BACHELOR OF BUSINESS ADMINISTRATION /

BACHELOR OF COMMERCE /
BACHELOR OF SCIENCE
(TRAVEL AND TOURISM MANAGEMENT) /
BACHELOR OF COMPUTER APPLICATIONS /
BACHELOR OF ARTS
COMPUTER FUNDAMENTALS

BBA104/BCM104/BTT104/BAQ102

Dr. R.G. Saha

Dr. Shruthi Prabhakar

CHANDIGARH UNIVERSITY
Institute of Distance and Online Learning
Course Development Committee
 Chairman
Prof. (Dr.) R.S. Bawa
Vice Chancellor, Chandigarh University, Punjab
Advisors
Prof. (Dr.) Bharat Bhushan, Director, IGNOU
Prof. (Dr.) Majulika Srivastava, Director, CIQA, IGNOU
Programme Coordinators & Editing Team
Master of Business Administration (MBA) (BBA) Co-ordinator - Dr. Rupali Arora
Co-ordinator - Prof. Pragya Sharma Master Bachelor of Computer Applications
of Computer Applications (MCA) Co- (BCA) Co-ordinator - Dr. Raju Kumar
ordinator - Dr. Deepti Rani Sindhu Master of Bachelor of Commerce (B.Com.)
Commerce (M.Com.) Co-ordinator - Dr. Minakshi Garg
Co-ordinator - Dr. Shashi Singhal Bachelor of Science (Travel
Master of Arts (Psychology) &TourismManagement) Co-ordinator - Dr.
Co-ordinator - Dr. Samerjeet Kaur Shikha Sharma
Master of Arts (English) Bachelor of Arts (General)
Co-ordinator - Dr. Ashita Chadha Master of Co-ordinator - Ms. Neeraj Gohlan
Arts (Mass Communication and Bachelor of Arts (Mass Communication
Journalism) and Journalism)
Co-ordinator - Dr. Chanchal Sachdeva Suri Co-ordinator - Dr. Kamaljit Kaur
Bachelor of Business Administration
Academic and Administrative Management
Prof. (Dr.) Pranveer Singh Satvat Pro VC Prof. (Dr.) S.S. Sehgal
(Academic) Registrar
Prof. (Dr.) H. Nagaraja Udupa Director – Prof. (Dr.) Shiv Kumar Tripathi Executive
(IDOL) Director – USB

© No part of this publication should be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form
or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording and/or otherwise without the prior
written permission of the author and the publisher.

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CU IDOL STUDENTS

Printed and Published by:

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For: CHANDIGARH UNIVERSITY
Institute of Distance and Online Learning

CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Computer Fundamentals

Course Code: BBA104/BCM104/BTT104/BAQ102 Credits: 3

Course Objectives:
● To understand the organization and operation of a computer processor, primary and
secondary memory, peripheral devices.
● Toenrich student with knowledge of networking and applications in the computer. ●
To apply the knowledge of various operating systems and their practical implications.

Syllabus
Unit 1 - Computer Basics: Introduction, Characteristics of a Computer, Criteria for Using
Computers.

Unit 2 - History: Past Developments in Computers, Generations of Computer. Unit 3 -

Classification of Computers: Applications of Computer, Basic Components of PC, Computer
Architecture.

Unit 4 - Hardware and Software: Introduction, Computer Memory, Secondary Memory.

Unit 5 - Hardware and Software: Computer Peripherals, Output Devices, Software

Requirements.

Unit 6 - Detailed Content: Video Display, Storage Devices, Power Supplies. Unit 7 -
Detailed Content: Basic Input and Output System, Wi-Fi, Operating System.

Unit 8 - Windows: Introduction, Features, Comparison between Professional and Home Edition,
Windows Installation, Activating Windows, Security Features of Windows, Accessing User
Accounts and Getting Help.

Unit 9 - Excel: Introduction, Workbook, Worksheet, Formatting in Excel, Advanced Formatting

in Excel, Working with Formulas, Printing Worksheets.

Unit 10 - Word Processing Basics: Opening and Closing Documents, Text Creation and
Manipulation, Formatting the Text, Table Manipulation.

CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Unit 11 - MS-PowerPoint: Introduction, Creating a Presentation, Basic Formatting in
PowerPoint, Advanced Formatting, Using Templates, Inserting Charts, Inserting Tables, Printing
Presentations.

Text Books:
1. French C.S., (1998). Data Processing and Information Technology. New Delhi: BPB
Publications.
 2. Sinha P.K. (1992). Computer Fundamentals. New Delhi: BPB Publications.
Reference Books:
1. Davis, H. (1998). The ABCs of Microsoft Office 97 Professional edition. New Delhi: BPB
Publications.

CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

CONTENTS

Unit 1: Computer Basics 1 - 8 Unit 2: History 9 - 30 Unit 3: Classification of Computers 31 -

63 Unit 4: Storage Devices 64 - 84 Unit 5: Hardware and Software 85 - 132 Unit 6: Bringing
Computer to Life 133 - 160 Unit 7: Basics of Operating System 161 - 176 Unit 8: Windows
177 - 204 Unit 9: Word Processing Basics 205 - 233
Unit 10: MS-Excel 234 - 258 Unit 11: MS-PowerPoint 259 - 276

CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Computer Basics 1

UNIT 1 COMPUTER BASICS

Structure:
1.0 Learning Objectives

1.1 Introduction

1.2 Definition of Computer

1.3 Characteristics of Computer

1.4 Limitations of Computer

 1.5 Summary

1.6 Key Words/Abbreviations

1.7 Learning Activity

1.8 Unit End Questions (MCQs and Descriptive)

1.9 References

1.0 Learning Objectives

After studying this unit, you will be able to:

● Understand the concept of Computer Basics. ●

Discuss the characteristics of a computer. ●

Explain the criteria for using computers.

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2 Computer Fundamentals

1.1 Introduction

A few years ago the “TIME” magazine of the United States chose the computer as the “Man
of the Year”, perhaps recognizing the contributions of the computer to mankind. The computer
was rated on par with statesmen and scientists who changed the course of history. In the area of
business applications, computers have caused a fundamental change in the way businesses are
conducted. Changes that were taking at a revolutionary pace now seem revolutionary, thanks to
the computer. Computer with all the support it offers has now become indispensable tool in the
hands of managers for their decision making, to run an organization in a proper and efficient
manner. The nature of modern organizations, the current legal and social environment, advanced
technology and the expanding role of management have created information they needs that
cannot be satisfied by traditional means. Computers are in the fore front of the revolution that
provides today’s users with the necessary “information and knowledge edge” to survive and excel
in today’s business scenario.

It is the versatility of human ability to reduce a complex problem to a simple logically

connected problem and then use a computer to solve them. Primarily, computers are used for
calculations

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Computer Basics 3

which were beyond contemplation because of time span and monotony involved to solve them.
Apart from scientific work computers are now applied to a variety of applications. Computers are
used for word processing and publishing activities. Portable laptops are used by people to keep in
touch with their organizations, even while negotiating a deal with a customer. Computers are used
in infer the moods of the market through complex statistical programs. Computers are used in
aircraft, submarines and advanced space shuttles for navigation. Computers are used at home, in
the office, at Schools and in the Banks. Today, the world revolves around the computer. Whatever
the career is chosen, nobody cannot ignore the computer.

1.2 Definition of Computer

The origin of the word computer is taken from Latin word “Computare”, meaning "to
calculate". So, according to this definition, Computer is a machine which can perform
calculations at very high speed. In other words, Computer is an electronic device which converts
raw data into meaningful information. A computer is an electromechanical device which, accepts
data, stores and processes the data and gives out meaningful information at a very high speed with
accuracy.
 So it can be said,

Computer is a digital and automatic machine that takes data as input from the users,
processes it, stores it if necessary and gives output in desired form.

Standard Definitions of a Computer

“A device used for computing; specifically, an electronic machine which, by means of stored
instructions and information, performs rapid, often complex calculations or compiles, correlates
and selects data”. – Webster’s Dictionary

“A data processor that can perform substantial computation, including numerous arithmetic and
logic operations, without intervention by a human operator during the run”. – International
Standards Organisation (ISO)

“A device capable of solving problems by accepting data, performing described operations

on the data and supplying the results of these operations”. – US Institute of Computer Sciences

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4 Computer Fundamentals

1.3 Characteristics of Computer

Today the computer plays a major role in the modern society and its development. The
characteristics that make a computer possible to play such vital role are:

(i) High Speed: Since electrical pulses cause all the operations of the computer, the
computers can perform large number of operations in just one second. The processing
speed of a computer is generally measured in Nano seconds. Since the computers are
electronic device and work with the electrical pulses which travel at incredible speed and
hence their internal speed is also virtually instantaneous. The speed of the processing
varies with the computer hardware.

(ii) Accuracy: The accuracy of the computers is consistently very high. Computers do not
make mistakes. Errors causes in computing are generally due to negligence, such as
inaccurate data, improper procedures, poor designs, etc.

(iii) Storage Capacity: Computers have a very large storage capacity. The computers can store
large amount of data and information, which is expressed in terms of kilobytes,
megabytes and gigabytes in memory. Moreover, the storage capacity of the computers
 can be increased by using secondary storage devices such as magnetic disk. The
information stored in the secondary storage devices can be retrieved quickly with the
help of main memory (RAM).

(iv) Reliability: The computers give very accurate results with predetermined values. They
correct and modify the parameters automatically and give suitable signals. They give
formatted results with high degree of precision.

(v) Versatility: Computers are very versatile machines with manual and automatic controls.
They are capable of solving any problem and can be applied in all sorts of business and
other activities.

(vi) Automation: The special feature of computer is automation, i.e., the computer executes a
program continuously without any human intervention until completion. The central
processing unit of the computer makes it processing unit of the computer makes it
possible.

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Computer Basics 5

1.4 Limitations of Computer

The computer can outperform human beings in speed, memory and accuracy but still the
computer has limitations. There are following limitations of a computer.

