Endocrine System Introduction

The endocrine system is made up of glands that produce and secrete hormones. These hormones regulate the body's growth, metabolism (the physical and
chemical processes of the body), and sexual development and function. The hormones are released into the bloodstream and may affect one or several organs
throughout the body.
Hormones are chemical messengers created by the body. They transfer information from one set of cells to another to coordinate the functions of different parts of
the body.
The major glands of the endocrine system are the hypothalamus, pituitary, thyroid, parathyroids, adrenals, pineal body, and the reproductive organs (ovaries and
testes). The pancreas is also a part of this system; it has a role in hormone production as well as in digestion. The endocrine system is regulated by feedback in
much the same way that a thermostat regulates the temperature in a room. For the hormones that are regulated by the pituitary gland, a signal is sent from the
hypothalamus to the pituitary gland in the form of a "releasing hormone," which stimulates the pituitary to secrete a "stimulating hormone" into the circulation. The
stimulating hormone then signals the target gland to secrete its hormone. As the level of this hormone rises in the circulation, the hypothalamus and the pituitary
gland shut down secretion of the releasing hormone and the stimulating hormone, which in turn slows the secretion by the target gland. This system results in stable
blood concentrations of the hormones that are regulated by the pituitary gland.

Hormones Regulated by the Hypothalamic/Pituitary System

Hormone Pituitary Stimulating Hormone Hypothalamic Releasing Hormone
Thyroid hormones T4, T3 Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) Thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH)
Cortisol Adrenocorticotropin hormone (ACTH) Corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF)
Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH), luteinizing Luteinizing hormone-releasing hormone (LHRH) or gonadotropin-
Estrogen or testosterone
hormone (LH) releasing hormone (GnRH)
Insulinlike growth factor-I (IGF-I) Growth hormone Growth hormone-releasing hormone (GHRH)
Hypothalamus

The hypothalamus is located in the lower central part of the brain. This part of the brain is important in regulation of satiety, metabolism, and body temperature. In
addition, it secretes hormones that stimulate or suppress the release of hormones in the pituitary gland. Many of these hormones are releasing hormones, which are
secreted into an artery (the hypophyseal portal system) that carries them directly to the pituitary gland. In the pituitary gland, these releasing hormones signal
secretion of stimulating hormones. The hypothalamus also secretes a hormone called somatostatin, which causes the pituitary gland to stop the release of growth
hormone.

Pituitary Gland

The pituitary gland is located at the base of the brain beneath the hypothalamus and is no larger than a pea. It is often considered the most important part of the
endocrine system because it produces hormones that control many functions of other endocrine glands. When the pituitary gland does not produce one or more of its
hormones or not enough of them, it is called hypopituitarism.
The pituitary gland is divided into two parts: the anterior lobe and the posterior lobe. The anterior lobe produces the following hormones, which are regulated by the
hypothalamus:

 Growth hormone - Stimulates growth of bone and tissue (growth hormone deficiency in children results in growth failure. Growth hormone deficiency in
adults results in problems in maintaining proper amounts of body fat and muscle and bone mass. It is also involved in emotional well-being.)
 Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) - Stimulates the thyroid gland to produce thyroid hormones (A lack of thyroid hormones either because of a defect in
the pituitary or the thyroid itself is called hypothyroidism.)

 Adrenocorticotropin hormone (ACTH) - Stimulates the adrenal gland to produce several related steroid hormones

 Luteinizing hormone (LH) and follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) - Hormones that control sexual function and production of the sex steroids, estrogen and
progesterone in females or testosterone in males

 Prolactin - Hormone that stimulates milk production in females

The posterior lobe produces the following hormones, which are not regulated by the hypothalamus:

 Antidiuretic hormone (vasopressin) - Controls water loss by the kidneys

 Oxytocin - Contracts the uterus during childbirth and stimulates milk production

The hormones secreted by the posterior pituitary are actually produced in the brain and carried to the pituitary gland through nerves. They are stored in the pituitary
gland.

