward (1911). "Gymnosperms" (https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C
3%A6dia_Britannica/Gymnosperms). Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.).

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Gymnosperm&oldid=1059774290"

This page was last edited on 11 December 2021, at 15:13 (UTC).

Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using
this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia
Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.