ECS238

BASIC SOLID MECHANICS

WEEK 1
Diploma In Civil Engineering
Credit Unit = 3.0
Part 03
Pre-requisite: PHY141
by:
Siti Zaidah Binti Othman
Lecturer
Faculty of Civil Engineering UiTM Sarawak
Room:12A 03 048
 INTRODUCTION TO OBE:
 OBE focuses on students achieving outcomes (required
attributes, skills, qualities) after undergoing the learning
process through the OBE curriculum.
 The attainment of the outcomes are a learning process
that may vary from one students to the other; regarded as
means and not the end of objectives.
 If the outcomes are not attained, the Continuous Quality
Improvement (CQI) takes place in the education system.
 OBE shifts the paradigm from teacher-centered to the
student-centered learning.
 OBE implementation requires that students demonstrate
that they are learned the required knowledge and
developed the required skill and attributes.
OBE COMPONENTS:
OBE comprises of four (4) major components:

1. Curriculum design
2. Teaching & Learning
3. Assessment
4. Continual Quality Improvement (CQI) & monitoring

OBE implementation process encompasses the

establishment of Program Educational Objectives (PEOs),
followed by Programme Outcomes (POs), Designing
Curriculum, Teaching and Learning (T & L) methods,
Assessment, CQI and Monitoring
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN LO, CO. PO & PEO:

 Topics lead to Lesson Outcomes (LO)

 Group/ Individual LO lead to Course Outcomes
(CO)
 CO must relate to Programme Outcomes (PO)
 PO must address the Programme Educational
Objectives (PEO)
 PROGRAMME EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES
(PEOs):
 PEOs had been developed in line with the University’s Philosophy,
Vision & Mission.
 There are four PEOs which are implemented and practiced in
Diploma in Civil Engineering that are consistent with the Vision &
Mission of the IHL/Faculty and stakeholders’ requirements.

Civil Engineering technician who is competent in

PEO1 applying knowledge, practice skills in civil engineering
and pursuing further knowledge for higher qualification.
Civil Engineering technician who able to apply various
PEO2
scientific skills in solving civil engineering problems.
Civil Engineering technician who able to demonstrate
PEO3 good teamwork, social skills and responsibilities with
positive values, ethics, moral and professionalism.
Civil Engineering technician who able to leads and
PEO4 demonstrate effective information management, life
long learning and entrepreneurial skills.
 PROGRAMME OUTCOMES (POs):
 POs are statements that describe what students are
expected to know and able to perform or attain by the
time of graduation.
 These relate to the skills, knowledge and behaviour that
students acquire through the programme.

 The POs of EC110 are developed by referring to the

MQA’s nine PLO & Section 5.0 of the ETAC’s Manual
2016 (as the requirement of the International Alliance).
 POs are designed to address the generic attributes
recommended by both MOHE & ETAC.
PROGRAMME OUTCOMES (POs):
TOPICS:

1. One Dimensional And Two Dimensional Linear

Stress and Strain Systems (16 hrs – 4 weeks)

2. Stresses ,Deflection and Influence Lines

Statically Determinate Beams (28 hrs – 7 weeks)

3. Torsion Of Circular Shafts (6 hrs – 1.5 weeks)

4. Elastic Buckling Of Column (6 hrs-1.5 weeks)

ASSESSMENT

1. FINAL EXAM = 60%

2. Continuous Assessment
• Test (24 Nov 2018, 9 -11 am) = 30%
• Assignment/Project/Report = 10%

TOTAL = 100%
TEXT BOOK AND REFERENCES
1. Hibbeler, R.C. (2011), Mechanics of materials. USA: Prentice Hall
Inc, 8th Edition
2. Hibbeler, R.C. (2017), Mechanics of materials. Boston Prentice Hall
Inc, 10th Edition
3. Beer,F.P., & Johnston Jr. E.R.(2011). Mechanics of materials(6th ed). Mc Graw
Hill.

4. Beer,F.P., & Johnston Jr. E.R.(2015). Mechanics of materials(7th ed). New

York Mc Graw Hill.

5. Gere, J. M. & Barry J.Goodno, (2012). Mechanics of materials, SI version (8th

ed.). Chapman and Hall.

6. Abu Bakar, A., Mohd Ridzuan, A.R., Ibrahim, A., Mat Isa, C.M., Ahmad, H.,
Abdul Hamid, H., et al. (2003). Basic solid mechanics. Malaysia: Cerdik
Publications Sdn. Bhd.
PROGRAM OUTCOMES (PO- EAC)

At the end of the course, students should be able to:

PO 1 (= PLO1)
Apply knowledge of mathematics, natural science,
engineering fundamentals and an engineering to
wide practical procedures and practices.

PO 2 (= PLO3)
Identify and analyse well-defined engineering
problems reaching substantiated conclusions using
codified methods of analysis specific to their field of
activity.
COURSE OUTCOMES (CO)

At the end of the course, students should be able to:

CO1 Classify basic understanding of

stresses, strains in solid body, beam,
shafts and column.