(i) Programmed by human: Though computer is programmed to work efficiently, fast and
accurately but it is programmed by human beings to do so. Without a program, computer
is nothing. A program is a set of instructions. Computer only follows these instructions.
If the instructions are not accurate the working of computer will not accurate.

(ii) Thinking: The computer cannot think itself. The concept of artificial intelligence shows
that the computer can think. But still this concept is dependent on set of instructions
provided by the human beings.

(iii) Self-care: A computer cannot care itself like a human. A computer is dependent still to
human beings for this purpose.

(iv) Retrieval of memory: A computer can retrieve data very fast but this technique is linear. A
 human being’s mind does not follow this rule. A human mind can think randomly which
a computer machine cannot.

(v) Feelings: One of the main limits in the computer is of feeling. A computer cannot feel
about some like a human. A computer cannot meet human in respect of relations. Human
can feel, think and caring but a computer machine itself cannot. A computer cannot take
place of human because computer is always dependent of human.

1.5 Summary

The origin of the word computer is taken from Latin word “Computare”, meaning "to
calculate". So, according to this definition, Computer is a machine which can perform
calculations at very high speed. In other words, computer is an electronic device which converts
raw data into meaningful information. A computer is an electromechanical device which, accepts
data, stores and processes the data and gives out meaningful information at a very high speed with
accuracy.

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6 Computer Fundamentals

The accuracy of the computers is consistently very high. Computers do not make mistakes.
Errors causes in computing are generally due to negligence, such as inaccurate data, improper
procedures, poor designs, etc.

A computer can transfer data quickly from storage to memory, process it, and then store it
again for future use. Many computers store enormous amounts of data and make this data
available for processing anytime it is needed.

Benefits from using computers are possible because computers have the advantages of
speed, reliability, consistency, storage and communications.

One of the main limits in the computer is of feeling. A computer cannot feel about some like
a human. A computer cannot meet human in respect of relations. Human can feel, think and
caring but a computer machine itself cannot. A computer cannot take place of human because
computer is always dependent of human.

The computer can outperform human beings in speed, memory and accuracy but still the
computer has limitations.

1.6 Key Words/Abbreviations

● Computer: Computers are used for word processing and publishing activities. ●

Reliability: The computers give very accurate results with predetermined values.

● Consistency: Given the same input and processes, a computer will produce the same
results – consistently

● Storage: Computers have a very large storage capacity.

● Communications: Most computers today can communicate with other computers, often
wirelessly.

● Self-care: A computer cannot care itself like a human. A computer is dependent still to
human beings for this purpose.

CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Computer Basics 7

● Automation: The special feature of computer is automation, i.e., the computer executes a
program continuously without any human intervention until completion. The central
processing unit of the computer makes it processing unit of the computer makes it
possible.

● Feelings: One of the main limits in the computer is of feeling. A computer cannot feel
about some like a human. A computer cannot meet human in respect of relations. Human
can feel, think and caring but a computer machine itself cannot.

1.7 Learning Activity

1. Definition of computer. Explain its criteria for using computers.

——————————————————————————————————

—————————————————————————————————— 2.

Give the computer concept with their merits and limitations.

 ——————————————————————————————————

—————————————————————————————————— 3.

Define computer. What are the characteristics of computer?

——————————————————————————————————

—————————————————————————————————— 1.8

Unit End Questions (MCQs and Descriptive)

A. Descriptive Type Questions

1. Define Computer.

2. What are the characteristics of computer?

3. Explain the criteria for using computer.

4. What are the limitations of computer?

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8 Computer Fundamentals

B. Multiple Choice/Objective Type Questions

1. The computers can perform large number of operations in just __________. (a)

One minute (b) One hour

(c) One second (d) None

2. The accuracy of the computers is consistently __________.

(a) Very high (b) Very low

(c) Medium (d) None

3. Large number of Data and Information is expressed in terms of __________. (a)

Kilobytes (b) Megabytes

(c) Gigabytes (d) All of the above

 4. The term ‘Computer’ is derived from __________.

(a) Latin (b) German

(c) French (d) Arabic

5. Who is the father of Computer?

(a) Allen Turing (b) Charles Babbage

(c) Simur Cray (d) Augusta Adaming

6. Who is the father of personal computer?

(a) Edward Robert (b) Allen Turing

(c) Charles Babbage (d) None of these

Answers:

1. (c), 2. (b), 3. (d), 4 (a), 5. (a), 6. (c) 1.9 References

References of this unit have been given at the end of the book.
CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

UNIT 2 HISTORY

Structure:
2.1 Introduction

2.2 History of Computer

2.3 Generations of Computer

2.4 Summary

2.5 Key Words/Abbreviations

2.6 Learning Activity

2.7 Unit End Questions (MCQs and Descriptive)

 2.8 References

2.0 Learning Objectives

After studying this unit, you will be able to:

● Discuss the history of Computers

● Explain the past developments in Computer

● Explain the generations of Computers

2.1 Introduction
Generation in computer terminology is a change in technology a computer is/was being
used. Initially, the generation term was used to distinguish between varying hardware
technologies. Nowadays, generation includes both hardware and software, which together make
up an entire computer system.
10 Computer Fundamentals

There are five computer generations known till date. Each generation has been discussed in
detail along with their time period and characteristics. In the following table, approximate dates
against each generation has been mentioned, which are normally accepted.

2.2 History of Computer

The history of the computer dates back to a long time, when a man used his fingers for
counting. The Stone Aged man used stones for counting. Later the stones were replaced by sticks
and marks on the earth, scratches and symbols on the stones and knots on the ropes. It was very
difficult to use these computing aids, because it required some physical efforts. Moreover, the
computing speed was also very slow. This necessitated to develop a new technique and as a result
the number was discovered. The number system laid the foundation for the modern computer.

Even though the computer is basically a product of late 1940s, there were several important
developments proceeding. Let see some important developments that enroute to the invention of
Modern day computers.

3000 BC – Chinese ABACUS

1617 AD – Logs and Bones by John Napier

1620 – Slide rule by William Oughtred

 1642 – Adding machine by Blaise Pascal

1673 – Mechanical calculator by Gottfried Von Leibnitz

1801 – Punched card controlled looms by Joseph Jacquard

1833 – Difference Engine by Charles Babbage

1896 – Electromechanical card tabulators by Herman Hollerith

1937 – ABC Computer by Dr. Atanasoff and Berry

1944 – Mark I calculating machine by Howard Aiken

1947 – ENIAC operational by Eckart and John Mauchly

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History 11

1949 – EDSAC completed in England

1951 – UNIVAC I operational

ABACUS

It is a manual mechanical device developed in China. It consists of a wooden frame with two
compartments and beads sliding along the steel wires for counting. Multiplication and divisions
are done using repeated additions and subtractions. Even today, it is still used in many countries
like Japan, China, etc.

Napier’s Logs and Bones

John Napier (1550-1617), a Scottish mathematician, invented logarithms. The use of logs
enabled was to transform multiplication and division problems into problems of additions and
subtractions. In the beginning, it was called logs as artificial numbers. But later, it was named
them as logarithms.

Fig. 2.1: Napier’s Bones

 Slide Rule

Napier’s log became the basis for a well-known invention was called slide rule by William
Oughtred. In the slide rule, the final value was straight away read on the scale. It is capable of
doing mathematical operations and functions.

Fig. 2.2: Slide Rule

A slide rule consists of three parts: the body, the slide and the cursor. The body and the slide
are marked with scales. The cursor has a hairline that facilitates accurate positioning of the cursor
at a specific point on some scale.

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12 Computer Fundamentals

Pascal’s Adding Machine

The great French mathematician, Blaise Pascal (1623-1666), made the next attempt in the
computing history. Pascal invented a machine that used gears, wheels and dials. This machine
displayed numbers by the rotation of wheel. This machine was used only for addition and
subtraction of numbers. It was known as Pascal’s adding machine or Pascaline.

Fig. 2.3: Pascal’s Wheel Calculator

Leibnitz’s Calculator

Gottfried Van Lebniz (1646-1716), a famous German mathematician improved Pascal’s

machine to a special stepped gear mechanism for automatic calculation, which was named
Leibniz calculator.
 Fig. 2.4: Leibnitz’s Calculator
This machine was able to perform all the four basic mathematical operations such as
addition, subtraction, multiplication and division. It used stepped cylinder each with nine teeth of
varying lengths instead of wheels. Shift mechanism was introduced in Leibniz calculator. Moving
a digit to right or left is called a shift.

Jacquard’s Loom

Jacquard loom, also called Jacquard Attachment or Jacquard Mechanism. The Jacquard
system was developed in 1804 by Joseph-Marie Jacquard (1752-1834) of France.

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History 13

Fig. 2.5: Jacquard’s Loom

His system improved on the punched-card technology of Jacques de Vaucanson’s loom. He
used punched cards to produce complex cloth patterns with automated looms. Jacquard’s loom
provided the way for the modern storage mechanism on punched cards and the binary coding
system.

The idea behind the Jacquard’s loom was a system of punch cards and hooks. The cards
were made very thick and had rectangular holes punched in them. The hooks and needles used in
weaving were guided by these holes in the cardboard. When the hooks came into contact with the
card, they were held stationary unless it encountered one of the punched holes. Then the hook was
able to pass through the hole with a needle inserting another thread, thus forming the desired
pattern. Intricate patterns were achieved by having many cards arranged one after the other and/or
used repeatedly.

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14 Computer Fundamentals
 Fig. 2.6: Electronic Jacquard’s Loom
This idea of punch cards was revolutionary because it used the idea of a machine having the
ability to follow an algorithm. These punch cards were innovative because the cards had the
capability to store information on them. This ability to store information was what helped spark
the computer revolution.

