CIVIL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

CHAPTER ONE
PILE FOUNDATIONS
1.1. Introduction
When the soil at or near the ground surface is not capable of supporting a structure, deep foundations are
required to transfer the loads to a deeper strata. Deep foundations are, therefore, used when the surface
soil is unsuitable for shallow foundation, and a firm stratum is so deep that it cannot be reached
economically by shallow foundations. The most common types of deep foundations are piles, piers and
caissons. The mechanism of transfer of the load to the soil is essentially the same in all types of deep
foundations.
A deep foundation is generally much more expensive than a shallow foundation. It should be adopted only
when shallow foundation is not feasible. In some cases, the soil is improved by various methods to make it
suitable for a shallow foundation.
Deep Foundations are normally defined as those that have depth width (𝐷𝑓 /B) ratio greater than 2. The
depth to its least width ratio is greater than four ((𝐷𝑓 /B)) is considered as Very deep foundation.
A deep foundation includes foundations with structural members referred to as piles, piers (bored piles
or drilled shafts), and caissons. They used to transmit loads to deeper layers soil. Piles and drilled piers
are used both on land and land surface and under water for supporting structures, whereas caissons are
normally used for bridges and sometimes for multi-stored buildings also. Deep foundations are used for
one or more of the following purposes:
 To transfer loads through materials too weak or too compressible to support shallow foundations
 To carry loads which are too heavy to be supported by a shallow foundation. The loads are to
be transferred to deeper, stronger and less compressible strata or over a larger depth of the
foundation soil as in foundations of tall buildings.
 To carry part of the load to deeper soil for reducing the settlement as in piled raft foundations.
 To carry horizontal loads as in bridge abutments or retaining walls and also to increase the
stability of tall buildings. Inclined piles are also used to carry inclined loads with horizontal
force components.
 To withstand uplift forces in foundations as in expansive soils and floating foundations.
 To avoid loss of support by scour as in bridges.
 To reduce large differential settlement in situations where there are large variations of column
loads.

1 FOUNDATION ENGINEERING-II BY: DINKA FULEA (MSc.)

 CIVIL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

Pile foundations are the structural members used to carry and transfer the load of the structure to the
bearing ground located at some depth below ground surface (deeper layers). These foundations are
classified as deep foundations. The main components of these foundation are the pile cap and the piles.
Piles are relatively long and slender members used to transmit foundation loads through soil strata of
low bearing capacity to deeper soil or rock having a higher bearing capacity.
Piles must be able to sustain axial (typically, vertical) and transversal or lateral (typically, horizontal)
loads without suffering structural damage, without failing in bearing capacity and without undergoing
excessive settlements or deflections.
A pile is a slender structural member made of steel, concrete or wood. A pile is either driven into the soil
or formed in-situ by excavating a hole and filling it with concrete. A pier is a vertical column of relatively
larger cross-section than a pile. A pier is installed in a dry area by excavating a cylindrical hole of larger
diameter to the desired depth and then backfilling it with concrete. The distinction between a cast-in-
situ pile and a pier is rather arbitrary. A cast-in-situ pile greater than 0.6m diameter is generally termed as a
pier. A caisson is a hollow, water-tight box or chamber, which is sunk through the ground for lying
foundation under water. The caisson subsequently becomes an integral part of the foundation. A pier and
a caisson differ basically in method of construction.
Pile foundations are used in the following conditions:
 When the strata at or just below the ground surface is highly compressible and very weak to
support the load transmitted by a structure.
 When the plan of the structure is irregular relative to its outline and load distribution. It would
cause non-uniform settlement if shallow foundation is constructed. A pile foundation is
required to reduce differential settlement.
 Pile foundations are required for the transmission of structural loads through deep water to a
firm stratum.
 Pile foundations are used to resist horizontal forces in addition to vertical loads in earth
retaining structures and tall structures that are subjected to horizontal forces due to wind and
earthquake.
 Piles are required when the soil conditions are such that a wash out, erosion or scour of soil
may occur from underneath a shallow foundation.
 Piles are used for the foundations of some structures, such as transmission towers, off-shore
platforms, which are subject to uplift.
 In case of expansive soils, such as black cotton soil, which swell and shrink as the water content
changes, piles are used to transfer the load below the active zone.
 Collapsible soils, such as loess, have a breakdown of structure accompanied by a sudden
decrease in void ratio when there is an increase in water content. Piles are used to transfer the
load beyond the zone of possible moisture changes in such soils.
2 FOUNDATION ENGINEERING-II BY: DINKA FULEA (MSc.)
 CIVIL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

