5ECA0 class 3 : Equivalent circuits (ch 5)

1
Agenda

Review of equivalent circuits

Chapter 5
1. Superposition in linear circuits
2. Thévenin and Norton equivalents
3. Circuit examples
4. Maximum power transfer

2
The following should now be obvious to you ...

• Ohm’s law : V = IR
• Kirchoff’s current law : SI = 0 at any given node
• Kirchoff’s voltage law : SV = 0 on any given closed path
• Single loop circuits well solved with KVL and Ohm’s law
• Multiple loop circuits well solved with KCL for multiple nodes
• Equivalent circuit transformations simplify complex circuits
• Linear algebra able to represent complex linear circuits with many
sources and elements
3
 Homework feedback

Completed without serious concerns

Completed parts but not understanding some questions
Understand the lecture notes, but not the homework
Don’t understand the lecture notes or homework
Missed the homework deadline

4
 Equivalent circuits

R1
Serial R1+R2 In the first classes we
resistors developed the techniques to
R2
simplify resistive circuits with
combinations of ideal current
and voltage sources including
Parallel
R1 R2 R1R2 controlled sources
resistors
R1+R2

5
Equivalent circuits

V1 V1 – V2 Ideal Can we model the direct

R1+R2 voltage connection of dissimilar
V2 sources sources

I1 I2 e.g. the connection of

Ideal dissimilar batteries,
R1+R2 current
sources
I1 – I2 6
Connecting non-identical sources

What happens when we mix different sources? In series? In parallel?

Think about the technical skills lab demonstration 7
 Equivalent circuits for amplifiers

voltage trans-
amplifier impedance
amplifer

trans- current
conductance amplifier
amplifer

How to combine lots of (realistic) sources together in circuits? 8

Linearity

Conductivity Node voltages Currents

g11 g12 ... g1N v1 i1
g21 g22 . . .
. . . = .
gN1 ... gNN vN iN

• Matrices show the linear relationship between voltages and currents

• Sources can be adjusted for the same mathematical circuit description
• Linear algebra enables inputs and outputs to be independently adjusted
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Generalising linear circuits : Homogeniety

Homogeniety
f (a V1, a V2) = a f (V1,v2)
a times input = a times output
Increasing values for inputs of the whole circuit linearly equivalent to
linear increase in output voltage values
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Generalising linear circuits : Additivity

Additivity
f (V1, V2) = VA & f (V3, V4) = VB
 f (V1+V3, V2+V4) = VA + VB

S input = S output
Adding values shows same
equivalents 11
Exception: Does not apply when non-linear

This course focusses on linear devices and linear modes of operation 12

Superposition
Superposition theorem : The output of a linear circuit is determined by
summing the responses of each independent source acting alone

Consequence: We can treat sources individually when analysing circuits13

Superposition of current sources
Superposition equivalent to adding/removing sources

To switch of a current source : I0 = 0mA so open circuit

14
Superposition of voltage sources
Superposition equivalent to adding/removing sources

To switch of a voltage source : V0 = 0V so short circuit

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We want to switch off the
voltage and current Which circuit is represents the no sources state?
sources.

i.e. remove (the effect of)

the sources C : Don’t know
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Superposition method
Superposition theorem : The output of a linear circuit is determined by
summing the responses of each independent source acting alone
Consider one independent source at a time
• Deactive other independent sources
• Voltage sources replaced by R = 0 : short circuits : V = 0

• Current sources replaced by R = ∞ : open circuits : I = 0

Leave the dependent sources in the circuit and unchanged
Perform circuit analysis using techniques from previous classes
Add all the corresponding voltages and currents obtained 17
Superposition example

VAV = V R2 / ( R1+R2 ) VAi = i R1R2 / ( R1+R2 )

VA = VAV + VAi = ( V + i R1 ) R2 / ( R1 + R2 ) 18
 Calculate V0 using superposition
2V
4V
6V
8V
No idea

Method :
Remove the current source then calculate
Remove the voltage source then calculate
Add for superposed voltage 19
Superposition example

Current in 6k arm of (1k+2k) ǀǀ (6k) Voltage across 6k of 1k+2k+6k

resistive splitter resisitive splitter
I0 = 2m (1+2) / (1+2+6) = 2/3 mA V0'' = 3V (6)/(1+2+6) = 2V
V0' = I0 6k = 4V
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Agenda

Review of equivalent circuits

Chapter 5
1. Superposition in linear circuits
2. Thévenin and Norton equivalents
3. Circuit examples
4. Maximum power transfer