Babbage’s Engines

Charles Babbage (1791-1871), a British mathematics professor is known as “Father of

Computer”. He developed and demonstrated a working model of a mechanical computer called
‘Difference Engine’ in 1822. Encouraged by the success of Difference Engine, he developed
another device called “Analytical Engine” in 1833.

Analytical Engine used the concepts of Automated Loom and Difference Engine. This
machine had five units. They are input, output, store, mill and control, which are similar to the
units of modern computer.

Hollerith's Machine

In 1889, Herman Hollerith (1860-1929) devised a machine that run on electricity for the
first time for calculation and recording data. This machine was capable of reading both numbers
and

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 History 15

letters, programming them and giving out letters and numbers in the desired form. It was called as
‘Tabulator’. In 1896, Hollerith established his own company called ‘Tabulating Machine
Company’. Today, these is known as, ‘International Business Machines Corporation – IBM’.

Fig. 2.7: Hollerith’s Accounting

Machine
The Mark I Computer

During the 1940s, the “Mark” series of computers were developed at Harvard University.
The Mark I computer could performed a series of mathematical operations. The first of these
computers was the Mark I put into operation in 1944 and was used until 1959. It was complex in
design and huge in size. It was 50 ft long and 8 ft high and was using 3000 decimal storage
wheels, 1400 rotary dial switches and 500 miles of wire to transmitted and read the data
electrically. It was programmed by punch cards. It was weighed 5 tons and could do a
multiplication operation in about 6 seconds. Its storage capacity was 32 words and each of 31
binary digits.
 Fig. 2.8 :The Mark I Computer

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16 Computer Fundamentals

ABC Computer

In 1937, Dr. John Atanasoff with the help of his assistant Berry designed the Attanasoff–
Berry Computer (ABC). The machine laid the foundation for the development of electronic
digital computer. It was designed with a specific purpose, to solve systems of simultaneous up to
29 linear equations. The machine exact operation was to accept two linear equations at a time
with up to 29 variables and a constant, using this data it could eliminate one of the variables.
Following this way, the machine could continue by eliminating each time one variable, until the
entire system of equations was solved.

The ABC was not a general-purpose computer (its function was fixed), meaning that it did
not implemented the stored program architecture (Von Neumann architecture). It still was the first
to implement 3 of the most important ideas used in computers nowadays. The first and probably
most important was using binary digits (1's and 0's) to represent all the numbers in a given data.
The second was to perform all the calculations using electronics instead of mechanical switches
and wheels. And the third was using the principle from the Von Neumann architecture where the
memory and the computations were separate. The ABC also implemented another important idea
using a regenerative capacitor memory that is still used nowadays in Dynamic Random Access
Memory. This means that since the capacitors are loosing their charge pretty quickly they need to
be given a new electronic charge every few milliseconds.
CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
History 17
KEYBOARD DRUM POWER SUPPLY AND
REGULATOR

DECIMAL-TO-BINARY 30 ADD-SUBTRACT LOGIC CIRCUITS

CONVERSION DRUM

BASE 2
CARD READER

BASE 2 OUTPUT
CARD PUNCHER
COUNTER DRUM

DECIMAL CARD
READER

CARRY-OVER DRUME

MOTOR
 ELECTRICAL CARD-PUNCHING CIRCUITS

MEMORY-RECENERATING CIRCUITS

Fig: 2.9 ABC Computer

The system weighed 320 kg and contained approximately 1.6 km of wire, 280 dual-triode
vacuum tubes, 31 thyratrons and was about the size of a desk. The memory of the ABC was a pair
of drums, each containing 1600 capacitors. The capacitors on each drum were organized into 32
“bands” of 50, giving the machine a speed of 30 additions/subtractions per second. Data was
represented as 50 bit binary fixed point numbers. The electronics of the memory and arithmetic
units could store and operate on 60 numbers at a time. The AC power line frequency of 60 Hz
was the primary clock rate for the lowest level operations. The logic functions were fully
electronic, implemented with vacuum tubes. It used 45 vacuum tubes for internal logic and
capacitors storage.

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18 Computer Fundamentals

ENIAC – Electronic Numerical Integrator and Calculator

Fig. 2.10: ENIAC Computer

 In 1947, John Mauchly and Eckart completed the first large-scale Electronic Digital
Computer, ENIAC. In this computer, each time a program was changed, the wiring had to be
completely rearranged. It weighed 30 tons and contained 17,468 vacuum tubes, 7,200 crystal
diodes, 1,500 relays, 70,000 resistors, 10,000 capacitors and occupied a space of 30,550 feet.
ENIAC was also programmed by punch cards and switch settings, and could read 2 numbers per
second.
EDSAC – Electronic Delay Storage Automatic Calculator

Fig. 2.11: EDSAC Computer

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History 19

The Electronic Delay Storage Automatic Calculator (EDSAC) was a UK made computer.
Maurice V. Wilkes of Cambridge University completed EDSAC in 1949. EDSAC was the first
computer to operate on the stored program concept (in which the data and instructions are stored
inside the memory). Stored program concept was given by Von Neumann which introduced the
idea of storing both instructions as well data in the binary form instead of decimal numbers. In
this machine, addition operations was accomplished in 1500 microseconds and multiplication in
4000 microsecond. EDSAC used mercury delay lines for memory and 3,000 vacuum tubes for
logic. Programs were input using 5-hole punched tape and output was via a teleprinter.

UNIVAC-I Universal Automatic Computers

In 1947, after ENIAC became operational Mauchly and Eckart formed their own company
the ‘Eckart-Mauchly Computer Corporation’. Immediately after this they started the design of
UNIVAC I. This was purchased by US Bureau of Census. UNIVAC was the first computer
 dedicated to business applications.

Fig. 2.12: UNIVAC I Computer

The UNIVAC I was the first “mass produced” computer. It contained 5200 vacuum tubes
and consumed 125 kW of power when operating. The UNIVAC was also the first computer to
come equipped with a magnetic tape unit and was the first computer to use buffer memory. The
UNIVAC

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20 Computer Fundamentals

I was used for general purpose computing with large amounts of input and output. UNIVAC I had
duplicate arithmetic units, so all errors were immediately detected.

2.3 Generations of Computer

Generation in Computer is a step in technology. It provides a framework for the growth of
the computer industry. Computers are generally classified into different generations according to
the memory device which is used in the computers. So, the term ‘generation’ is used to
distinguish between varying both hardware and software technologies. The custom of referring to
the computer era in terms of generation came into wide use only after 1951. Till today, there are
totally five generations.

Each of the generations, their time duration and their hardware devices are given in the
following table:

Generation Time Duration Hardware device

1G Computer 1940-1955 Vacuum Tubes

2G Computer 1956-1963 Transistor

3G Computer 1964-1970 Integrated Circuits (IC)

4G Computer 1971-Till Now Very Large Scale Integration (VLSI) or Microprocessor

5G Computer 1990 Onwards Artificial Intelligence Based Each of the

generations and their software are given in the following: Generation

Software are used

1G Computer Machine Language

2G Computer Assembly Language

3G Computer Structured programming languages such as C, COBOL and

FORTRAN.

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History 21

4G Computer Domain specific languages such as SQL (for database access) and TeX
(for text formatting)

5G Computer Artificial Intelligence

When generation goes up the following characteristics are in effect:

Characteristics Effect

Size Decrease

Speed Increase

Power consumption Decrease

Heat generation Decrease

Complexity Decrease

Storage capability Increase

 Processing capability Increase

Use of user-friendly software Increase

Storage devices More flexible and more capacity

Price of computer Decrease

First Generation Computer (1940 -1955)

The first generation started with UNIVAC I and IBM’s 701. They were the first computers
to be used by businesses, mostly for accounting functions such as payroll and billing. Previous
computers had been used mainly for military and scientific computation.

Hardware

Thousands of vacuum tubes were required to build a single first generation CPU. Relatively
few numbers could be stored using a vacuum tube to represent each binary digit. The lasting
contribution of the first generation computer to modern computer technology was the use of
magnetic

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22 Computer Fundamentals

storage media. Magnetic drums (cylinders with a magnetizable outer surface) were used as
internal memory or main memory.

Central processing unit

Data processing unit

AC MQ

Arithmetic-logic Control
circuits
circuitsControl signals

DR Program control uni

Input
output
equipment

IBR PC Instructions
and data

IR AR
 Main Addresses
memory
M

Fig: 2.13
Fig. 2.13: Structure of a First Generation Computer: IAS
Structure of a first-generation computer: IAS

Punched cards were used as a secondary storage. Data to be processed are transferred from
the secondary storage to the main memory. Even though they represented an improvement in
speed, drums did have limited capacity. To augment this capacity, the magnetic tape was
developed toward the end of the first generation as a secondary storage media.

Software

The first programs were expressed in the long string of binary digits that the machine deals
with. This was the machine language. Later, the first big software break through was the
development of the assembly language. This allowed programmers to use mnemonics (easily
remembered names) for operations and symbols for variables.

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History 23

Second Generation Computer (1956 -1963)

Hardware

The invention of the transistor marked the beginning of the second generation computer. By 1959,
transistors were the dominant component of the typical CPU. Primary memory was radically
transformed during this period. Tiny doughnut-shaped magnetic cores were strung together on
wires.
 Fig. 2.14: Structure of a Second Generation Computer: The IBM 7094Each tiny
core could be stored one bit. The magnetic disk was used as a secondary storage media. Disks
rotated rapidly, so that less time was required to move data into primary memory for processing.
Magnetic tapes were still being used during this time. Computer hardware generally became
smaller, more reliable and more easily maintainable. Components were “packaged” into printed
circuit boards. Diagnostic programs which test the machine for faulty parts were developed.
Software

High-level languages (programming languages that resemble written English in vocabulary

 and syntax) were developed compilers, assemblers and translators that translated statements into
machine

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24 Computer Fundamentals

language (FORTRAN, COBOL). Portability of programs between computers of different

manufacturers was also made possible.