1.2. Classification of Piles

Piles can be classified according to (1) the material used (2) the mode of transfer of the load (3) the
method of construction (4) the use, or (5) the displacement of the soil, as described below.

1.2.1. Classification according to material used

There are four types of piles according to materials used.

i. Timber piles – are made from tree trunks after proper trimming. The timber used should be straight,
sound and free from defects. Steel shoes are provided to prevent damage due to driving. To avoid
damage to the top of the pile, a metal band or cap is provided. Splicing of timber piles is done using a
pipe sleeve or metal straps and bolts. However, splicing of timber piles should be avoided as much as
possible as it makes the process slow and time consuming.

Timber piles may decay due to living microbes. The microbes need two ingredients to thrive- oxygen
and moisture. For timber piles to decay, both ingredients are needed. Timber piles below water have
generally long life because there is ample moisture but little oxygen. Timber piles in dry areas also have
long life because there is little moisture. In areas where timber piles are likely to decay due to presence
of both oxygen and moisture, the life of timber piles can be increased by soaking the timber piles in
preservatives such as creosote oils. Fluctuating water tables are also dangerous to the life of timber
piles.

 Timber piles are best suited for situations where there is abundance of trees, where the design load is
moderate (usually in the range of 100kN to 400kN per pile) and on water front structures because
of their resistance to impact loads, such as those from ships.

ii. Steel piles – Steel piles are generally are either in the form of thick pipes or rolled steel H- sections.
Pipe steel piles are driven into the ground with their bottom ends open or closed. When pipe piles
are driven open ended, the pipe is cleaned with jet of water for the ease of driving. Steel piles can be
easily spliced. Both H piles and open-end pipe piles can be plugged during driving process.

Epoxy coatings are applied in a factory during manufacture of pipes to reduce corrosion of the steel
piles. To take into account the corrosion, an additional thickness of the steel section is usually
recommended.

 Steel piles are best suited for foundations for large structures of heavy loads in a non-corrosive
environment.

iii. Concrete piles – Cement concrete is used in the construction of concrete piles. Concrete piles are
either precast or cast-in-situ. Precast concrete piles are prepared in a factory or casting yard. The
reinforcement is provided to resist handling and driving stresses. Precast piles can also be pre-stressed
using high strength steel pre-tensioned cables.

A cast-in-situ pile is constructed by making a hole in the ground and then filling it with concrete. A
cast-in-situ pile may be cased or uncased. A cased pile is constructed by driving a steel casing into the
ground and filling it with concrete. An uncased pile is constructed by driving the casing to the desired
3 FOUNDATION ENGINEERING-II BY: DINKA FULEA (MSc.)
 CIVIL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

depth and gradually withdrawing casing when fresh concrete is filled. An uncased pile may have a
pedestal.

 Concrete piles are best suited for structures with moderate to heavy loads. Precast concrete piles
have their principal use in marine and river structures, i.e. in situations where the use of driven and
cast-in-place piles is impracticable or uneconomical. Cast-in-situ piles are advantageous in areas
where there is stringent regulation towards noise which may be induced due to pile driving.

iv. Composite piles – A composite pile is composed of two or more materials. A composite pile may
consist of the lower portion of a steel and an upper portion of cast-in-situ concrete. A composite pile
may also have the lower portion of timber below the permanent water table and the upper portion of
concrete. As it is difficult to provide a proper joint between two dissimilar materials, composite piles
are rarely used in practice.

 Composite piles are best suited for foundations with moderate loads where upper part of the pile is
above ground water level.