Thyroid Gland

The thyroid gland is located in the lower front part of the neck. It produces thyroid hormones that regulate the body's metabolism. It also plays a role in bone growth
and development of the brain and nervous system in children. The pituitary gland controls the release of thyroid hormones. Thyroid hormones also help maintain
normal blood pressure, heart rate, digestion, muscle tone, and reproductive functions.
Parathyroid Glands

The parathyroid glands are two pairs of small glands embedded in the surface of the thyroid gland, one pair on each side. They release parathyroid hormone, which
plays a role in regulating calcium levels in the blood and bone metabolism.

Adrenal Glands

The adrenal glands are triangular-shaped glands located on top of each kidney. The adrenal glands are made up of two parts. The outer part is called the adrenal
cortex, and the inner part is called the adrenal medulla. The outer part produces hormones called corticosteroids, which regulate the body's metabolism, the balance
of salt and water in the body, the immune system, and sexual function. The inner part, or adrenal medulla, produces hormones called catecholamines (for example,
adrenaline). These hormones help the body cope with physical and emotional stress by increasing the heart rate and blood pressure.

Pineal Body

The pineal body, or pineal gland, is located in the middle of the brain. It secretes a hormone called melatonin, which may help regulate the wake-sleep cycle of the
body.

Reproductive Glands

The reproductive glands are the main source of sex hormones. In males, the testes, located in the scrotum, secrete hormones called androgens; the most important
of which is testosterone. These hormones affect many male characteristics (for example, sexual development, growth of facial hair and pubic hair) as well as sperm
production. In females, the ovaries, located on both sides of the uterus, produce estrogen and progesterone as well as eggs. These hormones control the
development of female characteristics (for example, breast growth), and they are also involved in reproductive functions (for example, menstruation, pregnancy).

Pancreas

The pancreas is an elongated organ located toward the back of the abdomen behind the stomach. The pancreas has digestive and hormonal functions. One part of
the pancreas, the exocrine pancreas, secretes digestive enzymes. The other part of the pancreas, the endocrine pancreas, secretes hormones called insulin and
glucagon. These hormones regulate the level of glucose (sugar) in the blood.

Excretory system

The urinary system is made-up of the kidneys, ureters, bladder, and urethra. The nephron, an evolutionary modification of the nephridium, is the kidney's functional
unit. Waste is filtered from the blood and collected as urine in each kidney. Urine leaves the kidneys by ureters, and collects in the bladder. The bladder can distend
to store urine that eventually leaves through the urethra.

The Nephron

The nephron consists of a cup-shaped capsule containing capillaries and the glomerulus, and a long renal tube. Blood flows into the kidney through the renal artery,
which branches into capillaries associated with the glomerulus. Arterial pressure causes water and solutes from the blood to filter into the capsule. Fluid flows
through the proximal tubule, which include the loop of Henle, and then into the distal tubule. The distal tubule empties into a collecting duct. Fluids and solutes are
returned to the capillaries that surround the nephron tubule.

The nephron has three functions:

1.        Glomerular filtration of water and solutes from the blood.

2.        Tubular reabsorption of water and conserved molecules back into the blood.

3.        Tubular secretion of ions and other waste products from surrounding capillaries into the distal tubule.

Nephrons filter 125 ml of body fluid per minute; filtering the entire body fluid component 16 times each day. In a 24 hour period nephrons produce 180 liters of filtrate,
of which 178.5 liters are reabsorbed. The remaining 1.5 liters forms urine.

Urine Production

1.        Filtration in the glomerulus and nephron capsule.

2.        Reabsorption in the proximal tubule.

3.        Tubular secretion in the Loop of Henle.

Components of The Nephron

 Glomerulus: mechanically filters blood

 Bowman's Capsule: mechanically filters blood
 Proximal Convoluted Tubule: Reabsorbs 75% of the water, salts, glucose, and amino acids
 Loop of Henle: Countercurrent exchange, which maintains the concentration gradient
 Distal Convoluted Tubule: Tubular secretion of H ions, potassium, and certain drugs.