Third Generation Computer (1964 -1970)

The third generation started with IBM developing upward compatibility with their family of
computers (IBM’s 360 product line). Any program written for one of these machines could be run
without changes in any larger machine in the series.

CPU Memory Channel

I/O

Fig. 2.15: Third Generation Computer

Hardware

Integrated Circuits (IC) were small solid pieces of silicon that contained all the components
(transistors and other components on the printed circuit boards) as well as all their necessary
interconnections. By 1969, approximately 100 transistors could be built on a single piece of
silicon (a silicon chip). Volatile transistor memory was developed but in cases where in it was
vital that the contents not be lost, miniaturized magnetic core memories remain in use. Low-cost
minicomputers became possible terminals for data entry and operation. Magnetic disks
represented an increasing percentage of the volume memory market in this generation. Disk packs
(rotating disks but with removable disk storage surfaces) became prevalent.

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History 25

Software

The number of high-level languages continued to grow. Languages adapted to more specific
applications. The operating system made its appearance. Time sharing of an operating system was
also available wherein the CPU is so faster. It could be keeping up with many users
communication with the system from a number of terminal keyboards.

Fourth Generation Computer (1971 – Till Now)

Hardware

In early 1970s, Large Scale Integration (LSI) chips could be manufactured containing few
thousand chips. By mid-1970s, Very Large Scale Integration (VLSI) chips were produced
containing an entire microprocessor, or the microcomputer CPU. Inter Corporation is the pioneer
in this technology. In 1974, Intel 8080 microprocessor was packaged as a part of a kit to build
Altair 8800, the first PC. IBM entered the PC market in 1981 and went on to become a major
supplier of PC in the business market. Soon, many companies began to manufacture
microcomputers that worked just like or even better than IBM’s personal computer. These so
called “Clones” or “IBM compatibles”, had becomes a major force in reducing prices and making
powerful microcomputers widely available. Single memory chips contain up to million bits.
Secondary storage has grown to a capacity large enough to contain all data needed to operate a big
corporation or a major government agency. Floppy disks made their debut in 1970. CD-ROM was
introduced by Sony and Phillips in 1984 that provided significantly greater storage capacity for
digital data.

Fig. 2.16: Fourth Generation Computer

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26 Computer Fundamentals

Software

Commercially, successful operating systems were available for microcomputers (CP/M, MS

DOS, PC-DOS, Windows) Structured Programming contributed to the standardization of the
discipline and organization of programming (Pascal, C) and Application packages (software
program or collection of related programs that lets a user perform a specific tasks) were
developed. These user-friendly software had been a driving force behind the installation of
computers in offices and in the home. Data communication software came about. This allowed
users to “talk” to each other and machines to “communicates’’ with each other and share
resources through networking.

Fifth Generation Computer (1990 Onwards)

The computer which uses AI (Artificial Intelligence) and Bio-chips as memory device is
called the Fifth Generation Computer. Scientists are now at work on these computers – a promise
but not yet reality.
Some major characteristics of fifth generation computer are listed:

(i) Acceptance of parallel processing in full fledges.

(ii) Because of use of super conductor materials like Bio-chips and GaAs (Gallium Arsenide)
as memory device, the speed will be very high.

(iii) Large subsets of natural languages like English, German and Japanese are used and made
more user friendly.

(iv) Use of AI make computers intelligent and knowledge based.

(v) PROGLOG (Programming Logic) use Operating System.

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History 27

Fig. 2.17: Fifth Generation Computer System

Some major difference between other generation computers and fifth generation
computers:

Basis of Difference Other Generation Fifth Generation Structure Serial in structure Parallel

in structure Function Algorithmic in functioning Knowledge based processing

Architecture DISP/LISP (Data/Logic KISP (Knowledge Information Information Processing

Processing System) based System) based

Nature Number processing Knowledge processing Speed Slower Very much higher

2.4 Summary

The history of the computer dates back to a long time, when a man used his fingers for
counting. The Stone Aged man used stones for counting. Later the stones were replaced by sticks
and marks on the earth, scratches and symbols on the stones and knots on the ropes. It was very
difficult to use these computing aids, because it required some physical efforts.

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28 Computer Fundamentals

Generation in Computer is a step in technology. It provides a framework for the growth of

the computer industry. Computers are generally classified into different generations according to
the memory device which is used in the computers.

The ABC was not a general-purpose computer (its function was fixed), meaning that it did
not implemented the stored program architecture (Von Neumann architecture). It still was the first
to implement 3 of the most important ideas used in computers now-days.

The idea behind the Jacquard's loom was a system of punch cards and hooks. The cards were
made very thick and had rectangular holes punched in them. The hooks and needles used in
weaving were guided by these holes in the cardboard.

Analytical Engine used the concepts of Automated Loom and Difference Engine. This
machine had five units. They are input, output, store, mill and control, which are similar to the
units of modern computer.

During the 1940s, the “Mark” series of computers were developed at Harvard University.
The Mark I computer could performed a series of mathematical operations. The first of these
computers was the Mark I put into operation in 1944 and was used until 1959.

2.5 Key Words/Abbreviations

● ABACUS: It is a manual mechanical device developed in China.

● Slide Rule: Napier’s log became the basis for a well-known invention was called slide rule
by William Oughtred.

● Hardware: Thousands of vacuum tubes were required to build a single first generation
CPU.

● Software: The first programs were expressed in the long string of binary digits that the
machine deal with.

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History 29

2.6 Learning Activity

 1. Explain the history and generations of Computers.

——————————————————————————————————

—————————————————————————————————— 2.

Student should record the various generation of computer in details.

—————————————————————————————————— ————

—————————————————————————————— 2.7 Unit End

Questions (MCQs and Descriptive)

A. Descriptive Type Questions

1. Discuss the history of computer.

2. Explain the generation of computer.

3. Explain ABC Computer.

B. Multiple Choice/Objective Type Questions

1. ABACUS was developed in __________.

(a) France (b) Japan

(c) China (d) None

2. IBM 1401 is __________.

(a) First Generation Computer (b) Second Generation Computer (c) Third

Generation Computer (d) Fourth Generation Computer 3. Which of the following

is first generation of computer?

(a) EDSAC (b) IBM-1401

(c) CDC-1604 (d) ICL-2900

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30 Computer Fundamentals

4. Second Generation computers were developed during __________.

 (a) 1949 to 1955 (b) 1956 to 1965

(c) 1965 to 1970 (d) 1970 to 1990

5. The computer size was very large in __________.

(a) First Generation (b) Second Generation (c) Third Generation (d) Fourth

Generation 6. Microprocessors as switching devices are for which generation

computers? (a) First Generation (b) Second Generation (c) Third Generation (d)

Fourth Generation 7. Which generation of computer is still under development?

(a) Fourth Generation (b) Fifth Generation (c) Sixth Generation (d)

Seventh Generation 8. Artificial Intelligence is associated with which

generation?

(a) First Generation (b) Second Generation (c) Fifth Generation

(d) Sixth Generation 9. Fifth generation computer is also known as

__________.

(a) Knowledge information processing system

(b) [b] Very large-scale integration (VLSI)

(c) Both [a] and [b] (d) None of these

Answers
1. (c), 2. (b), 3. (a), 4. (b), 5. (a), 6. (d), 7. (b), 8. (c), 9. (d)

2.8 References
References of this unit have been given at the end of the book.

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UNIT 3 CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTERS

 Structure:
3.0 Learning Objectives

3.1 Introduction

3.2 Types of Computer

3.3 Applications of Computer

3.4 Basic Components of PC

3.5 Computer Architecture

3.6 Summary

3.7 Key Words/Abbreviations

3.8 Learning Activity

3.9 Unit End Questions (MCQs and Descriptive)

3.10 References

3.0 Learning Objectives

After studying this unit, you will be able to:

● Explain the classification of Computers

● Discuss the applications of Computer

● Understand the basic concept of components of PC

● Understand the concepts of Computer Architecture

32 Computer Fundamentals

3.1 Introduction
Computers can be broadly classified by their speed and computing power. It is a multi-user
computer system, capable of supporting hundreds of users simultaneously. Businesses use
personal computers for word processing, accounting, desktop publishing and running spreadsheet.

3.2 Types of Computer

(a) Purpose
Fig. 3.1: Types of Computer

Computer can be classified by its functions:

(i) Analog Computer
Analog computers are computers that measure physical quantities (e.g., pressure,
temperature, length, etc.) and convert them to numeric values. For example, a thermometer does
not perform any calculation but measures the temperature of the body by comparing the relative
expansion of mercury. Another example is voltmeter which measures voltage. They give relative
results hence are accurate to within 0.1% of the correct value.

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Classification of Computers 33

Fig. 3.2: Analog Computer

(ii) Digital Computer

Digital computers are counting digital devices. It directly counts the numbers (or digits that
represent numerals, letters, or other special symbols). For example, a digital calculator or a digital
watch. The majority of computers used for business and scientific applications are digital.
 Fig. 3.3: Digital Computer
(iii) Hybrid Computer

The features of analog and digital machines are combined to create a hybrid computing
system. For example, in a hospital, an analog Cardiogram measures a patient’s vital signs like
temperature, heart functions. These are then converted to numbers and supplied to the digital
components that monitor the patient’s vital signs, any fluctuation can thus be noticed
immediately.

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34 Computer Fundamentals
 Fig. 3.4: Hybrid Computer
(b) Development

This is a modern computer with the power and speed of today. It is end result of countless
inventions, ideas, and developments contributed by many people through out the last several
decades. The changes based on development can be categorized into five generations of
computers.

(i) First Generation of Computer

UNIVAC (Universal Automatic Computer) was the first general purpose electrical computer
to be made available and marks the beginning of the first generation of electrical computers. The
first generation electrical computer employed vacuum tubes. These computers were large in size
and required air conditioning. This was the most popular first generation computer and was
introduced in 1950.