21
 Sources

Sources describe both power supplies (independent sources) and also

amplifiers (dependent sources) : widely used and highly interconnected
The interaction between sources, circuits and loads can be complex, and we
need more sophisticated tools to design and analyse circuits 22
Real sources
• Capacitors and
inductors next
week
• Source
transformations
today

Nonlinear devices such as diodes and transistors act as sources

Represent devices in terms of gains, input and output impedances
Equivalent circuits required for correction operation mode 23
Interface between source and load
Linear source circuits
for use with either linear or
non-linear load circuits
• Source supplies power
• Load absorbs power
Note sign conventions:
KCL requires current in
(supply, negative)
equals current out
(absorbed, positive) 24
Ideal and real sources
A
I 0
+ Load
V
–

Source Measurement Load

Internal impedance of source already discussed in lab demonstration 25
Thévenin and Norton equivalents
We know already how
to replace resistor
networks with one
equivalent resistor

Now to replace linear

circuits with resistors
and sources with a ??? 3A 10V
simpler equivalent
circuit
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Thévenin and Norton Theorems

• To find the current, voltage or power delivered to a load element

• Thévenin’s theorem tells us we can replace the entire network
excluding the load by an equivalent source
• For a resistive load, this can be one independent voltage in series
with one resistor
• The current-voltage relationship is the same
• Norton’s theorem is equivalent for an independent current source in
parallel with one resistor

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Thévenin resistance

• Split circuit into source and load. Source may include linear components
and (in)dependent sources. Load may include linear (and nonlinear)
components. Dependent sources and control variables in same circuit
• Switch out independent sources
• Thévenin resistance looking back into circuit A is RTH = – vo / i 28
Thévenin resistance

• Short circuit (SC) at AB: By superposition i = i0 + iSC = – vo / RTH + iSC

• Open circuit (OC) at AB: By superposition i = 0 = – vOC / RTH + iSC

 RTH = VOC / iSC  – v0 / RTH + vOC / RTH = i  v0 = vOC – RTH i

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Thévenin and Norton equivalent circuits

v0 = vOC – RTH i i = – vo / RTH + iSC RTH = VOC / iSC

If the source of a two terminal interface is linear, then the interface
signals v and i do not change when the circuit is replaced by its Thévenin
or Norton equivalent 30
Measuring source parameters

VT = VOC

IN = ISC

RN = RT
VOC
=
ISC

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Determining Thévenin equivalent parameters
Open circuit condition  ISC = 0  VOC = VT
• Disconnect the load
• RL = ∞ VT VT VOC
Open circuit condition  ISC = IN = RT = =
RT ISC ISC
• Connect –ve rail directly to +ve rail
• RL = 0

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Norton equivalent for Current source

Linear source circuit can

always be described with
just two parameters

Norton:
current source IN
parallel resistor RN

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Source transformation example : Find voltage V

Transforming from Thevenin to

Norton and back allows us to
combine sources and
resistances
Vs in series with R is
equivalent to is in parallel with
R = Vs / is for short circuit
Combine current sources
Combine parallel resistances
Remember IN = ISC; VT = VOC; RTH = ISC/VSC 34
Source transformation example

Reduces to a
potential divider
circuit

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Find the Thevenin equivalent voltage of the source to the left of the interface

VT = V1+V2+V3
VT=(V1+V2+V3)/3
Something else
Not sure

Two methods possible: either source transformation or KCL

Try source transformation
VT VT VOC
IOC = 0 VOC = VT ISC= IN = RTH = =
RTH ISC 36 IN
Calculating Thévenin equivalent parameters

R R R RN
IN

First step: source transformation to parallel current sources and one

source with RL removed
3 ǀǀ current sources ISC = IN = V1/R + V2/R + V3/R
3 ǀǀ Norton resistances R RN = RTH = R//R//R = R/3
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Calculating Thévenin equivalent parameters
RT RT

+ +
IN RN – – RL
VT VT

First source transformation to parallel current sources with RL removed

IN = (V1+V2+V3)/R = ISC RN = R/3 = RT
Second source transformation : VOC = ISCRN = (V1+V2+V3) / 3 = VT B
Voltage across the load VL = VTRL/(RL+R/3) = (V1+V2+V3) / (3+R/RL)38
Checking with KCL

Checking with KCL :

KCL @ V : VL / RL + ( V–V1 )/R + ( V–V2 )/R + ( V–V3 )/R = 0
With load of RL : VL = ( V1+V2+V3 ) / ( 3 + R/RL )
Open circuit (RL>>R): VOC = ( V1+V2+V3 ) / 3 = VT
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Agenda

Review of equivalent circuits

Chapter 5
1. Superposition in linear circuits
2. Thévenin and Norton equivalents
3. Circuit examples
4. Maximum power transfer