Human Excretory System

The human excretory system disposes of toxins and waste products from the cells in the body. These toxins travel through the bloodstream and into the main organ
of the excretory system, the kidney. To excrete means to discharge or expel waste from the tissues, organs and body. This waste is expelled in liquid form, unlike the
solid waste expelled from the digestive system.

1.        Kidneys
Human kidneys are located near the spinal column in the lower back, just below the rib cage. They are bean-shaped organs about the size of a
clenched fist. The kidneys are the waste-removal organs of the body. They filter 200 quarts of blood every day to remove two quarts of waste
products and any water the body does not need. There are small filters located inside the kidneys called nephrons. Each nephron is actually a
blood vessel with a tiny tube attached to collect urine. The blood vessel is porous enough to let the waste out but solid enough to retain the
proteins and blood cells.
2.        Delivery and Removal
The kidneys receive blood that contains a mixture of proteins, toxins and minerals through one artery, called the renal artery, which is
connected to the aorta, the largest artery in the body. During filtration, the kidneys measure the amounts of vitamins and minerals needed in
the body, sending the needed quantities out through the renal vein and into the vena cava, the largest vein in the body. The waste material
collects in tubules connected to the nephrons and moves to a collecting duct, which connects to the renal pelvis, a collection chamber for urine.
3.        From Kidney to Bladder
The renal pelvis is the receptacle for all the urine that comes from the tubules connected to the nephrons. The waste liquid leaves the kidney
through the renal pyramid to the ureter, which runs from the kidney down to the bladder. The ureter is an elastic tube that measures 3
millimeters in diameter and up to one foot in length in adults.
4.        Bladder
The urinary bladder is located in the pelvis below the navel. It is a rounded structure that can hold up to 600 milliliters of urine, or two and half
cups, but most people feel the urge to relieve themselves at 150 milliliters, or just under two-thirds of a cup. When the bladder is about half full,
nerve impulses relax the muscles holding the urine in the bladder. The person feels the need to release the urine and then the liquid is expelled
through the urethra.
5.        Urethra
From kidney to bladder, male and female anatomy are identical, but men have a longer urethra than women. The average female has a urethra
measuring up to one and a half inches, and the average male has a urethra that is eight inches long. Each has a sphincter muscle at the end to
control the release of the liquid. The male urethra is divided into three sections, due to its dual purpose in reproduction and excretion. The first
section, near the bladder is called the prostatic urethra, connecting to the prostrate gland. The second section is called the membranous
urethra, connecting the bulbourethral gland. The third and final section is called the spongy or penile urethra, which actually expels the urine.
The Immune System 

The immune system is composed of many interdependent cell types that collectively protect the body from bacterial, parasitic, fungal, viral infections and from the
growth of tumor cells. Many of these cell types have specialized functions. The cells of the immune system can engulf bacteria, kill parasites or tumor cells, or kill
viral-infected cells. Often, these cells depend on the T helper subset for activation signals in the form of secretions formally known as cytokines, lymphokines, or
more specifically interleukins. The purpose of this article is to review the organs, cell types and interactions between cells of the immune system as a commentary on
their importance and interdependence on the T helper subset. Such an understanding may help comprehend the root of immune deficiencies, and perceive potential
avenues that the immune system can be modulated in the case of specific diseases.

The Organs of the Immune System

Bone Marrow --

All the cells of the immune system are initially derived from the bone marrow. They form through a process called hematopoiesis. During hematopoiesis, bone
marrow-derived stem cells differentiate into either mature cells of the immune system or into precursors of cells that migrate out of the bone marrow to continue their
maturation elsewhere. The bone marrow produces B cells, natural killer cells, granulocytes and immature thymocytes, in addition to red blood cells and platelets.