CO2 develop solutions for problems related

to the statically determinate beams
CHAPTER 1
________________________________
One Dimensional And Two
Dimensional Linear Stress And Strain
Systems
________________________________

CO1 Classify basic understanding of stresses,

strains in solid body, beam, shafts and column.

CO2 develop solutions for problems related to

the statically determinate beams
LEARNING OUTCOMES (LO):

 Students should be able to acquire and

apply basic understanding on components
and application of stresses and strains.
 To achieve this, therefore, the students
should be able to:

1. Differentiate and compute the normal

and shearing stresses
 Introduction to Solid Mechanics

• Solid mechanics is the study of the deformation and

motion of solid materials under the action of forces.

It is one of the fundamental applied engineering sciences, in

the sense that it is used to describe, explain and predict
many of the physical phenomena around us.

Solid mechanics is a vast subject. One reason for this is the

wide range of materials which falls under its range: steel,
wood, foam, plastic, foodstuffs, textiles, concrete, biological
materials, and so on.

Another reason is the wide range of applications in which

these materials occur.
 Deformation of structure

Structure might be deformed

due to following effect:
Axial Shearing

Flexural (bending)
Torsion
 OVERVIEW

STRESS & STRAIN

Stress Strain Modulus

Normal Shear Normal Shear Modulus of Shear

Stress Stress Strain Strain Elasticity Modulus
(σ) (τ ) (ε ) () (E) (G)

σ = P/A τ = P/A ε = ΔL /L  = θ, rad E =σ/ε G = τ /

 Stress and strain
DIRECT STRESS, σ
When a force is applied to an elastic body, the body deforms.
The way in which the body deforms depends upon the type of
forces applied to it.

Compressive force makes the body shorter.

Tensile force makes the body longer

*Tensile and compressive forces are called DIRECT FORCES.

 STRESS
 Normal stress results from a uniformly or equally
applied direct force across a cross section
x

P P

P P =P/A
A
• Stress is the force per unit area upon which it acts
which is perpendicular each other.
 Force F
Stress    
Area A
σ = average normal stress at any point on cross
sectional area
F = applied load
A = x-sectional area of the bar

• ( Symbol – Sigma)

Units (SI system)

 Newtons per square meter (N/m2) or pascal (1 Pa = 1 N/m2)
 kPa = 103 N/m2 (kilo-pascal)
 MPa = 106 N/m2 (mega-pascal)
 GPa = 109 N/m2 (giga-pascal)

Note: Most of engineering fields used kPa, MPa, GPa.

 STRESS
Compression Tension
P P
Area A

 Compressive stress: normal force  Tensile stress: normal force “pulls”

“pushes” or “compresses” area or “stretches” the area element ΔA
element ΔA  tensile stress is taken as positive
 compressive stress as negative (-) (+)

COMPRESSION TENSION
EXAMPLE 1:

 Determine the stress in a bar of 30mm

diameter if it is subjected to an axial load
of 20 kN in tension.

 Answer :

A = π x 302/4 = 706.86 mm2

σ = 20 x 103 = 28.29 N/mm2
706.86
EXAMPLE 2:

 Determine the tensile stress induced

in the rod of 20 mm dia. shown due to
an axial load of 150 kN.

150 kN

Answer :

A = π x 0.022/4 = 3.14 x 10-4 m2

σ = 150 x 103 = 477.7x106 N/m2
3.14 x 10-4
EXAMPLE 3:

Determine the stress in each of the

bar in figure below
A B
4 kN
C
3 kN
A

D = 15 mm D = 10 mm
SOLUTION:

3 kN 4 kN
FBC FAB 3 kN

Bar BC: Bar AB:

A = 78.54 mm2 A = 176.71 mm2
FBC = 3 kN FAB = 3 kN + 4 kN = 7 kN

BC = 3 x 103 N = 38.2 N/mm2

78.54 mm2
AB = 7 x 103 N = 39.6 N/mm2
176.71 mm2
STRAIN

 Occurs when a force is applied to a body

 Can be highly visible or practically
unnoticeable
 Can also occur when temperature of a
body is changed
 Is not uniform throughout a body’s volume,
thus change in geometry of any line
segment within body may vary along its
length
STRAIN

P P

L L

Normal / Direct strain

 If a bar subjected to a direct load, it will change in
length and then strain is produced.
 Defined as the elongation or contraction of a line
segment per unit of length
 Consider the figure shown, after deformation
original length, (L) changes in length by (L)

(symbol used is  (epsilon)

STRAIN
Therefore;
Change in length
Strain, =
Original length

= L / L
Units
 Normal strain is a dimensionless quantity, as it’s a
ratio of two lengths
 But common practice to state it in terms of
meters/meter (m/m)
  is small for most engineering applications, so is
normally expressed as microstrain ,  ( x 10 -6 )
 Also expressed as a percentage,
e.g., 0.001 m/m = 0.1 %
EXAMPLE 4:
 Under the action of a tensile load, a rod
200 cm long, elongates by 5 mm.
Determine the strain

Answer:
Given; δL = 5mm
L = 200cm = 2000mm
Strain, ε = δL/L
= 5/2000
= 2.5x10-3
 SHEAR STRESS
• A shear stress, denoted,  (Greek: tau), is
defined as the component of stress coplanar
with a material cross section.