(ii) Second Generation of Computer

The second generation of computers employed transistors and other solid state devices.
Their circuits were smaller than the vacuum tubes, and generated less heat. Hence, the second
generation

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Classification of Computers 35

computers required less power, were faster and more reliable. IBM 1401 was the most popular
type of generation computers. They employed magnetic tapes as the input/output media.

(iii) Third Generation of Computer

In the third generation of computers, integrated circuits on chips (thin wafers of silicon)
were used to store data and process instructions. These computers could handle more than one
operation simultaneously.

The more circuits on a single chip greater the amount of data that can be stored on the
memory chip. The technique of integrating circuits on a single chip was established during the
third generation of computers.

(iv) Fourth Generation of Computer

It was now possible to put the entire processor of the computer on a single chip. Intel
Corporation developed the first Intel 4004 microprocessor chip. A microprocessor is built using a
 microprocessor chip along with some other chips and circuitry.

A whole range of that could be used for generalized applications became popular. The PC,
PC/ XT, PC/AT are some of the personal computers popularized by IBM. While the PC and the
PC/XT differ in the disk storage supported by them, the PC/AT differs in the processor itself. The
Intel 8088 microprocessor chip is used in PCs and PC-XT and PC/AT use the Intel 80286 or Intel
80386 chips as their microprocessors. There are other chips like the Motorola 68020, Motorola
68030, Zilog 8000 etc. Used to build other microcomputers.

(v) Fifth Generation of Computer

The fifth generation of computers are conceived as a knowledgeable information processing

system. It incorporates Artificial Intelligence. Modeled on human intelligence, they are self-
learning systems which can store experiences and take decisions based on the information and
logic stored in the computer. They can also process non-information, e.g., graphs, pictures, etc.

(c) Size and Performance

Computers vary widely in performance, size and cost. Performance is measured in terms of
speed of processing instructions, storage capacity, ability to handle a large number of input and

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36 Computer Fundamentals

output devices, and nature of operations performed (simple word processing to complex scientific
calculations). Generally, the better the performance, the larger the size and the higher the cost.

• Super Computer

• Mainframe Computer

• Mini Computer

• Micro Computer
(i) Super Computer

Complex scientific applications like weather forecasting require a large amount of data to be
manipulated within a very short time. Other uses of supercomputers scientific simulations,
animated graphics, fluid dynamic calculations, nuclear energy research, electronic design and
analysis of geological data. Large super computers with faster processing using multiple
processors and superior technology are used for complex tasks requiring a lot of computational
power. Perhaps the best known supercomputer manufacturer is Cray Research. Examples of super
computers are CRAY XMP-24 and NEC-500.

Fig. 3.5: Super Computer

(ii) Mainframe Computer

The earliest computers were called mainframes due to their large size. A mainframe is the
heart of a network of computers or terminals which allows hundreds of people to work at the
same time on the same data. It requires a special environment – cold and dry.

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Classification of Computers 37

Fig. 3.6: Mainframe Computer

Mainframes are very large computers with a very high capacity of main store. Because they
can process large amounts of data very quickly, they are used by big companies, banks,
government departments as their main computer. They can be linked into a network with smaller
 department computers, microcomputers or with each other.

(iii) Mini Computer

A mini computer is a class of multi-user computer that lies in the middle range of the
computing spectrum, in between the mainframe and micro computers. It is less powerful than a
mainframe and more powerful than the micro computers. They have larger RAM and backing
storage capacity and can process data more quickly.

Fig. 3.7: Mini Computer

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38 Computer Fundamentals

This class of computers became available in the 1960s when large scale integrated circuits
made it possible to build a computer much cheaper than the then existing mainframes. The first
popular minicomputer was the pdp-8, launched in 1965. Mini computers were basically
developed for use in process control systems.

(iv) Micro Computer

Microcomputers are at the lowest end of the computer range. The term “microcomputer”
was introduced with the advent of single chip microprocessors. ‘Personal Computer (PC)’ was
first known as microcomputer because they are designed to be used by one person at a time. The
principal characteristics of personal computers are that they are single-user systems and are based
on microprocessors. However, although personal computers are designed as single-user systems,
it is common to link them together to form a network. A personal computer may be a desktop
computer, a laptop, tablet PC or a handheld PC (also called palmtop).
 Fig. 3.8: Micro Computer
Personal computers are typically used at home, at school, or at a business. The most
common applications for businesses, the PC are used for word processing, spreadsheet calculating
and database managing. At home, PC is for entertainment (computer games) and surfing the
Internet and e-mail. The other applications are desktop publishing, accounting, statistical analysis,
graphics, investment analysis, project management, editing photographs, creating graphics and
also used in teaching (the computer acts as a teacher). The highly visible personal computers fall
under these categories:

• Tower Model Computer • Desktop

• Laptop or Notebook • Sub-notebook
• Palmtop • Personal Digital Assistant (PDA) • Pocket PC • Tablet PC

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Classification of Computers 39

• Ultra-Mobile PC (UMPC) • Home Theater PC (HTPC)

• Workstation/Server Computer • Client-Server Computer
• Embedded Computer • Wearable Computer
Tower Model Computer

Refers to a PC in which the power supply, motherboard and mass storage devices are
stacked on top of each other in a cabinet. This is in contrast to desktop models, in which these
components are housed in a more compact box. The main advantage of tower models is that there
are fewer space constraints, which makes installation of additional storage devices easier.
 Fig. 3.9: Tower Models
Desktop

The term ‘desktop’ refers specifically to a horizontally-oriented case, usually intended to

have the display screen placed on top to save space on the desktop. Most desktop computer offer
more power, storage, versatility and low cost.

Fig. 3.10: Desktop Computer

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40 Computer Fundamentals

Laptop

A laptop is a small mobile computer, which usually weighs 2.2-18 pounds (1.6 kilograms),
depending on size, materials and other factors. A laptop is designed to sit on user lap and user can
therefore expect it to be quite large and loaded down with features and power. Laptops usually
run on a single main battery or from an external AC/DC adapter which can charge the battery
while also supplying power to the computer itself. Many computers also have a 3 volt cell to run
the clock and other processes in the event of a power failure.
 Fig. 3.11: Laptop Computer
As personal computers, laptops are capable of the same tasks, although they are typically
less powerful for the same price. They contain components that are similar to their desktop
counterparts and perform the same functions, but are miniaturized and optimized for mobile use
and efficient power consumption. Laptops usually have liquid crystal displays and most of them
use different memory modules for their random access memory (RAM), for instance, SO-DIMM
in lieu of the larger DIMMs. In addition to a built-in keyboard, they may utilize a touchpad (also
known as a trackpad).

History

In 1976, the Xerox PARC division developed the Xerox NoteTaker, considered the first
portable computer. It never reached the market, as only 10 prototypes were built. In 1981, the
Osborne 1 was launched as the first commercially available portable computer. About the size of
a tabletop sewing machine, the Osborne did not have any battery power, running only on
electricity instead but it allowed computer users to work with a computer while on the go.

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Classification of Computers 41

In the span of barely 3 years, portable computer models started flooding the market. In 1982,
Kaypro introduced the Kaypro II, which featured double-sided floppy drives (twice the storage
capacity) and a larger CRT monitor. The first true laptop, the GRiD Compass 1101, was arguably
released that same year. In 1983, Compaq launched its Compaq Portable, while Epson introduced
the HX-20.

Notebooks

Notebook computers typically weigh less than 5 pounds and are small enough – “notebook
sized” – to fit easily in a backpack or briefcase.
 Fig. 3.12: Notebooks
It was also designed to function similarly to desktops but were geared more toward personal
use than business use. The handy notebook size was what defined notebook computers. When
they were first released, they did not even have a replaceable hard disk or other associated
peripherals.

History

By 1988, portable computers had become smaller, as demonstrated by the Cambridge Z88.
Though this portable computer was 16 times more powerful than the Osborne 1, its total weight
had been halved.

The first “notebook computers” – so called because the size of these devices was roughly the
size of a paper notebook – were the 1988 NEC UltraLite and the Compaq LTE, launched in 1989.
These designs were then joined by the IBM ThinkPad, featuring the first 10.4 inch screen on a
notebook computer. While these early notebooks averaged a little over 6 pounds, lighter and more
powerful “sub-notebooks” began making their mark in 1993 with the introduction of the Gateway
Handbook and the Hewlett-Packard OmniBook. The 4.4 pound Apple PowerBook was eclipsed
by

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42 Computer Fundamentals

the Sony VAIO in 1997, the latter weighing in at under 2.5 pounds. Microsoft's Tablet PC
computers were smaller still and in 2007, Asus introduced the Eee PC, reducing screen and
keyboard size while retaining full computer usage capabilities.

Comparison between Laptop and Notebook

Main Manufacturers Size

DVD-Drives and other sizes of real notebooks to the
Has fans and other system like in
accessories like in Desktop near PDA sizes. (Exceptions
desktop adjusted to suit its use.
occur as some manufacturer’s
Cooling system Meaning
market their laptops as
A laptopnotebooks).
is a mobile
computer/device, small and light in
Not always integrated. Can be
weight and as the name suggests,
externally attached though.
sits in the lap of the user.
Usually, do not have an effective
cooling system as processing
power is lesser than laptops.

A notebook
Primary usage
Apple, Dell, Toshiba, Acer, Asus, computerand
is mobility is a
Lenovo, HP, Samsung, Sony, MSI, battery-
replicates the usageorof
AC-powered
a personal personal
AlienWare, Microsoft. computer
computer with generally smaller than
extra durability.
a briefcase that can easily be
Small and sleek to large and bulky. transported and conveniently
Screen sizes normally range from
Notebook used in temporary spaces such as
10 to 20 inches across.
Apple, Samsung, Sony, Toshiba, on airplanes, in libraries,
Dell. temporary offices and at
meetings.

Can be present in an integrated Primary usage is mobility and

Notebooks generally come in the personal computer with extra
durability.