The merits and demerits of piles based on the composing materials are listed in the following table.
Table 1.1: Advantages and disadvantages of different piles.
Pile type Advantage Disadvantage
Timber pile  Cheaper than concrete or steel pile  Liable to decay in marine conditions.
 It is light, easy to handle, and  Unsuitable for heavy working loads,
readily trimmed to the required typical maximum being 600kN.
length.  Susceptible to brooming and damage
 Durable below ground water table. during installation or may split if a
hard rock is encountered.
Steel pile  Easy to handle with respect to  Relatively costly
cutoff and extension to the desired  High level of noise during driving
length  Subject to corrosion
 Can stand high driving stresses  Noisy to drive.
 Can penetrate hard layers such as  H-piles may be damaged or deflected
dense gravel or soft rock from the vertical during driving
 High load carrying capacity. through hard layers or past major
obstructions.
Concrete pile  Can be subjected to hard driving  Difficult to achieve proper cutoff
 Corrosion resistant  Difficult to transport
 Can be easily combined with a
concrete superstructure.
 Cast-in-situ concrete pile can be
used in places where there is
restriction of ground vibration.
Composite pile  May result in an economical option  Difficult to splice.
for some site conditions.

4 FOUNDATION ENGINEERING-II BY: DINKA FULEA (MSc.)

 CIVIL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

1.2.2. Classification based on mode of transfer of loads

Based on the mode of transfer of load piles may be classified into three categories:

i. End-bearing piles-transmit the loads to the underlying stiff stratum through their bottom tips. Such
piles act as columns and transmit the load through a weak material to a firm stratum below. If bed
rock is located within a reasonable depth, piles can be extended to the rock. The ultimate capacity
of the pile depends on the bearing capacity of the rock. If, instead of bed rock, a fairly compact and
hard stratum of soil exists at a reasonable depth, piles can be extended a few meters into the hard
stratum. End-bearing piles are also known as point bearing piles. The ultimate load carried by end-
bearing piles is equal to the load carried by the bottom end.

ii. Friction piles-do not reach the hard stratum. These piles transfer the load through skin friction
between the embedded surface of the pile and the surrounding soil. Friction piles are used when a
hard stratum doesn’t exist at a reasonable depth. The ultimate load carried by the pile is equal to the
load transferred by skin friction. Friction piles are also called floating piles, as these do not reach
the hard stratum. Although in clay soils the load is transferred by adhesion not friction between the
pile surface and the soil, the term friction pile can still be used.

iii. Combined End-bearing and Friction piles-transfer loads by a combination of end bearing at
the bottom of the pile and friction along the surface of the pile shaft. The ultimate load carried by
the pile is equal to the sum of the load carried by the pile point and the load carried by the skin
friction.

1.2.3. Classification based on method of installation

Based on the method of installation, piles may be classified into five categories:

i. Driven piles. These piles are driven into the soil by applying blows of a heavy hammer on their
tops.
ii. Driven and cast-in-situ piles. These piles are formed by driving a casing with a closed bottom
end into the soil. The casing is latter filled with concrete. The casing may or may not be
withdrawn.
iii. Bored and cast-in-situ piles. These piles are formed by excavating a hole into the ground and
then filling it with concrete.
iv. Screw piles. These piles are screwed into the soil.
v. Jacked piles. These piles are jacked into soil by applying a downward force with the help of a
hydraulic jack.

1.2.4. Classification based on use

Piles can be classified into the following six categories depending on their use (see figure below).

i. Load bearing piles. These piles are used to transfer the load of the structure to a suitable
stratum by end bearing, by friction or by both.

5 FOUNDATION ENGINEERING-II BY: DINKA FULEA (MSc.)

 CIVIL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

ii. Compaction piles. These piles are driven into loose granular soils to increase the relative
density. The bearing capacity of the soil is increased due to densification caused by vibrations.
iii. Tension piles. These piles are in tension. These piles are used to anchor down structures
subjected to hydrostatic uplift forces or overturning forces.
iv. Sheet piles. They form a continuous wall or bulk head which is used for retaining earth or
water.
v. Fender piles. They are sheet piles which are used to protect water front structures from impact
of ships and vessels.
vi. Anchor piles. These piles are used to provide anchorage for anchored sheet piles. These piles
provide resistance against horizontal pull for sheet pile wall.