• Shear stress arises from the force vector

component parallel to the cross section.

• Shear stress occurs due to the effect of

shearing, in which there is tendency for a
material to break into 2 parts with one sliding
over the other.
 SHEAR STRESS
• Figure below shows a force that acts on a block
attached to a large body.
• If the force is large enough, the block will shear off
the large body

Load, W Load, W

Shear
stress, τ

Reaction, W Reaction, W
SHEAR STRESS

The formula to calculate average shear stress is force

per unit area.
 = F/A
where:
 = the shear stress;
F = the force applied;
A = the cross-sectional area of material with
area parallel to the applied force vector

SI unit : Pascal (Pa = N/m2)

NORMAL FORCE & SHEAR FORCE
SHEAR STRESS

• Single shear – shear along one surface only

• Double shear - shearing stress is along two
section planes
• Single shear carries all load on one face while
double shear carries it on two faces, so stress is
lower by a factor of 2 for a given load.
• Occurs in various types of simple connections, e.g.,
bolts, pins, welded material

SINGLE SHEAR

DOUBLE SHEAR
SHEAR STRESS – Single Shear
 For equilibrium, x-sectional area of bolt and bonding
surface between the two members are subjected to
single shear force, V = F
 The average shear stress equation can be applied to
determine average shear stress acting on colored
section in (d).
SHEAR STRESS – Double Shear
 The joints shown below are examples of double-shear
connections, often called double lap joints.
 For equilibrium, x-sectional area of bolt and bonding surface
between two members subjected to double shear force,
V = F/2
 Apply average shear stress equation to determine average
shear stress acting on colored section in (d).
Average shear stress over each section is:

V
τavg =
A

τavg = average shear stress at

section, assumed to be same
at each part on the section
V = internal resultant shear force at
section determined from
equations of equilibrium

A = area of section
SHEAR STRESS

 The sign convention for shear force and

stress it based on how it shears material
and it is shown below:
SHEAR STRAIN
 Defined as the change in angle that occurs
between two line segments that were originally
perpendicular to one another
 This angle is denoted by  (gamma) and measured in
radians (rad).
 Axial strain is the ratio of the deformation of a body
along the loading axis to the original un-deformed
length of the body
 The units of axial strain are length per length and are
usually given without dimensions
 Shear strain is defined as angular change at some
point in a shape
SHEAR STRAIN

Simple shear:
 Perhaps the most familiar illustration of shear is the
movement of on opposite sides of a fault as shown here.
Because this type of shear is the easiest to visualize, it is
called simple shear.
SHEAR STRAIN

 Imagine when the fault starts moving we draw a line at

right angles to the fault.
 As the fault slips, the line rotates (and also lengthens),
and angle A increases.
 However, angle A will never reach 90 degrees unless the
slip on the fault is infinite.
SHEAR STRAIN

 We can define shear strain exactly the way we do longitudinal

strain: the ratio of deformation to original length.
 In the case of shear strain, the amount of deformation
perpendicular to a given line rather than parallel to it.
 The ratio turns out to be tan A, where A is the angle the sheared
line makes with its original orientation.
 Note that if A equals 90 degrees, the shear strain is infinite.
SHEAR STRAIN
 Sign Convention
 Positive normal stresses, x and y, acts
outward (tension) from all faces and vice
versa;
 Positive shear stress xy acts in clockwise
rotation and vice versa.

(Tension)

(Tension)
EXAMPLE 5:
 Determine the normal and shear stress in the
plate connection as drawn in figure below. If the
breadth and the width of the plate is 150mm and
5mm respectively.
Solution 5:
 N𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠, 𝜎𝐴=𝑃/𝐴
=30𝑘𝑁/(150 x 5)𝑚𝑚2=0.04𝑘𝑁 /𝑚𝑚2

 N𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠, 𝜎𝐵=𝑃/𝐴

=60𝑘𝑁/(150 x 5)𝑚𝑚2=0.08𝑘𝑁/𝑚𝑚2

 N𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠, 𝜎𝐶=𝑃/𝐴

=30𝑘𝑁/(150 x 5)𝑚𝑚2=0.04𝑘𝑁/𝑚𝑚2

 shear 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠, τ=𝑃/𝐴

=30𝑘𝑁/(150 x 20) 𝑚𝑚2=0.01𝑘𝑁/𝑚𝑚2
WEEK 2

ECS226
SOLID MECHANICS

Diploma In Civil Engineering

by:
Siti Zaidah Binti Othman
Lecturer
Faculty of Civil Engineering UiTM Sarawak
Room:12A 03 048
 PREVIOUS LEARNING
OURCOMES:

• Students should be able to acquire and

apply basic understanding on components
and application of stresses and strains. To
achieve this, therefore, the students should
be able to:

i. Differentiate and compute the normal and

shearing stresses
LEARNING OUTCOMES (LO):

• At the end of the lesson, students should

be able to :

i. Compute the deformation caused

by normal and shearing stresses.
 STRESS-STRAIN DIAGRAM
 Consider a bar of length, L and a constant
cross-sectional area, A.
 Load, P is applied causing the bar to elongate.
 A stress-strain curve is a graph derived from
measuring load (STRESS vs STRAIN (σ vs ε))
for a sample of a material.
 The nature of the curve varies from material
to material.
 In each case the samples are loaded in
TENSION although in many cases similar
behavior is observed in COMPRESSION.
 STRESS-STRAIN DIAGRAM

W Y
V

O
o
 STRESS-STRAIN DIAGRAM
Referring to the graph, the
portion between O and U is a
straight line, indicating the
proportionality between
W Y stress and strain.
V
Point V is referred as Elastic
Limit - The lowest stress at
U
which permanent deformation
can be measured.