Thymus -- The function of the thymus is to produce mature T cells. Immature thymocytes, also known as prothymocytes, leave the bone marrow and migrate into the
thymus. Through a remarkable maturation process sometimes referred to as thymic education, T cells that are beneficial to the immune system are spared, while
those T cells that might evoke a detrimental autoimmune response are eliminated. The mature T cells are then released into the bloodstream.
Spleen -- The spleen is an immunologic filter of the blood. It is made up of B cells, T cells, macrophages, dendritic cells, natural killer cells and red blood cells. In
addition to capturing foreign materials (antigens) from the blood that passes through the spleen, migratory macrophages and dendritic cells bring antigens to the
spleen via the bloodstream. An immune response is initiated when the macrophage or dendritic cells present the antigen to the appropriate B or T cells. This organ
can be thought of as an immunological conference center. In the spleen, B cells become activated and produce large amounts of antibody. Also, old red blood cells
are destroyed in the spleen.

Lymph Nodes -- The lymph nodes function as an immunologic filter for the bodily fluid known as lymph. Lymph nodes are found throughout the body. Composed
mostly of T cells, B cells, dendritic cells and macrophages, the nodes drain fluid from most of our tissues. Antigens are filtered out of the lymph in the lymph node
before returning the lymph to the circulation. In a similar fashion as the spleen, the macrophages and dendritic cells that capture antigens present these foreign
materials to T and B cells, consequently initiating an immune response.

The Cells of the Immune System

T-Cells --

T lymphocytes are usually divided into two major subsets that are functionally and phenotypically (identifiably) different. The T helper subset, also called the CD4+ T
cell, is a pertinent coordinator of immune regulation. The main function of the T helper cell is to augment or potentiate immune responses by the secretion of
specialized factors that activate other white blood cells to fight off infection.

Another important type of T cell is called the T killer/suppressor subset or CD8+ T cell. These cells are important in directly killing certain tumor cells, viral-infected
cells and sometimes parasites. The CD8+ T cells are also important in down-regulation of immune responses. Both types of T cells can be found throughout the
body. They often depend on the secondary lymphoid organs (the lymph nodes and spleen) as sites where activation occurs, but they are also found in other tissues
of the body, most conspicuously the liver, lung, blood, and intestinal and reproductive tracts.

Natural Killer Cells -- Natural killer cells, often referred to as NK cells, are similar to the killer T cell subset (CD8+ T cells). They function as effector cells that directly
kill certain tumors such as melanomas, lymphomas and viral-infected cells, most notably herpes and cytomegalovirus-infected cells. NK cells, unlike the CD8+ (killer)
T cells, kill their targets without a prior "conference" in the lymphoid organs. However, NK cells that have been activated by secretions from CD4+ T cells will kill their
tumor or viral-infected targets more effectively.

B Cells -- The major function of B lymphocytes is the production of antibodies in response to foreign proteins of bacteria, viruses, and tumor cells. Antibodies are
specialized proteins that specifically recognize and bind to one particular protein that specifically recognize and bind to one particular protein. Antibody production
and binding to a foreign substance or antigen, often is critical as a means of signaling other cells to engulf, kill or remove that substance from the body.

Granulocytes or Polymorphonuclear (PMN) Leukocytes -- Another group of white blood cells is collectively referred to as granulocytes or polymorphonuclear
leukocytes (PMNs). Granulocytes are composed of three cell types identified as neutrophils, eosinophils and basophils, based on their staining characteristics with
certain dyes. These cells are predominantly important in the removal of bacteria and parasites from the body. They engulf these foreign bodies and degrade them
using their powerful enzymes.

Macrophages -- Macrophages are important in the regulation of immune responses. They are often referred to as scavengers or antigen-presenting cells (APC)
because they pick up and ingest foreign materials and present these antigens to other cells of the immune system such as T cells and B cells. This is one of the
important first steps in the initiation of an immune response. Stimulated macrophages exhibit increased levels of phagocytosis and are also secretory.