6 FOUNDATION ENGINEERING-II BY: DINKA FULEA (MSc.)

 CIVIL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

1.2.5. Classification based on displacement of soil

Based on the volume of soil displaced during installation, piles can be classified into two categories:

i. Displacement piles. All driven piles are displacement piles as the soil is displaced laterally when
the pile is installed. The soil gets densified. The installation may cause heaving of the
surrounding ground. Pre-cast concrete pile and closed-end pipe piles are high displacement
piles. Steel H-piles are low displacement piles.
ii. Non-displacement (Replacement) piles. Bored piles are non-displacement piles. As the
soil is removed when the hole is bored, there is no displacement of the soil during
installation. The installation of these piles causes very little change in the stresses in the
surrounding soil.

1.3. Selection of Pile Type

The selection of the appropriate type of pile from any of the above categories depends on the
following three principal factors:
 The location and type of structure
 The ground conditions
 Durability.
Considering the first factor:
 Some form of displacement pile is the first choice for a marine structure.
 A solid precast or pre-stressed concrete pile can be used in fairly shallow water, but in deep water
a solid pile becomes too heavy to handle and either a steel tubular pile or a tubular precast concrete
pile is used.
 Steel tubular piles are preferred to H-sections for exposed marine conditions because of the
smaller drag forces from waves and currents. Large-diameter steel tubes are also an economical
solution to the problem of dealing with impact forces from waves and berthing ships.
 Timber piles are used for temporary works in fairly shallow water.
 Bored and cast-in-place piles would not be considered for any marine or river structure unless
used in a composite form of construction, say as a means of extending the penetration depth of a
tubular pile driven through water and soft soil to a firm stratum.
 Piling for a structure on land is open to a wide choice in any of the three categories.
 Bored and cast- in-place piles are the cheapest type where unlined or only partly lined holes can
be drilled by rotary auger. These piles can be drilled in very large diameters and provided with
enlarged or grout-injected bases, and thus are suitable to withstand high working loads.
 Augered piles are also suitable where it is desired to avoid ground heave, noise and vibration, i.e.
for piling in urban areas, particularly where stringent noise regulations are enforced.
 Driven and cast-in-place piles are economical for land structures where light or moderate loads

7 FOUNDATION ENGINEERING-II BY: DINKA FULEA (MSc.)

 CIVIL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

are to be carried, but the ground heave, noise and vibration associated with these types may make
them unsuitable for some environments.
 Timber piles are suitable for light to moderate loadings in countries where timber is easily
obtainable.
 Steel or precast concrete-driven piles are not as economical as driven or bored and cast-in-place
piles for land structures. Jacked-down steel tubes or concrete units are used for underpinning
work.
Considering the second factor: ground conditions, influences both the material forming the pile and the
method of installation.
 Firm to stiff fine-grained soils (silts and clays) favour the augered bored pile.
 Augering without support of the borehole by a bentonite slurry cannot be performed in very soft
clays or in loose or water-bearing granular soils, for which driven or driven and cast-in-place piles
would be suitable.
 Piles with enlarged bases formed by auger drilling can be installed only in firm to stiff or hard fine-
grained soils or in weak rocks.
 Driven and driven and cast-in-place piles can neither be used in ground containing boulders or
other massive obstructions, nor can they be used in soils subject to ground heave, in situations
where this phenomenon must be prevented.
 Driven and cast-in-place piles which employ a withdrawable tube cannot be used for very deep
penetrations because of the limitations of jointing and pulling out of the driving tube. For such
conditions a driven pile would be suitable.
 For hard driving conditions, for example, boulder clays or gravely soils, a thick-walled steel tubular
pile or a steel H-section can withstand heavier driving than a precast concrete pile of solid or
tubular section.
 Some form of drilled pile, such as a drilled-in steel tube, would be used for piles taken down into
a rock for the purpose of mobilizing resistance to uplift or lateral loads.
 Hollow tubular steel piles can be expensive for piling in contaminated ground when compared
with other displacement piles, but they are useful in overcoming obstructions which could cause
problems when driving precast concrete or boring displacement piles.
 Large displacement piles are unlikely to form transfer conduits for contaminants, although
untreated wooden piles may allow ‘wicking’ of volatile organics.
 End-bearing H-piles can form long-term flow conduits into aquifers (particularly when a driving
8 FOUNDATION ENGINEERING-II BY: DINKA FULEA (MSc.)
 CIVIL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