According to Hooke’s Law :

“ Strain is proportional to the

stress causing it, providing
that the limit of proportionality
has not been exceeded”
stress (σ) versus strain (ε)
o
O
σ = Constant x ε
Constant, E = σ/ ε
Constant, E is called the Elastic Modulus or Young’s Modulus
 STRESS-STRAIN DIAGRAM

W Y
V

Point W is referred as Yield Point. At this point,

elongation occurs without any appreciable
increase load.

Is defined in engineering as the stress at which a

material begins to plastically deform.

Once the yield point is passed some fraction of

the deformation will be permanent and non-
Oo reversible.
it generally represents an upper limit to the load
that can be applied.
 STRESS-STRAIN DIAGRAM

W Y
V

U Point Y is referred as Ultimate Stress

when the load reaches its maximum
value.

Oo
 STRESS-STRAIN DIAGRAM

W Y
V

U From Y to X, the load falls off and there is

reduction in the cross-sectional area – Necking

And fracture occurring at point X

Oo
STRESS-STRAIN DIAGRAM
Necking
• mode of tensile deformation where relatively large
amounts of strain localize disproportionately in a small
region of the material.
• The resulting prominent decrease in local cross-
sectional area provides the basis for the name "neck".
• Because the local strains in the neck are large, necking is
often closely associated with yielding, a form of plastic
deformation associated with ductile materials, often
metals or polymers
 STRESS-STRAIN DIAGRAM
Stress / strain test

• Pull bar to cause stress and strain

• Record load P
• Compute stress, σ = P/A
• A = cross section area
• Record strain, ΔL
• Compute unit strain , Ɛ
• Ɛ = ΔL / L
• L = unstressed length
• Plot measure points on stress strain
graph
• Draw line through plotted points
 HOOKE’S LAW
• Most engineering materials exhibit a linear
relationship between stress and strain with the
elastic region
• Discovered by Robert Hooke in 1676 using springs,
known as Hooke’s law

σ = E

 E represents the constant of proportionality, also

called the modulus of elasticity or Young’s modulus
 E has units of stress, i.e., pascals, MPa or GPa.
 HOOKE’S LAW
Hooke’s Law for isotropic material (material of equal properties in any
direction)
• Stress causes strain deformation
• Stress/strain relations are visualized
by a spring as substitute for a rod
to amplify stress / strain relations
 Elongation under tension
 Shortening under compression
 Stress / strain graph
 POISSON’S RATIO
 Poisson's ratio, named after Simeon Poisson, is the
negative ratio of transverse to axial strain.

 When a material is compressed in one direction, it

usually tends to expand in the other two directions
perpendicular to the direction of compression.

 This phenomenon is called the Poisson effect.

 Poisson's ratio (nu) is a measure of this effect.

 The Poisson ratio is the fraction (or percent) of

expansion divided by the fraction (or percent) of
compression, for small values of these changes
 POISSON’S RATIO

 When an axial force is applied to a bar, the bar not only

elongates but also shortens in the other two (2) orthogonal
directions.
 Under the action of load, the bar will increase in length.
x = δL
L
 and also a reduction in dimension laterally.
y = - δd & z = - δb
d b
And y = z
 POISSON’S RATIO

For most engineering materials, the value of ʋ lies between 0.25

and 0.33

Since Longitudinal strain = Longitudinal Stress , long = σ

Modulus of elasticity E

But ʋ = - lat or long = - lat

long ʋ

Hence, σ = - lat
E ʋ

lat = - ʋσ
E
 POISSON’S RATIO in 2D
• 2D stress system - which all stresses lie in a plane ( x-y
plane)
• consider an element material to 2 stresses as shown in
Figure below:
σy

σx σx

σy

• Strains in the x-direction due to σx is σx and due to σy is - ν σy

E E
And;
• Strains in the y-direction due to σy is σy and due to σx is - ν σx
E E
 POISSON’S RATIO in 2D
• Therefore, the total strain in x-direction is:
x = σx + (- ν σy)
E E
 x = σx - ν σy
E E

Or x = 1 (σx - νσy)
E

• And the total strain in y -direction is:

y = σy + (- ν σx)
E E

 y = σy - ν σx
E E
Or y = 1 (σy - νσx)
E
Poisson's ratio values for different
materials
Material Poisson's Ratio
aluminum-alloy 0.33
Concrete 0.20
Cast iron 0.21-0.26
Glass 0.18-0.3
Clay 0.30-0.45
saturated clay 0.40-0.50
Copper 0.33
Cork ca. 0.00
Magnesium 0.35
Stainless steel 0.30-0.31
Rubber 0.50
Steel 0.27-0.30
Foam 0.10 to 0.40
Titanium 0.34
Sand 0.20-0.45
Auxetics negative