Dendritic Cells -- Another cell type, addressed only recently, is the dendritic cell. Dendritic cells, which also originate in the bone marrow, function as antigen
presenting cells (APC). In fact, the dendritic cells are more efficient apcs than macrophages. These cells are usually found in the structural compartment of the
lymphoid organs such as the thymus, lymph nodes and spleen. However, they are also found in the bloodstream and other tissues of the body. It is believed that they
capture antigen or bring it to the lymphoid organs where an immune response is initiated. Unfortunately, one reason we know so little about dendritic cells is that they
are extremely hard to isolate, which is often a prerequisite for the study of the functional qualities of specific cell types. Of particular issue here is the recent finding
that dendritic cells bind high amount of HIV, and may be a reservoir of virus that is transmitted to CD4+ T cells during an activation event.

The Immune Response

An immune response to foreign antigen requires the presence of an antigen-presenting cell (APC), (usually either a macrophage or dendritic cell) in combination with
a B cell or T cell. When an APC presents an antigen on its cell surface to a B cell, the B cell is signalled to proliferate and produce antibodies that specifically bind to
that antigen. If the antibodies bind to antigens on bacteria or parasites it acts as a signal for pmns or macrophages to engulf (phagocytose) and kill them. Another
important function of antibodies is to initiate the "complement destruction cascade." When antibodies bind to cells or bacteria, serum proteins called complement bind
to the immobilized antibodies and destroy the bacteria by creating holes in them. Antibodies can also signal natural killer cells and macrophages to kill viral or
bacterial-infected cells.

If the APC presents the antigen to T cells, the T cells become activated. Activated T cells proliferate and become secretory in the case of CD4+ T cells, or, if they are
CD8+ T cells, they become activated to kill target cells that specifically express the antigen presented by the APC. The production of antibodies and the activity of
CD8+ killer T cells are highly regulated by the CD4+ helper T cell subset. The CD4+ T cells provide growth factors or signals to these cells that signal them to
proliferate and function more efficiently. This multitude of interleukins or cytokines that are produced and secreted by CD4+ T cells are often crucial to ensure the
activation of natural killer cells, macrophages, CD8+ T cells, and PMNs is listed in the chart below.

The Human Nervous System

The nervous system is essentially a biological information highway, and is responsible for controlling all the biological processes and movement in the body, and can
also receive information and interpret it via electrical signals which are used in this nervous system

It consists of the Central Nervous System (CNS), essentially the processing area and the Peripheral Nervous System which detects and sends electrical impulses
that are used in the nervous system

The Central Nervous System (CNS)

The Central Nervous System is effectively the centre of the nervous system, the part of it that processes the information received from the peripheral nervous
system. The CNS consists of the brain and spinal cord. It is responsible for receiving and interpreting signals from the peripheral nervous system and also sends out
signals to it, either consciously or unconsciously. This information highway called the nervous system consists of many nerve cells, also known as neurones, as seen
below.

The Nerve Cell

Each neurone consists of a nucleus situated in the cell body, where outgrowths called processes originate from. The main one of these processes is the axon, which
is responsible for carrying outgoing messages from the cell. This axon can originate from the CNS and extend all the way to the body's extremities, effectively
providing a highway for messages to go to and from the CNS to these body extremities.

Dendrites are smaller secondary processes that grow from the cell body and axon. On the end of these dendrites lie the axon terminals, which 'plug' into a cell where
the electrical signal from a nerve cell to the target cell can be made. This 'plug' (the axon terminal) connects into a receptor on the target cell and can transmit
information between cells

The Way Nerve Cells Communicate

The "All-Or-None-Law" applies to nerve cell communication as they use an on / off signal (like an digital signal) so that the message can remain clear and effective
from its travel from the CNS to the target cell or vice versa. This is a factor because just like electricity signals, the signal fades out and must be boosted along its
journey. But if the message is either 1 or 0 (i.e.) on or off the messages are absolute.