shoe is needed) and it may be necessary for the piles to be hydraulically isolated from the
contaminated zone.
Considering the last factor: The factor of durability affects the choice of material for a pile.
 Although timber piles are cheap in some countries they are liable to decay above groundwater
level, and in marine structures they suffer damage by destructive mollusc-type organisms.
 Precast concrete piles do not suffer corrosion in saline water below the ‘splash zone’, and rich well-
compacted concrete can withstand attack from quite high concentrations of sulphates in soils and
groundwaters.
 Cast-in-place concrete piles are not so resistant to aggressive substances because of difficulties in
ensuring complete compaction of the concrete, but protection can be provided against attack by
placing the concrete in permanent linings of coated light- gauge metal or plastics.
 Steel piles can have a long life in ordinary soil conditions, if they are completely embedded in
undisturbed soil, but the portions of a pile exposed to sea water or to disturbed soil must be
protected against corrosion by cathodic means, if a long life is required.

Having selected a certain type or types of pile as being suitable for the location and type of structure for
the ground conditions at the site and for the requirements of durability, the final choice is then made on
the basis of cost. However, the total cost of a piled foundation is not simply the quoted price per metre run
of piling or even the more accurate comparison of cost per pile per kN of working load carried. The most
important consideration is the overall cost of the foundation work including the main contractor’s costs
and overheads.
1.4. Installation of Piles
The construction of deep foundations is much more complex than that of shallow foundations, and the
construction methods have a much greater impact on their performance. In this section, the three most
widely used installation methods viz., driven, driven cast-in-situ and bored cast-in-situ will be discussed.
i. Installation of Driven Piles

Piles are driven into the ground by means of hammers or by using a vibratory driver. Such piles are
called driven piles. In some special cases, piles are installed by jetting or partial auguring. The
following methods are commonly used.
a. Hammer Driving- Figure 1.1 shows a pile driving rig. It consists of a hoist mechanism, a guiding
frame and a hammer device. The hammers used for pile driving can be drop hammer, single-acting
hammer, double-acting hammer or diesel hammer.

9 FOUNDATION ENGINEERING-II BY: DINKA FULEA (MSc.)

 CIVIL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

Figure 1.1: Pile driving rig

b. Vibratory pile driver- Figure 1.2 shows a pile driving rig A vibratory pile driver consists of two
weights, called exciters, which rotate in opposite directions. The horizontal components of the
centrifugal forces generated by the exciters cancel each other but the vertical components add.
Thus, a sinusoidal dynamic vertical force is applied to the pile, which forces the pile downward.
The frequency of vibration is kept equal to the natural frequency of pile-soil system for better
results.

A vibratory pile driver is useful only for sandy or gravely soils. The speed of penetration is good.
The method is used where vibrations and noise of conventional pile driving methods cannot be
permitted.

Figure 1.2: Vibratory pile drive

10 FOUNDATION ENGINEERING-II BY: DINKA FULEA (MSc.)

 CIVIL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

c. Jetting techniques- When the pile is to penetrate a thin hard layer of sand or gravel overlying softer
soil layer, the pile can be driven through the hard layer by jetting techniques. Water under pressure
is discharged at the pile bottom by means of a pipe to wash and loosen the hard layer.
d. Partial auguring method- Batter piles (inclined piles) are usually advanced by partial auguring. In this
method, a power augur is used to drill a hole for a part of the depth. The pile is then inserted in the
hole and driven with hammers to the required depth.
ii. Installation of Bored Piles