Dec - April 2011

 MODULUS OF ELASTICITY, E

• Also known as Young's modulus or Elastic Modulus,

is a measure of the stiffness of an elastic material
and is a quantity used to characterize materials.
• It is defined as the ratio of the stress (force per unit
area) along an axis to the strain (ratio of
deformation over initial length) along that axis in
the range of stress in which Hooke’s Law holds

Unit:
 Modulus of elasticity has unit of pressure.
 SI unit = pascal (Pa or N/m2 or m−1·kg·s−2).The practical units
used are megapascals (MPa or N/mm2) or gigapascals (GPa or
kN/mm2).
 MODULUS OF ELASTICITY, E

Usage:
 calculation of the change in the dimension of a bar
made of an isotropic elastic material under tensile
or compressive loads.
 it predicts how much a material sample extends
under tension or shortens under compression.
 Also used in order to predict the deflection that will
occur in a statically determinate beams when a load
is applied at a point in between the beam's supports.
 Other elastic calculations usually require the use of
one additional elastic property, such as the shear
modulus, bulk modulus or Poisson’s ratio.
 MODULUS OF ELASTICITY, E
Calculation:
 E, can be calculated by dividing the tensile stress by the
extensional strain in the elastic (initial, linear) portion of the
stress – strain curve:

 Where

E is the Young's modulus (modulus of elasticity)

F is the force exerted on an object under tension;
A0 is the original cross-sectional area through
which the force is applied;
ΔL is the amount by which the length of the object
changes;
L0 is the original length of the object.
 MODULUS OF ELASTICITY, E

IMPORTANT
 Modulus of elasticity E, can be used only if a material has linear-elastic
behavior.
 Also, if stress in material is greater than the proportional limit, the stress-
strain diagram ceases to be a straight line and the equation is not valid
 MODULUS OF RIGIDITY, G
 The shear modulus is the elastic modulus we use
for the deformation which takes place when a force
is applied parallel to one face of the object while
the opposite face is held fixed by another equal
force.

 For a material within elastic range, the shear stress

is proportional to the shear strain.
, Shear Stress

G=/

G
1
, Shear Strain
 MODULUS OF RIGIDITY, G
 When an object like a block of
height, L and cross section, A
experiences a force, F parallel
to one face, the sheared face
will move a distance, Δx.
 The shear stress is defined
as the magnitude of the force
per unit cross-sectional area
of the face being sheared
(F/A). The shear strain is
defined as Δx/L.
 The shear modulus, G is
defined as the ratio of the
stress to the strain.
 MODULUS OF RIGIDITY, G

• Shear modulus' derived SI unit is the Pascal

(Pa), although it is usually expressed in
gigapascal (GPa) or in thousands of pounds
per square inch (psi).
• The shear modulus is always positive.

 The bigger the shear modulus the more

rigid is the material since for the same
change in horizontal distance (strain) you
will need a bigger force (stress).
 This is why the shear modulus is sometimes
called the modulus of rigidity.
 TEMPERATURE STRESS
• When temperature INCREASE, a material will expand.
• When tempretature DECREASE, a material will contract.

L ΔL

 The linear expansion/elongation of the bar due to

temperature is given by
ΔL =Lt
Where ;
 = coefficient of linear expansion
t = temperature increase or decrease
L = initial length of bar
 TEMPERATURE STRESS
• The strain in the bar is given by:
ε = ΔL = L  t where, ΔL = L  t
L + ΔL L+Lt

• In most cases, the elongation is very small and t

is very small and can be ignored:

ε =Lt =t
L
• From;
σ = Eε
• So;
Temperature Stress, σ =Et
EXAMPLE 6:
A Copper bar is rigidly attached to the walls as shown in
figure below. The bar has cross-sectional area of 1200 mm2.
Determine the stress in the rod when the temperature
increase by 20⁰C.
Given E = 120 GPa and  = 20 x 10-6 / ⁰C

SOLUTION 6:

Stress, σ =Et
= (120 x 109 N/m2) x (20 x 10-6 / ⁰C) x (20⁰C)

= 48 x 106 N/m2
 STRAIN ENERGY
 Energy is normally defined as the Capacity to do
WORK.
 Strain Energy is defined as the energy which is
stored within a material when work has been done
on the material.