Classification of Neurones

Interneurones - Neurones lying entirely within the CNS

Afferent Neurones - Also known as sensory neurones, these are specialised to send impulses towards the CNS away from the peripheral system

Efferent Neurones - These nerve cells carry signals from the CNS to the cells in the peripheral system

The Central Nervous System is arguably the most important part of the body because of the way it controls the biological processes of our body and all conscious
thought. Due to their importance, they are safely encased within bones, namely the cranium protecting the brain and the spine protecting the spinal cord

Brain Divisions

There are three main components of the brain, namely the brainstem, cerebellum and the forebrain. These are elaborated upon below

 The Brainstem - The brainstem is the connection between the rest of the brain and the rest of the central nervous system. This part of the brain was the
first to be found in the evolutionary chain, though has developed over time and via evolution to develop into the two other components. It is primarily
concerned with life support and basic functions such as movement, thus meaning that more advanced processes are left to the more evolved areas of the
brain, as explained below.
 The Cerebellum - Consisting of two hemispheres, the cerebellum is primarily concerned with movement and works in partnership with the brainstem area
of the brain and focuses on the well being and functionality of muscles. The structure can be found below the occipital lobe and adjacent to the brainstem
 The Forebrain - The forebrain lies above the brainstem and cerebellum and is the most advanced in evolutionary terms. Due to its complexity, more info is
divulged about this part of the brain below

The Forebrain

The forebrain has many activities that it is responsible for and is divided into many component parts. The below list elaborates on the localised areas of the forebrain
and their functions.

 The Hypothalamus - A section of the brain found next to the thalamus that is involved in many regulatory functions such as osmoregulation and
thermoregulation. The hypothalamus has a degree of control over the pituitary gland, another part of the brain situated next to it, and also controls
sleeping patterns, eating and drinking and speech. The hypothalamus is also responsible for the secretion of ADH (Anti-Diuretic Hormone) via its
neurosecretory cells
  The Cerebrum - The cerebrum is the largest part of the human brain, and the part responsible for intelligence and creativity, and also involved in memory.
The 'grey matter' of the cerebrum is the cerebral cortex, the centre that receives information from the thalamus and all the other lower centres in the brain.
 The Cerebral Cortex - Part of the cerebrum, this part of the brain deals with almost all of the higher functions of an intelligent being. It is this part of brain
that deals with the masses of information incoming from the periphery nervous system, furiously instructing the brain of what is going on inside its body
and the external environment. It is this part that translates our nervous impulses into understandable quantifiable feelings and thoughts. So important is
the cerebral cortex that it is sub-divided into 4 parts, explained below

1.        Frontal Lobe - Found at the front of the head, near the temples and forehead, the frontal lobe is essential to many of the advanced functions of an
evolved brain. It deals with voluntary muscle movements and deals with more intricate matters such as thought and speech

2.        Parietal Lobe - Situated behind the frontal lobe, this section deals with spatial awareness in the external environment and acts as a receptor area to
deal with signals associated with tough.

3.        Temporal Lobe - The temporal lobes are situated in parallel with the ears, they serve the ears by interpreting audio signals received from the
auditory canal

4.        Occipital Lobe - This is the smallest of the four lobe components of the cerebrum, and is responsible in interpreting nerve signals from the eye at
the back of the brain

The Central Nervous System

Myelin Sheath

Myelin is a substance that forms the myelin sheath associated with nerve cells. This sheath is a layer of phospholipids that increases the conductivity of the electrical
messages that are sent through the cell. Diseases such as multiple sclerosis are a result in a lack of this myelin sheath, with the resultant effect being that the
conductivity of signals is much slower severely decreasing the effectiveness of the nervous system in sufferers.

In total, there are 43 main nerves that branch of the CNS to the peripheral nervous system (the peripheral system is the nervous system outside the CNS. These are
the efferent neurones that carry signals away from the CNS to the peripheral system.

Somatic Nervous System

These efferent fibres are divided into the somatic nervous system and the autonomic nervous system. The somatic fibres are responsible for the voluntary movement
of our body, i.e. movement that you consciously thought about doing.