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Classification of Computers 43

Processing Laptops are usually associated

Capacity with higher processing power
than notebooks. Normally 1-8 Notebooks nowadays come in

GB RAM. laptop configurations but the size

factor wears off as it becomes
A laptop usually weighs between
Physical more powerful and the sense of
1.4 to 5.4 kgs (3 to 12 pounds).
notebook is gone.
characteristics Subnotebook
A notebook weighs less than 5 pounds and is 3 inches or less in thickness.

Fig. 3.13: Subnotebook Computer

A subnotebook is a class of laptop which are smaller and lighter than typical notebooks. It is
also called ‘ultraportable’. They generally are found to run full desktop operating systems such
as Windows or Linux, rather than specialized software such as Windows CE, Palm OS or Internet
Tablet OS.

Subnotebooks are smaller than laptops but larger than handheld computers. They often have
smaller-sized screens, less than 14 inches and weigh less than typical laptops, usually being less
than 2 kg (4.4 lbs). The savings in size and weight are usually achieved partly by omitting ports or
having removable media or optical disc drives.

Palmtop

A palmtop is a hand-held microcomputer, i.e., small enough to be held in one’s hand.

Although extremely convenient to carry, handheld computers have not replaced notebook
computers because

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44 Computer Fundamentals

of their small keyboards and screens. The most popular palmtop computers are specifically
designed to provide PIM (Personal Information Manager) functions, like a calendar, address
 book, etc.
Fig. 3.14: Palmtop Computer
Personal Digital Assistants (PDA)

A Personal Digital Assistant (PDA) is a hand-held microcomputer that trades off power for
small size and greater portability. They are tightly integrated computers that often use flash
memory instead of a hard drive for storage. These computers usually do not have keyboards but
rely on touch-sensitive LCD screen for both output and input.

PDAs communicate with desktop computers and with each other either by cable connection,
infrared (IR) beam or radio waves. It can function as a cellular phone, fax sender and personal
organizer. PDAs are normally used to keep track of appointment calendars, to-do lists, address
books and for taking notes.

Fig. 3.15: Personal Digital Assistant (PDA)

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Classification of Computers 45
 Pocket PC

A Pocket PC is a hardware specification for a handheld-sized computer (PDA) that runs the
Microsoft Windows Mobile operating system. It may have the capability to run an alternative
operating system like NetBSD or Linux.

Fig. 3.16: Pocket PC

Pocket PCs can also be used with many other add-ons like GPS receivers, barcode readers,
RFID readers and cameras.

Tablet PC

A Tablet PC is a notebook or slate-shaped mobile computer, first introduced by Pen

computing in the early 90s with their PenGo Tablet Computer and popularized by Microsoft. Its
touchscreen or graphics tablet/screen hybrid technology allows the user to operate the computer
with a stylus or digital pen or a fingertip, instead of a keyboard or mouse. Tablet PCs are often
used where normal notebooks are impractical or unwieldy or do not provide the needed
functionality.

Fig. 3.17: Tablet PC

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46 Computer Fundamentals
Ultra-Mobile PC

The Ultra-Mobile PC (UMPC) is a specification for a small form factor tablet PC. It was
developed as a joint development exercise by Microsoft, Intel and Samsung, among others.
Current UMPCs typically feature the Windows XP Tablet PC Edition 2005, Windows Vista
Home Premium Edition or Linux operating system and low-voltage Intel Pentium or VIA C7-M
processors in the 1 GHz range.

Fig. 3.18: Ultra-Mobile PC

Home Theater PC

A Home Theater PC (HTPC) is a convergence device that combines the functions of a personal
computer and a digital video recorder. It is connected to a television or a television-sized
computer display and is often used as a digital photo, music, video player, TV receiver and digital

video recorder.
Fig. 3.19: Home Theater PC
Home theater PCs are also referred to as media center systems or media servers. Because of
the nature of the HTPC, higher than average capacities are required for HTPC units to allow
storage of pictures, music, television shows, videos and other multimedia HTPC cases have a
small LCD screen on the front where a user can view music/movie information.

Workstation/Server Computer

A workstation is a high-end microcomputer designed for technical or scientific

applications. Intended primarily to be used by one person at a time, they are commonly connected
to a local area
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Classification of Computers 47

network and run multi-user operating systems. The term workstation has also been used to refer to
a mainframe computer terminal or a PC connected to a network.

Historically, workstations had offered higher performance than personal computers,

especially with respect to CPU and graphics, memory capacity and multitasking capability. They
are optimized for the visualization and manipulation of different types of complex data such as
3D mechanical design, engineering simulation, animation and rendering of images, scientific
calculations and mathematical plots.

Workstation Computer
Server Computer
Fig. 3.20: Workstation/Server Computer
The workstation class Personal Computer may have some of the following features:

(i) Support for ECC (Error Correction Code, i.e., a system of error control for data
transmission) memory.

(ii) A larger number of memory sockets which use registered (buffered) modules.

(iii) Multiple processors.

(iv) Multiple displays.

(v) Run a “business” or “professional” operating system version.

Server usually refers to a computer that is dedicated to providing a service to other

computers over a network. A server application is a computer program that accepts connections in
order to service requests by sending back responses. Servers usually have powerful processors,
lots of memory and large hard drives. Examples of server applications include web servers, e-mail
servers, database servers and file servers.
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48 Computer Fundamentals

Client-Server Computer

Client–Server Computing or networking is a distributed application architecture that

partitions tasks or work loads between service providers (servers) and service requesters
(clients). Often clients and servers operate over a computer network on separate hardware.
Classic client server architecture requires one of the communication endpoints to act as a server,
which is much harder to implement. A server machine is a high-performance host that is running
one or more server programs which share its resources with clients. A client does not share any of
its resources but requests a server’s content or service function. Clients therefore initiate
communication sessions with servers which await (listen to) incoming requests.

The most basic type of client-server architecture employs only two types of hosts – clients
and servers. This type of architecture is sometimes referred to as two-tier. It allows devices to
share files and resources. The two tier architecture means that the client acts as one tier and
application in combination with server acts as another tier.

Fig. 3.21: Client-Server Computer

In most cases, a client-server architecture enables the roles and responsibilities of a
computing system to be distributed among several independent computers that are known to each
other only through a network. This creates an additional advantage to this architecture: greater
ease of maintenance.

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Classification of Computers 49

For example, it is possible to replace, repair, upgrade or even relocate a server while its
clients remain both unaware and unaffected by that change. All data is stored on the servers,
which generally have far greater security controls than most clients.

As the number of simultaneous client requests to a given server increases, the server can
become overloaded and this is the main disadvantage of client-server computer.

Embedded Computers

An embedded system is a special-purpose computer system designed to perform one or a

few dedicated functions often with real-time computing constraints. It is usually embedded as part
of a complete device including hardware and mechanical parts. They generally execute a program
that is stored in non-volatile memory and is only intended to operate a specific machine or device.

Embedded computers are typically required to operate continuously without being reset or
rebooted and once employed in their task the software usually cannot be modified. Embedded
computers are very common. Embedded systems range from portable devices such as digital
watches and MP4 players, to large stationary installations like traffic lights, factory controllers or
the systems controlling nuclear power plants.

Fig. 3.22: Embedded Computer

Wearable Computer

The latest trend in computer is Wearable Computer. A wearable computer is a computer that
is subsumed into the personal space of the user, controlled by the user, and has both operational
 and interactional constancy, i.e., is always on and always accessible. They have been applied to
areas

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50 Computer Fundamentals

such as behavioral modeling, health monitoring systems, information technologies and media
development. Wearable computers are especially useful for applications that require
computational support while the user’s hands, voice, eyes or attention are actively engaged with
the physical environment.

One of the main features of a wearable computer is consistency. There is a constant

interaction between the computer and user, i.e., there is no need to turn the device on or off.
Another feature is the ability to multi-task. It is not necessary to stop what you are doing to use
the device; it is augmented into all other actions. These devices can be incorporated by the user to
act like a prosthetic. It can therefore be an extension of the user’s mind and/or body.

3.3 Applications of Computer

(a) Banking: Banks uses computers for general purpose computations, to maintain ledger, to
handle transactions, to make entry in passbooks, to issue fixed deposit receipts, to
provide online service to customers who want to perform bank transactions from home
terminals and to answer customers at bank terminals regarding their balance etc. For all
these purpose there is a central computer (a server) which processes all the data from
different terminal computers. These days banks also provide the ATM (Automatic Teller
Machine) service to the customers. A customer with the ATM card can perform a cash
transaction immediately with the ATM machine by inserting card in it.

Fig. 3.23: Banking

 (b) Home-based workers: Now that it is easy to connect a computer at home to all of the
computers at the office, more and more people are working at home. These
telecomputers

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Classification of Computers 51

often work one or more days without the traditional commute. The same ability to
communicate so easily makes home-based business easier to start and operate.

(c) Desktop publishing: Producing finished business literature is one of the uses of computer
in business. Using desktop publishing programs, or even sophisticated word processing
programs, people can create sales letters, brochures, price lists, newsletters, and even
book-length manuals.

(d) Financial analysis: Financial analysis is performed throughout the company, from top
management to down. People can analyze investments, sales, expenses, markets and
other aspects of the business using both numbers and graphs.

Computer in Commercial

Many business companies, large or small use computers to help in the control of daily
activities. Some of the more common uses are:

Fig. 3.24: Computer in Commercial

(a) Employee records: All organizations keep record of their employees. An employee
record normally contains information such as name, address, telephone number, present
job classification, date of start of employment, contract period, salary scale or rate of
pay, allowances, deductions, salary paid to date, taxes deducted to date, etc. Using a
 computer, it is a simple matter to store, retrieve and update information concerning
employees. The most frequent use of an employee record is in payroll processing.