 From the principle of conservation of energy, the

relationship between the work done on the
material and the energy stored in the material can
be stated as;
Internal = External
Strain Energy, U = Work done, W
 STRAIN ENERGY, U
 Consider a bar of elastic material fixed at one end and
subjected to a steadily increasing force P.
 The force is applied slowly so that kinetic energies are
negligible.
 The initial length of the bar is L . The work dW done in
extending the bar a small amount dΔ is:
 STRAIN ENERGY, U
 It was shown that the force and extension are linearly
related through Δ = PL / EA ,
 where E is the Young’s modulus and A is the cross
sectional area.
 This linear relationship is plotted in graph. The work
expressed is the white region under the force-extension
curve (line).
 The total work done during the complete extension up to a
final force P and final extension Δ is the total area beneath the
curve.
 The work done is stored as elastic strain energy U and so:
EXAMPLE 7:
 A steel rod has a square cross-section
10mm x 10mm and a length of 2m.
Calculate the strain energy when a stress
of 400 MPa is produce by stretching it.Take
E = 200GPa.
SOLUTION:
A = 10 X 10 = 100 mm2 0r 100 x 10-6 m2
V = 100 x 10-6 x 2 = 200 x 10-6 m3
σ = 400 x 106 N/m2
E = 200 x 109 N/m2
U = σ2 x V = 80 joules
2E
EXAMPLE 8:
 FACTOR OF SAFETY (FOS)
 Introduce due to uncertainties in the loading condition, design
procedures, deteriorated due to weather, unexpected loads,
production methods, assumptions => ENSURE SAFETY OF
STRUCTURAL DESIGN

 The value of stresses known as maximum allowable

working stress

Formula :
Normal condition;
FOS = maximum stress = max
allowable working stress all

Plastic deformation;
FOS = yield stress = yield
allowable working stress all
 WEEK 3

ECS226
SOLID
MECHANICS
Siti Zaidah Binti Othman
Lecturer
Faculty of Civil Engineering UiTM
Sarawak
Room:12A 03 036
 PREVIOUS LEARNING OURCOMES:

 At the end of the lesson, students should

be able to :

i. Compute the deformation

caused by normal and
shearing stresses.
LEARNING OUTCOMES (LO):

At the end of the lesson, students

should be able to :

◦ Solve the composite material

problem using stress and strain
concept.
 COMPOSITE BARS
 The bar is made up of more than one material

 The force in each material maybe different BUT for

equilibrium, the total force in the bar must equal the
applied load.
(Example for 2 different material; F = F1 + F2)
 The axial deformation and strain in each material must
also be the same.
(So; ε1 = ε2)

Steel Ls  Lc

Concrete block bar
s  c
 FORCE EQUILIBRIUM
F2
F F1

A2
A1

= +

Composite material 1 and 2

Material 1 Material 2

Force equilbrium , F = F1 + F2 ……………(1)

= 1 A1 + 2 A2
COMPATIBILITY OF STRAIN

Shortening at once due to

perfect bonding assumption

=>

Shortening inside material 1 = shortening inside material 2

1 = 2
 / E =  /E
EXAMPLE 9:
EXAMPLE 9:

From ;
εc = εs ………(1)

Where;
σc = σs …..…..(2)
Ec Es
and;
Pc/Ac = Ps/As …………..(3)
Ec Es
Pc = ¾ x 80 = 60 kN
P = ¼ x 80 = 20 kN
EXAMPLE 9:
As = (8. π(D)2) = 2π(D)2
4

Ac = π(0.5)2 - 2π(D)2 = 0.196 – 2πD2

4
Substituting into (3);

60 x 103 = 20 x 103
(25 x 109)(0.196 – 2πD2) (200x109)( 2πD2)

D = 0.035m or 35mm
WEEK 4
Siti Zaidah Binti Othman
Lecturer
Faculty of Civil Engineering UiTM
Sarawak
Room:12A 03 048

ECS226
SOLID MECHANICS
 PREVIOUS LEARNING
OURCOMES

At the end of the lesson, students

should be able to :

–Solve the composite material problem

using stress and strain concept.
LEARNING OUTCOMES (LO):
• At the end of the lesson, students should be
able to :
– Solve the plane stresses by using the
transformation stress equation and
Mohr’s stress circle.
 Normal planes:
 stresses, σx,σy ; shear stresses, xy = yx
1. Inclined planes, transformation equations (2D):
 σx1 (σx’), σy1 (σy’), x1y1 (x’y’ )

2. Principle stresses:
 σ1 (max) & σ2 (min)
3. Maximum/minimum shear stress,max (min =-max )
• Mohr’s Circle
Introduction to stress elements
 Stress elements are a useful way to represent
stresses acting at some point on a body.
 Isolate a small element and show stresses acting
on all faces. Dimensions are infinitesimal”, but are
drawn to a large scale.
Stress Elements and Plane Stress – 3D
Plane stress element in 2D
 When an element is in plane stress in the xy plane, only the
x and y faces are subjected to stresses:
 (σz = 0 and zx = xz = ZY = YZ = 0).

 Such an element could be located on the free surface of a

body (no stresses acting on the free surface).
Maximum stresses on a bar in tension
 Maximum normal stress, Zero shear stress
Maximum stresses on a bar in tension
 Maximum shear stress, Non-zero normal stress
 Stress Elements and Plane Stress
 When working with stress elements, keep in mind that only
one basic state of stress exists at a point in a stressed body,
regardless of the orientation of the element used to portray
the state of stress.
 We are really just rotating axes to represent stresses in a
new coordinate system.
Normal and Shear stresses on inclined sections
 To obtain a complete picture of the stresses in a bar, we must
consider the stresses acting on an “inclined” (as opposed to a
“normal”) section through the bar.