40
Self-assessment exercises

Please attempt all three – and continue

with the rest of the self-assessment in
Canvas if completed !
We will work through the examples
together shortly 41
Superposition

Done
Stuck

Method
Turn on fixed current and voltage sources independently and add the outputs
separately by superposition
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Thevenin

Done
Vx
Stuck

Identify the source, load and interface

Write down VOC in terms of VX
Write down VX in terms of voltage divider (or KCL)
Deduce VOC = VTH and determine V0 from voltage divider 43
Thevenin

Done
Stuck

Use the supernode to collect circuit information in one equation

Calculate open circuit voltage and short circuit current
1k Ohm load used in final step after you have source equivalent circuit 44
Solution
Open circuit
KCL @ supernode V1 VOC
+2Ix+V1/1+Voc/1=0
Voc-V1=12
Voc= Ix.1
Substitution
Short circuit the output
2Voc + V1 + Voc =0
VOC = 0V & Ix = 0
 3Voc + V1 =0
V1 =-12V
 Voc=3V and V1 = -9V
ISC = 12mA 45
Solution
Thevenin source
ISC = 12mA V1 VOC
VOC = 3V
RTH = 3/12m
= 250 Ohm

Voltage divider
V0 = 3 x 1 /(1+1+0.25)
= 1.33V
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 Calculating Thévenin equivalent parameters

Method to show equivalent

1 : VOC = VA = VTH : Calculate the open circuit (at 1&2) voltage using KCL (SI=0)
2 : ISC : Calculate the short circuit current with 1&2 connected together
3 : Calculate RTH using open circuit voltage and short circuit current
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Calculating Thévenin equivalent parameters

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Treating (in)dependent sources
So far we treated the
independent source
cases.
What happens when we
have dependencies?
We can in principle use
the same techniques for
open and closed circuit sources,
and KCL, voltage dividers etc, but there are special cases :
1) Mixed 2) Only independent and 3) Only dependent sources 49
1) Mixed (in)dependent sources
Steps:
V1
1) Define your load and draw
the interface
2) Use KCL at V1 to capture
circuit information
3) Derive the source
equivalent circuit from VOC
and ISC
4) Calculate V0 by replacing
the source circuit with a
Thévinin source and using
voltage division 50
1) Mixed (in)dependent sources
Define load at 4kW Source Load
One independent source V1
One dependent source
Include both in analysis
4kW
KCL at V1 for open circuit
(V1 – 12)/4k + V1/2k = 0
3V1 – 48 = 0 Inspection
VA = 12 – V1 = – 4V
V1 = 16V VTH = 16 – – 8 = 24V
V0 (oc) = VT =V1 – 2VA
Source transformation for ISC and therefore RTH for short circuit V0 = 0 51
Special cases

Only independent sources Only dependent sources

Two extra methods for determining the equivalent circuits for only
dependent or only independent
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2) RTH: only independent sources

Thévenin resistance straightforward to calculate

1) Deactivate all independent sources
Voltage sources become short circuit
Current sources become open circuit
2) Calculate the Thévenin resistance RTH into the circuit at the interface
3) Calculate VTH from the open circuit condition 53
Calculate the Thévenin resistance
Don’t know
RT = 2kW
RT = 3kW

Method: Remove sources and calculate equivalent resistance

between terminals A & B 54
Calculate the Thévenin resistance
Don’t know
RT = 4W
RT = 8W
RT = 24W

Method: Remove sources and calculate equivalent resistance

between terminals A & B 55
3) RTH : only dependent sources

Thévenin voltage VTH with only dependent sources is zero

Thévenin resistance RTH is undefined using this method
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3) RTH : only dependent sources

For the case of

only dependent
sources, we can
add our own
independent
source at the
load by
superposition!

57
 3) RTH : only dependent sources
Use principles of linearity
1. apply 1mA current source load
2. compute voltage at interface
3. evaluate the resistance

Thévenin for only

KCL dependent sources
VT = 0V
Constraint equation

58
Simplifying bias networks

Active devices (e.g.

diodes, transistors)
require biasing to
operate optimally

Now we have
techniques to
design and analyse
the passive circuits
for such devices
59
Equivalent circuit of a transistor

60
Input resistance of a transistor amplifier circuit

We can use Thévenin equivalence to derive the input resistance of an

amplifier and treat it as a linear device for a specific operating range
One dependent current source so need an external source to analyze
61
Agenda

1. Review of equivalent circuits

Chapter 5
2. Linear circuit and superposition
3. Thévenin and Norton equivalents
4. Maximum power transfer