The Autonomic Nervous System

The autonomic nervous system incorporates all the impulses that are done involuntarily, and are usually associated with essential functions such as breathing,
heartbeat etc. However this type of system can further be broken down into the sympathetic and parasympathetic systems which keep one another in check in a form
of negative feedback such as the release of insulin and glucagon in sugar control of the blood. 

All of the actions executed by the autonomic nervous system are unconsciously done.

These informational pulses executed in our nervous system allow us to do our daily functions. The processing of this information is done in the CNS, the brain, a
highly developed mass of nerve cells. The inner workings of the brain are investigated on the next page.

Causes of Brain Damage

The brain is a highly specialised tissue, far more complex than today's 21st century supercomputers. Due to this magnificent complexity, even the slightest damage
can have extreme consequences

The brain can be damaged in a variety of ways, and depending on the areas damaged and the severity of the damage, it can prove relatively harmless to fatal. Some
causes of brain damage are below

 Genetics - A dysfunctional hereditary gene could have been passed on to the offspring which prevented the full development of a healthy brain
 Blow - A sufficient blow to the head can supercede the skulls defences (particularly at the temple) and can therefore allow structural damage to occur.
  Lack of Blood - Lack of blood to the brain can cause severe problems for the cells associated with the brain. A human can survive for four minutes without
oxygen before the brain damage becomes so severe there is no realistic chance of survival. A stroke is an event where there is a blood shortage to the
brain, which is caused by a blood clot
 Tumours - Cancer has been a major non-infectious disease more recognised over the last decade, and more cases of brain tumours are detected
nowadays due to more sophisticated techniques. The continued growth of these cancerous cells puts pressure on the brain, which can cause a blood clot
or directly cause brain damage due to the pressure of the tumour pressing against it.

Types of Brain Damage

 Aphasia - A type of brain damage affecting communication capabilities in the organism. This can range from the inability to construct a sentence either in
voice or on paper, to the inability to recognise speech itself. This sort of damage focuses on the frontal lobe area of the brain
 Visual Neglect - This is where the information collated on one half of the brain is rejected and therefore the sufferer can only operate with one eye,
because the part of the brain receiving visual information from the other eye is not functioning properly. In some cases, sufferers may only be able to paint
half a painting or eat one half of a plate of food as they are unaware of the information about the other half of the environment.
 Amnesia - Or retrograde amnesia, this sort of damage affects the memory, caused by degeneration / damage in the frontal lobe. Sufferers have memory
blanks when relating to past experiences in their life
 Agnosia - This unusual sort of brain damage is where sufferers still have the complete ability to see around them (unlike visual neglect), though cannot
relate their surroundings in a quantifiable way, i.e. they fail to recognise a familiar surrounding, person or object, due to a malfunction in recalling past
events involving the surrounding, person or object

   It is easy to forget that much of the human nervous system is concerned with routine, involuntary jobs, such as homeostasis, digestion, posture, breathing, etc. This
is the job of the autonomic nervous system, and its motor functions are split into two divisions, with anatomically distinct neurones. Most body organs are innervated
by two separate sets of motor neurones; one from the sympathetic system and one from the parasympathetic system. These neurones have opposite (or
antagonistic) effects. In general the sympathetic system stimulates the “fight or flight” responses to threatening situations, while the parasympathetic system relaxes
the body. The details are listed in this table:

Sympathetic Parasympathetic
Organ
System System
Constricts pupil
Dilates pupil

Eye Stimulates tear

No effect
secretion
Tear glands
Inhibits saliva
Stimulates saliva
production
Salivary glands production

Dilates bronchi
Lungs Constricts bronchi

Speeds up heart Slows down heart

Heart
rate rate

Gut Stimulates
Inhibits peristalsis
peristalsis
Liver
Stimulates glucose
Stimulates bile
production
Bladder production

Inhibits urination
Stimulates urination