 Because the stresses are the same throughout the entire bar, the
stresses on the sections are uniformly distributed.
Normal and Shear stresses on inclined sections
 The force P can be resolved into components:
 Normal force ,N, perpendicular to the inclined plane, N = P cos θ
 Shear force ,V, tangential to the inclined plane, V = P sin θ

 If we know the areas on which the forces act, we can

calculate the associated stresses.
Normal and Shear stresses on inclined sections
 Stresses on Inclined Sections
 The stress system is known in terms of coordinate system xy. We want
to find the stresses in terms of the rotated coordinate system x1y1.
 Why?
 A material may yield or fail at the maximum value of σ or . This value
may occur at some angle other than θ = 0. (Remember that for
uniaxial tension the maximum shear stress occurred when θ = 45
degrees. )
Transformation Equations
Transformation Equations
Transformation Equations
Sign Convention
 Positive normal stresses, x and y, acts
outward (tension) from all faces and vice
+σy
versa; +τxy
 Positive shear stress xy acts
+σx +σx
in clockwise rotation
and vice versa. +τxy
+σy

 The orientation of the inclined plane is determined

using the angle .
 Angle  is positive if it moves clockwise from
the +x axis to the +x1 axis.
 EXAMPLE 10:
 The state of plane stress at a point is represented
by the stress element below. Determine the stresses
acting on an element oriented 30° clockwise with
respect to the original element.
 SOLUTION 10:
 Define the stresses in terms of the established sign
convention:
σx = -80 MPa
σy = 50 MPa
xy = 25 MPa
 We need to find σx1, σy1, and x1y1 when θ = 30°.
 Substitute numerical values into the transformation
equations:

σx1 = σx+ σy + σx- σy cos 2θ + τxy sin 2θ

2 2

σx1 = -80+50 + -80-50 cos 2(30) + 25sin 2(30) = -25.85 MPa

2 2
SOLUTION 10:
σy1 = (σx+ σy) - (σx- σy) cos 2θ - τxy sin 2θ
2 2

σy1 = (-80+50) – (-80-50) cos 2(30) - 25sin 2(30) = - 4.15 MPa

2 2

τx1y1 = - (σx- σy) sin 2θ + τxy cos 2θ

2
τx1y1 = - (-80- 50) sin 60 + 25 cos 60 = 68.79 MPa
2
 Principal Stresses
 The maximum and minimum normal stresses (σ1 and σ2)
are known as the principal stresses. To find the principal
stresses, we must differentiate the transformation equations.

 There are two values of 2θp in the range 0-360°, with values differing by 180°.
 There are two values of θp in the range 0-180°, with values differing by 90°.
 So, the planes on which the principal stresses act are mutually perpendicular
Principal Stresses

 We can now solve for the principal stresses by substituting

for θp in the stress transformation equation for σx1. This tells
us which principal stress is associated with which principal
angle.
Principal Stresses
Principal Stresses
Principal Stresses
EXAMPLE 11:

 The state of plane stress at a point is represented by the

stress element below. Determine the principal stresses and
draw the corresponding stress element.
 SOLUTION 11:
 Define the stresses in terms of the established sign convention:
σx = -80 MPa
σy = 50 MPa
xy = 25 MPa

σ1,2 = (σx+ σy) ± σx- σy 2 + τxy2

2 2

σ1,2 = (-80+ 50) ± (-80- 50) 2 + 252 = 54.6MPa and -84.6MPa

2 2

So, σ1 = 54.6 Mpa (Maximum) and

σ2 = -84.6 Mpa (Minimum)
SOLUTION 11:
Tan 2θp = 2τxy
σx - σy
Tan 2θp = 2(25)
-80 -
50
2θp = -21⁰ and -21+ 180 = 159⁰
τ

-21⁰ (counterclockwise)

σ2 C σ1 σ

159⁰ (clockwise)
Maximum Shear Stress
Maximum Shear Stress
Maximum Shear Stress
EXAMPLE 12:
The state of plane stress at a point is represented by the
stress element below. Determine the maximum shear stresses
and draw the corresponding stress element.
SOLUTION 12:
Define the stresses in terms of the established sign convention:

σx = -80 Mpa
σy = 50 MPa
xy = 25 Mpa

τmax = σx- σy 2 + τxy2

2

τmax = -80- 50 2 + 252 = 69.6 MPa

2

τmax = 69.6 Mpa

τmin = -69.6 Mpa
SOLUTION 12:
Tan 2θs = - σx - σy
2τxy

Tan 2θs = - -80 – 50 = 2.6

2(25)
2θs = 68.9⁰ and 68.9⁰+ 180⁰ = 248.9⁰
τ
τ max (+)

68.9⁰ (clockwise)

C σ

248.9⁰ (clockwise) τ min (-)

SOLUTION 12:
SOLUTION 12:
SOLUTION 12:
TUTORIAL 12: ECS238- SEPT2014
 SOLUTION 12:
Define the stresses in terms of the established sign convention:

σx = 15Mpa
σy = 30 MPa
xy = -25 Mpa

τmax = σx- σy 2 + τxy2

2

τmax = 15- 30 2 + (-25)2 = 26.1 MPa

2

τmax = 26.1 Mpa

τmin = -26.1 Mpa
SOLUTION 12:
Tan 2θs = - σx - σy
2τxy

Tan 2θs = - 15– 30 = -0.3

2(-25)
2θs = -16.7⁰ and -16.7⁰+ 180⁰ = 163.3⁰
τ
τmax (+)

-16.7⁰ (counterclockwise)

C σ

163.3⁰ (clockwise)

τmin (-)
 SOLUTION 12 :
σx = 15Mpa
σy = 30 MPa
xy = -25 Mpa
 We need to find σx1, σy1, and x1y1 when θ = -30°(counterclockwise).
 Substitute numerical values into the transformation equations:

σx1 = 15+30 + 15-30 cos 2(-30) + (-25)sin 2(-30) = 40.4MPa

2 2

σy1 = (15+30) – (15-30) cos 2(-30) – (-25sin) 2(-30) = 4.6MPa

2 2

τx1y1 = - (15 - 30) sin -60 + (-25) cos (-60) = -19 MPa
2
 MOHR`S CIRCLE FOR PLANE STRESS
•Introduced by Otto Mohr in 1882
•Mohr's Circle illustrates principal stresses and stress
transformations via a graphical format, that is easy to
remember and use. τ
τmax

σ2 C σ1 σ

. Mohr's Circle was the leading tool used to visualize relationships

between normal and shear stresses, and to estimate the maximum
stresses, before hand-held calculators became popular. Even today,
Mohr's Circle is still widely used by engineers all over the world.
 Derivation of Mohr's Circle
 To establish Mohr's Circle, we first recall the stress transformation
formulas for plane stress at a given location:

σx1 = σx + σy + σx – σy cos2θ + xy sin2θ,

2 2
σx1 - σx + σy = σx – σy cos2θ + xy sin2θ, and
2 2
x1y1 = - (σx – σy ) sin2θ + xy cos2θ
2
• Using a basic trigonometric relation (cos22θ + sin22θ = 1) to
combine the two above equations we have:

[σx1 - σx + σy]2 + x1y12 = [σx – σy]2 + xy2

2 2
• This is the equation of a circle, plotted on a graph where the
abscissa is the normal stress and the ordinate is the shear stress.
Derivation of Mohr's Circle
 This is easier to see if we interpret σx and σy as being the two
principal stresses, and xy as being the maximum shear stress.
 Then we can define the average stress, σavg, and a "radius" R
(which is just equal to the maximum shear stress),

[σx1 - σavg]2 + x1y12 = R2

Derivation of Mohr's Circle
 The circle is centered at the average stress value, and has a radius
R equal to the maximum shear stress (τmax), as shown in the figure
below:
τ
τmax

σ2 C σ1 σ

τmin

 A benefit of Mohr's circle is that the principal stresses σ1 and σ2

and the maximum shear stress max are obtained immediately
after drawing the circle.
PROCEDURES TO CONSTRUCT MOHR’S
CIRCLE
•Before we discuss the procedure for constructing Mohr’s circle
there a several rules that apply.
PROCEDURES TO CONSTRUCT MOHR’S
CIRCLE
•2 Dimensional Stress Analysis – Stress acting on a 2D element is
shown in figure below
PROCEDURES TO CONSTRUCT MOHR’S
CIRCLE
•Step1 – Draw normal and shear axes with positive axes as shown

σ
PROCEDURES TO CONSTRUCT MOHR’S
CIRCLE
•Step2 – Mark normal stress values with sign convention (- or +), tensile stress is
positive and compression stress is negative and value for shear stress.
Example:
τ σx = -80 Mpa
σy = 50 MPa
xy = 25 Mpa

X 25 So;
X(-80,25)
Y(50,-25)

σx σy σ

-25 Y
 PROCEDURES TO CONSTRUCT MOHR’S
CIRCLE
 Step 3 - Draw line between X and Y and draw Mohr’s circle assuming the
connection line X and Y as diameter of the circle and σavg is a circle centre (C).

C = centre for circle τ

= σavg
= σx + σy
2
X 25

σx C σy σ

-25 Y
PROCEDURES TO CONSTRUCT MOHR’S CIRCLE
Step 4 – Stress Analysis on Mohr circle:
• To get normal and shear stress values at any plane θ, take angle 2θ in Mohr
circle starting from diagonal of the circle and locate a peripheral point as shown.
Shear stress value will be Y axis value and normal stress value will be X axis
value. σ1 = 56MPa , 2θ = -21°
ττ σ2 = -84MPa , 2θ = -21° + 180°
max
= 159°
τmax = 70MPa, 2θ = 69°
τmin = -70MPa, 2θ =
X 25 69°+180°= 249° @ -110°

σ2 σx
σy1
C σx1
σ y σ1 σ

-25 Y
σx1 = -27MPa
σy1 = -4MPa
τmin τx1y1 = 69MPa