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52 Computer Fundamentals

(b) Payroll processing: With the employee record we have almost every information of an
employee. Regarding the payroll the fields such as employee name, address, job
classification, rate of pay, fixed allowances, fixed deductions etc., are important. With
different information such as number of hours worked by each employee, fixed
allowances, fixed deductions etc., the gross pay is calculated.

(c) Accounts receivable: An account receivable system keeps track of all money owed to the
company by its customers. e.g., consider a department store which offers credit to
selected customers. For each customer record is created which include date such as
customer name, address, telephone number, occupation, credit limit, amount owed by the
customer, date of last purchase, date of last payment, etc. The date of last purchase, date
of last payment data items are used by the computer to determine the length of time for
which the customer has owed money to the store. Based on this time a notice can be sent
to the customer, if he/she is too late to pay.

(d) Account payable: An accounts payable system keeps records of people to which the
company owes money. These are usually the people who provide goods and services to
the company. This system enables the company to schedule its payments in a way which
is in the best interests of the company.

(e) Stock control: A stock control system enables a user to mange his stock more effectively.
At the heart of the system is the file of stock items. For each item in stock, an ‘item
record’ is created. Each item is assigned a unique identifier (usually a number). This
number is used in all transactions to do with the item.

Computer in Industry

Computers have had a major impact in industries where products are designed and
manufactured. Computer Aided Design (CAD) is used to develop products. Computer Aided
Manufacturing (CAM) is used to produce them.

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Classification of Computers 53

Fig. 3.25: Computer in Industry

(a) Product design: Designing complicated products can require the efforts of thousands of
people working together. This teamwork is greatly enhanced through the use of
computerized design.

(b) Factories: Factory floors are becoming increasingly populated by computers used for
many purposes including inventory control and planning and process control. Computers
are also used to run robots that create, finish, assemble, and test products and their
components.

Computer in Health Care and Medical field

Computers are widely used in hospitals to help doctors in diagnosis, getting information on
patients, diseases, treatment, drugs etc. They are also used in administration and in keeping
patient records. Doctors can get information from distant data banks and expert systems. They can
discuss with colleagues using teleconferencing. Many devices take images and diagnose diseases.
Examples are Computerized Axial Tomography (CAT), Position Emission Tomography (PET),
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI), etc. These devices take pictures of brain and help in
diagnosis of various kinds of diseases. There are a lot of computerized automatic medical
equipments which help in diagnosis of diseases such as CT scan machine, Eye testing machines,
Ultra sonography equipment, etc.
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54 Computer Fundamentals

Fig. 3.26: Computer in Health Care and Medical Field

Computer in Education

Computers have been used in schools since the first Apples were introduced in the 1970.
However, their impact was limited then because there were not enough computers and
educational computer programming was poor. As technology has advanced education, software
has become a major influence at all levels from elementary schools to universities. The ability to
connect computers and students together over a network such as the Internet opens up fantastic
educational opportunities.

Fig. 3.27: Computer in Education

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Classification of Computers 55
 (a) Research and Universities: Scientific and engineering design and research work involve
complex and massive computations. In many cases, simulation is also required. Such
complex computations are not possible by hand calculators. So, computers are must for
this type of work.

(b) Library: A typical library contains thousand of books, magazines, reports and other
documents which users may wish to borrow. A small library may have several hundred
prospective borrowers, while the number of users of larger libraries can reach beyond
thousands. Maintaining records of books and borrowers is well suited to a computer
system. Using a computer enables library personnel to answer queries about the status of
books more easily than if a manual system was being used. A computerized system also
enables to find out whether to issue books to the users or not. If the maximum limit of
the book is already reached then that user will not get the book.

Computer in Engineering

Computer Applications in Engineering Education provides timely information on the

innovative uses of computers and software tools in education, and for accelerating the integration
of computers into the engineering curriculum. In modern times, computers have closely
connection with everyone, especially scientist and engineer. Computer programs can now solve
difficult problems in a fraction of the time it used to take. Computer-aided engineering is a
powerful tool and necessary for engineering design and manufacture.

Fig. 3.28: Computer in Engineering

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56 Computer Fundamentals

Nowadays, you no longer have to write your own software programs to use computers
effectively. In chemical engineering, a lot of softwares are used in the process of chemical
operation, like the software for process of chemical engineering Proa! and Aspen, and
Computational fluid dynamics software Fluent and CFX and so on.

Computer in Graphics

Today, computers and computer-generated images touch many aspects of daily life.
Computer graphics is found on television, in newspapers, for example, in weather reports, or for
example, in all kinds of medical investigation and surgical procedures.

Fig. 3.29: Computer Graphics Cartoon

The development of computer graphics, has made computers easier to interact with and
better for understanding and interpreting many types of data. Computer imagery has applications
for film special effects, simulation and training, games, medical imagery, flying logos, etc.
Although computer graphics is a vast field that encompasses almost any graphical aspect, it
mainly interested in the generation of images of three-dimensional scenes.

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Classification of Computers 57

3.4 Basic Components of PC

 When you look at a computer closely, you can name the following main parts:

Fig. 3.30: Parts of Computer

Mouse

A mouse is used to replace the key combinations with easier point and click actions. The
mouse is connected to the main board of the computer by a cable. It is input device.

Keyboard

🢡 It has many small keys on it.

 🢡 The computer accepts data with the help of keyboard.

Monitor

This part looks like a TV screen with the help of this.

🢡 We can see what has been typed into the computer.

🢡 It displays the resulting output.

🢡 It is also called a Screen/VDU (Visual Display Unit).

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58 Computer Fundamentals

Hard Disk Drive

🢡 The computer stores information permanently in it.

🢡 The hard disk is the fixed storage.

CPU (Central Processing Unit)

🢡 It is housed in the main unit.

🢡 It is a small silicon chip.

🢡 It is the brain of the computer and does all the manipulation of data we give to the
computer.

CD-ROM Drives

CD-ROM stands Compact Discs-Read Only Memory. CD-ROM drives reads programs and
data stored on a removable CD drives. These drives can hold large amount of information.

Floppy Disk Drive

🢡 The computer can store information in a floppy disk.

🢡 This is a removable storage.

Printer

It is a output device. We can see the resulting output on the monitor but to print it on paper
we need a printer.

3.5 Computer Architecture

 A computer system is one that is able to take a set of inputs, process them and create a set of
outputs. This is done by a combination of hardware and software. In describing Computer systems
a distinction is often made between Computer Organization and Computer Architecture.

Computer Architecture

In computer engineering, computer architecture is a set of rules and methods that describe
the functionality, organization and implementation of computer systems. Computer architecture is
the

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Classification of Computers 59

architectural attributes like physical address memory, CPU and how they should be made and
made to coordinate with each other keeping the future demands and goals in mind. It is concerned
with structure and behavior of computer as seen by the user.

Computer Organization

Computer Organization refers to the Operational Units and there interconnections that
realize or recognize the specifications of Computer Architecture. Computer organization is how
operational attributes are linked together and to realize the architectural specifications. So, from
the definition, we can easily understand that Computer Architecture is:

Set of Instructions + Computer Organization = Computer Architecture

System design

Computer Computer design

Organisation

Logic design

Circuit design

Computer Componment

Low level
High level Computer architecture
SoftwareHardware
Application program Application design
 Fig. 3.31: Computer Architecture
The distinction between computer organization and computer architecture is often
misunderstood. For example, if computer organization examines the lumber, bricks, nails and
other building material, while computer architecture looks at the design of the house.

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60 Computer Fundamentals

3.6 Summary

As personal computers, laptops are capable of the same tasks, although they are typically
less powerful for the same price. They contain components that are similar to their desktop
counterparts and perform the same functions, but are miniaturized and optimized for mobile use
and efficient power consumption.

Computers can be broadly classified by their speed and computing power. It is a multi-user
computer system, capable of supporting hundreds of users simultaneously. Businesses use
personal computers for word processing, accounting, desktop publishing, and for running
spreadsheet

CD-ROM stands for compact discs-read only memory. CD-ROM drives reads programs and
data stored on a removable CD drives. These drives can hold large amount of information.

The term ‘desktop’ refers specifically to a horizontally-oriented case, usually intended to

have the display screen placed on top to save space on the desktop. Most desktop computer offer
more power, storage, versatility and low cost.

A laptop is a small mobile computer, which usually weighs 2.2-18 pounds (1.6 kilograms),
depending on size, materials and other factors. A laptop is designed to sit on user lap and user can
therefore expect it to be quite large and loaded down with features and power.

A sub notebook is a class of laptop which are smaller and lighter than typical notebooks. It is
also called ‘ultraportable’. They generally are found to run full desktop operating systems such
as Windows or Linux, rather than specialized software such as Windows CE, Palm OS or Internet
Tablet OS.

A Personal Digital Assistant (PDA) is a hand-held microcomputer that trades off power for
small size and greater portability. They are tightly integrated computers that often use flash
memory instead of a hard drive for storage.

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Classification of Computers 61

3.7 Key Words/Abbreviations

● Analog Computer: Analog computers are computers that measure physical quantities. ●

Digital Computer: Digital computers are counting digital devices.

● Hybrid Computer: The features of analog and digital machines are combined to create a
hybrid computing system.

● Desktop: Most desktop computer offer more power, storage, versatility and low cost.

● Laptop: A laptop is designed to sit on user lap and user can therefore expect it to be quite
large.

● Personal Digital Assistants (PDA): PDAs communicate with desktop computers. 3.8

Learning Activity

1. What is computer architecture? Explain the applications and basic components of

computer.

——————————————————————————————————

—————————————————————————————————— 2.

Explain different types of computer with their merits and demerits.

——————————————————————————————————

—————————————————————————————————— 3.
 Explain different generation of computer and their development.