62
Variable loads and power efficiency
The load is often designed
separately and even time
variant
• electric drive systems
in cars
• heaters in cooking
equipment
• industrial production
equipment etc
How to design for
efficiency? 63
Power transfer with an adjustable load
Vload is maximum for
RL >> Rsource

Iload is maximum
for RL = 0

When do we have
maximum power
Fixed source Adjustable load transferred to load?
Note that the source is represented by a Thévenin equivalent circuit
This could be quite a complex linear source network 64
Maximum power transfer for adjustable load

Fixed source Adjustable load

65
Maximum power transfer for adjustable load

A source with fixed internal resistance R

delivers maximum power to an
adjustable load RL when RL = R

The transferred voltage is dropped

across RL only and not R+RL
Fixed Adjustable
source load The transferred power is dissipated in RL,
not R+RL
66
What value of RL delivers the most power to the load

25W
30W
50W
150W
Don’t know

Method: Thévenin resistance = VOC / ISC

to create Thévenin source. Then potential divider 67
 Thévenin equivalent
Thevenin equivalent to left of interface (NB only independent sources)
Open
circuit
Short
circuit

 RL = RT = 25W
68
Power efficiency
VI = VT V0 = VAB = VT / 2

= 25W

Thévenin circuit to
determine operating point

PL = VL IL = VL2/RL
= VT2/(4RL) = 900W 69
Power efficiency
Isource

Vsource =

Power dissipation inside source

Source current = potential drop across 30W
Isource = (360 - VAB )/30 = 210/30 = 7A
Psource = 360 . 7 = 2520 W
Efficiency = Pload / Psource = 900/2520 = 35.71% 70
Power efficiency
4000 Source power = Source voltage x source current
current drops with increasing resistance
Power [Watts]

Load power = Load voltage x load current

2000 Optimum power transfer for load matching

0
0 50 100 150 200
Load resistance [Ohms] 71
Power transfer and power efficiency

72
How best to operate a power station

Maximum power
Matched load/supply
Maximum current
Maximum voltage
None of the above

Image: Battersea power station, London, inclusive Pink Floyd’s pig

73
Power transfer and power efficiency

Maximum power out when

input impedance = load

74
Calculate the maximum power that can be delivered to load RL
How far do you think you can get?
Identified interface
Can calculate RTH
Can write node equations
Can calculate VTH
Can calculate power in RL

This is quite a complex question with a few steps, but all the methods are
in your notes. Write down a plan, then we solve together
75
Thévenin equivalent : RTH
Source Load

All independent sources:

Voltage sources: short circuit = 0V
Current sources: open circuit = 0mA

RTH at source terminals = 6 + 10//10 = 11 kW

by inspection 76
Thévenin equivalent : VTH = V3@OC
Consider RL open circuit: by inspection Source V3@OC
V1
VT = V3 & V1 – V2 = 6
KCL @ supernode V1&V2 and node V3
(V1-V3)/6k + (V2-V3)/2k + (V2-9)/10 +V2/10 = 0 V2
2/3 V1 + 7/10 V2 – 2/3 V3 = 9 No
(V3 – V2)/2 + (V3-V1)/6 =0 load
– 1/6 V1 – 1/2 V2 + 2/3 V3 =0
1 -1 0 6
G = 2/3 7/10 -2/3 9
-1/6 -1/2 2/3 0 77
 Thévenin equivalent : VTH = V3@OC
1 -1 0 6 Source V3@OC
G = 2/3 7/10 -2/3 9 V1
-1/6 -1/2 2/3 0
Solve with Matlab ...
V2
Node voltages
No
load
Identity matrix

V3 = VTH = 10.1V for open circuit source

RTH = 11kW from earlier slide 78
 Thévenin equivalent connected to load
Source V3 Load
RT = 11kW VL = VT / 2 V1
by inspection
(potential divider)
VT = 10.1V
RL = 11kW V2

Optimum power transfer for RT = RL

Maximum power deliverable from the supply

to a load = (VT/2)2/RT = 2.32 mW
79
What we have learnt today
• Superposition
• Recognise the ability to add sources in linear circuits
• Use superposition to simplify circuit analysis with multiple sources
• Thevenin and Norton equivalents
• Recognise the ability to reduce any linear resistive circuit to one
resistor and one source
• Use source transformation, superposition and equivalent circuits
to reduce source complexity
• Maximum power transfer
• Use Thevenin circuits to show an optimum load for power transfer
and estimate electrical efficiency 80
Homework
• Self-assessment questions for class 3
materials – we started this in the third hour –
please complete
• On-line assessment in Canvas/OnCourse –
three attempts possible until Sundary. Best
scores used

• Review the complex number worksheet in

Canvas before week 6
• Prepare for next class by reading chapter 6 on
Capacitance and Inductance
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