——————————————————————————————————

——————————————————————————————————

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62 Computer Fundamentals

3.9 Unit End Questions (MCQs and Descriptive)

A. Descriptive Type Questions

1. What is Computer Organization?

2. Explain the types of Computer.

3. Differentiate between Laptop and Notebook.

B. Multiple Choice/Objective Type Questions

1. UNIVAC is __________.

(a) Universal Automatic Computer (b) Universal Array Computer (c) Unique

Automatic Computer (d) Unvalued Automatic Computer 2. CD-ROM stands for

__________.

(a) Compactable Read Only Memory (b) Compact Data Read Only Memory (c)

Compactable Disk Read Only Memory

(d) Compact Disk Read Only Memory

3. Which of the following is called low level languages?

(a) Machine language (b) Assembly language

(c) Both [a] and [b] (d) None of these

 4. Digital devices are __________.

(a) Digital clock (b) Automobile speed meter (d) Clock with a dial and

two hands (d) All the above

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Classification of Computers 63

5. The computer that process both analog and digital is called __________.

(a) Analog computer (b) Digital computer (c) Hybrid computer (d)

Mainframe computer

6. Mnemonic a memory trick is used in which of the following language?

(a) Machine language (b) Assembly language (c) High level language (d) None

of these Answers:

1. (a), 2. (d), 3. (c), 4. (a), 5. (c), 6. (b)

3.10 References
References of this unit have been given at the end of the book.

❒❒❒
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UNIT 4 STORAGE DEVICES

Structure:
4.0 Learning Objectives

4.1 Introduction

4.2 Block Diagram of a Computer

4.3 Computer Memory

4.4 Main Memory

4.5 Secondary Memory

4.6 Summary

4.7 Key Words/Abbreviations

4.8 Learning Activity

4.9 Unit End Questions (MCQs and Descriptive)

4.10 References

4.0 Learning Objectives

After studying this unit, you will be able to:

● Understand the concepts of Hardware and Software

● Understand the concepts of Computer Memory and Secondary Memory

Storage Devices 65

4.1 Introduction

Hardware is a physical part of computer that causes processing of data. Software is a set of
instruction that tells a computer exactly what to do. It is manufactured. It is developed and
 engineered. Hardware cannot perform any task without software. For example, the computer
monitor you are using to read this text and the mouse you are using to navigate this web page are
computer hardware.

4.2 Block Diagram of a Computer

All computer systems, no matter how small or large, have the same fundamental capabilities:

• Input Device: It includes devices like keyboard and mouse, which are used by the user to
give some data to the computer.

• Central Processing Unit: Processing unit is where these data are processed and turned
into meaningful information. It also includes temporary storage (RAM) in which the data
currently being processed are stored temporarily.

• Output Device: To show the result of processes, to the user, output devices like monitors
and printers are used.

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Following are the figure of block diagram of a computer:

Central Processing Unit*
 MEMORY UNIT
hold the data, instruction
and result of processing

INPUT
Data & CONTROL UNIT
Instruction Interpret stored
instruction sequence
issue command to all element

SECONDARY
STORAGE

Fig. 4.1: Block Diagram of a

ARITHMETIC LOGIC Computer
UNIT Perform arithmetic
and Logic operation
Input Device
OUTPUT information with result

Explanation for input device is given in unit 5.

Central Processing Unit (CPU)

The Central Processing Unit (CPU) is the component of a computer system with the
circuitry to control the interpretation and execution of instructions. It performs the process part of
INPUT PROCESS-OUTPUT cycle. A CPU built on a single chip is called a ‘Microprocessor’. A
microprocessor is an electronic device which is of little use unless interfaced with memories and
several other Input/Output (I/O) device.

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Fig. 4.2: Central Processing Unit (CPU)

Nowadays, microprocessor is also called ‘Processor’. A processor combined with main
memory, auxiliary storage, input device and output device, which make a computer. A
microprocessor incorporates most or all of the functions of a computer’s CPU on a single
Integrated Circuit (IC). ICs are made up of different electronic components such as capacitors,
resistors, transistors, etc.
 Fig. 4.3: Motherboard Fig. 4.4:
Integrated Circuit (IC)

These components are hooked together on fiberglass boards called circuit boards. You can
see the small thin copper or metal lines (wires) on a circuit board that connect the different
components together. These are called traces. Integrated Circuit is also called microchip. In a
microcomputer, the printed circuit board that connects all of the parts of the computer together is
called the

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68 Computer Fundamentals

‘motherboard’. The CPU could be considered the ‘brain’ of the computer. It sends electrical
signals to the various parts of the computer, controlling what goes on. The motherboard contains
the CPU, as well as a separate chip for the system clock. Everything connected to your computer
system, plugs either directly or indirectly into the motherboard. The motherboard contains the
CPU, the BIOS ROM chip (Basic Input/Output System), and the CMOS Setup information. It has
expansion slots for installing different adapter cards like video card, sound card, Network
Interface Card and modem.

It is sometimes called the system board, the logic board, the baseboard, or less commonly,
the planar board. A CPU cache is a cache used by the central processing unit of a computer to
reduce the average time to access memory. The cache is a smaller, faster memory which stores
copies of the data from the most frequently used main memory locations. As long as most
memory accesses are cached memory locations, the average latency of memory accesses will be
closer to the cache latency than to the latency of main memory. When the processor needs to read
from or write to a location in main memory, it first checks whether a copy of that data is in the
cache. Then the processor immediately reads from or writes to the cache, which is much faster
than reading from or writing to main memory.

CPU Structure

As there are a great many variations in architecture between the different kinds of CPU, a
simplified model of the structure is looking here. The simplified model consists of five parts:

• Control Unit

• Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU)

• Register Array

• System Bus

• Memory Unit

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Fig. 4.5: CPU Structure

(a) Control Unit

The Control Unit interprets any instruction it receives from memory and directs the
sequences of events necessary to execute the instruction. It is also responsible for performing the
instruction execution cycle. It consists of a decoder, control logic circuits and a clock to ensure
 everything happens at the correct time.

Control unit uses a system clock which synchronizes all tasks by sending out electrical
pulses. The clock speed of a CPU is defined as the frequency that a processor executes
instructions or that data is processed. This clock speed is measured in millions of cycles per
second or megahertz (MHz) and is the main element in determining the speed of the processor.
Computer speed is also measured by the ‘Number of Instructions Completed Per Second’ or
‘Millions Per Second (MPS)’ or ‘Instructions Per Second (MIPS)’. Hertz is the unit of
frequency that measures the number of cycles per second in a periodic signal.

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70 Computer Fundamentals

Fig. 4.6: Control Unit

(b) Arithmetic and Logic Unit

The Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU) is that part of CPU where actual data processing
occurs. All calculations (mathematical) and all comparisons (logic function) take place in this
unit. Basic arithmetic functions which an ALU can carry out are addition and subtraction. More
powerful CPUs can support additional mathematical operations like multiplication and division.
 Fig. 4.7: Arithmetic and Logic Unit
In addition to arithmetic functions, the ALU also performs logic functions. The logical
operation which can it can carry out greater than, equal to, less than comparison between two
numbers. Besides these operations, some processors also supports operations which check if
particular bits are on or off.

The ALU is made up of devices called gates that receive one or more inputs and based upon
what function they are designed to perform, output a result. The ALU in example performs one of
seven functions: NOT, Left Shift, Right Shift, Add, Subtract, AND, OR.

Every arithmetic step requires at least two numbers and then it produces a result.
Multiplication, for example, uses a multiplicand and a multiplier to get a product. Although every
ALU must be able

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Storage Devices 71

to manage the two data words and the result, different processing and storage techniques are used
in different models.

(c) Register Array

Registers are temporary memory units that store a computer instruction, a storage address or
any kind of data (such as a bit sequence or individual characters). The registers are located in the
processor, instead of in RAM, so data can be accessed and stored faster. When a program is
debugged, register contents may be analyzed to determine the computer’s status at the time of
failure. Each of the registers is 16 bits long, i.e., can contain a 16-bit binary number. Group of flip
flops and gates form a register. Register is a special purpose memory. This memory is vital for
moving data in and out of the main memory and to process the data. When CPU executes the
instructions, there is a transfer of information between various units of the computer system. CPU
uses these registers to handle the process of execution effectively and efficiently. They are a part
 of the central processing unit but cannot be considered as a part of main memory. They can hold
only one piece of data at a time. Registers receive the information, hold it temporarily and pass it
on as directed by the control unit. The number of registers varies from computer to computer,
each one designed to perform a specific function.

Types of Registers
A processor often contains several kinds of registers, that can be classified according to their
content or instructions that operate on them:

(i) User-accessible registers are divided into data registers and address registers. (ii) Data

registers are used to hold numeric values such as integer and floating-point values.

(iii) Address registers hold addresses and are used by instructions that indirectly access
memory.

(iv) Index register are used to store the index of memory address.

(v) Conditional registers hold truth values often used to determine whether some instruction
should or should not be executed.

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72 Computer Fundamentals

(vi) General purpose registers (GPRs) are combined with Data and Address registers. They
can be used by the programmer for data manipulation.

(vii) Floating point registers (FPRs) are the type of data registers that store floating point
numbers in many architectures.

(viii) Accumulator register is special data register which stores the result of the last processing
step of the ALU.

(ix) Constant registers are used to store read only values such as zero, one, or pi.

(x) Vector registers hold data for vector processing done by SIMD instructions (Single
Instruction, Multiple Data).

(xi) Special purpose registers (SPRs) hold program state. This have two special registers –
Status Registers and Control Registers.
 (xii) Status registers has two special registers –

• Stack Pointer: Contains the last address of a stack of.

• Status Register: Also flag register or condition code register (CCR)) is a collection of
flag bits for a processor.

(xiii) Control registers has two special registers –

• Program Counter (PC): Contains the address (in binary) in main memory of the next
instruction.

• Instruction Register (IR): Contains the instruction (in binary) that is currently being
executed.

(xiv) Model-specific registers (also called machine-specific registers) store data and settings
related to the processor itself.

(d) System Bus

The system bus is a cable which carries data communication between the major components
of the computer, including the microprocessor. These wires carry information in terms of voltage.
If

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