Bored piles are constructed after making a hole in the ground and filling it with concrete. The drilling of
the hole can be done by either hand auger, mechanical auger, boring rig or belling bucket. Selecting the
method of drilling or boring the hole will depend on the soil and groundwater conditions and size of the
hole to be excavated. Hand auger will be used for small diameter and shallow holes whereas mechanical
auger is used for wider and deeper holes. If the groundwater conditions do not allow the use of hand or
mechanical auger, boring rig will be used. Excavation for under-reamed piles will be done by belling
buckets.
During concreting, the bore hole is bailed dry of water before the concrete is placed. Any loose or softened
soil is cleaned out and the bottom of the hole is rammed. If the hole cannot be bailed or pumped dry
before placing the concrete, the hole is lined with a casing throughout depth. If the groundwater is
under high pressure, there will be inflow of water between the concrete plug and the inside of the
casing. The inflow should be stemmed by caulking.
iii. Installation of Driven Cast-in-situ Piles

A driven cast-in-situ concrete pile is formed in the ground by driving a casing with a plug or shoe at its
bottom. If the casing is removed after concrete has been placed, it is known as uncased or shell-less
pile. On the other hand, if the casing is left in the ground after concreting, it is called cased pile. In
uncased piles, the concrete comes in direct contact with the soil.
1.5. Load Carrying Capacity of Pile

A pile derives its load-carrying capacity by friction or adhesion along the pile shaft with the
surrounding soil and/or by compressive resistance at the contact of the pile base with the underlying
soil. The ultimate bearing capacity (Qu) of a pile can be calculated using soil mechanics principles. The
capacity is assumed to be the sum of skin friction (Qs) and end-bearing resistance (Qb). Therefore, to
compute the total load that can be applied to a pile, one needs to compute the end bearing and the skin

11 FOUNDATION ENGINEERING-II BY: DINKA FULEA (MSc.)

 CIVIL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

friction acting on the sides of the pile. The modified Terzaghi bearing capacity equation used to find
the pile capacity is given as:
The load Q at the head of single pile can be expressed as the sum of the load Qb carried at the base and
the load Qs carried by the shaft of the pile.

Where Qb = load carried by the base of pile, Qb = Ab* qb and,

Qs = Load carried by the shaft of the pile, Qs= qsAs and Qs = ∑𝑛𝑖 𝑞𝑠𝑖 ∗ 𝐴𝑠𝑖 Where the sum is over all
soil layers n crossed by the pile, with i = 1,2 . . .n;
qb = unit base resistance; qs =unit shaft resistance, qsi = unit shaft resistance within a layer i penetrated
by the pile; Ab= area of pile base, 𝐴𝑠𝑖 = pile shaft area interfacing with layer i.

There are two general types of methods to calculate (design) piles for axial loads. Those methods are
based on; 1) soil engineering properties (laboratory test) and 2) In-situ tests (field tests).
Soil property-based methods arrive at estimates of Qb and Qs based on the values of basic soil variables
from the soil layers crossed by the pile obtained from laboratory test. These are usually with relative
density and initial stress state in the case of sands and the undrained shear strength and the plasticity
index in the case of clays.
The in-situ test-based methods correlate Qb and Qs directly with either CPT cone resistance qc or SPT
below count NSPT. The correlation of Qb with qc is particularly natural for a pile with a solid cross
section because Qb for such a pile (the unit base resistance when the pile is plunging through the soil)
is approximately equal to the cone resistance qc for the same soil conditions.

12 FOUNDATION ENGINEERING-II BY: DINKA FULEA (MSc.)

 CIVIL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

1.5.1. Allowable Pile bearing Capacity and Factor of Safety

The allowable load of a pile is the load that can be transmitted to the pile from the superstructure
without leading either serviceability or ultimate limit states. This load must be arrived at by taking the
uncertainties in measurements and calculations fully into account. In working stress design method, the
allowable load is simply equal to the ultimate load divided by a suitable factor of safety. We can safely
ignore the self-weight of the pile applied on the pile. The Allowable Pile Capacity can be computed
using:
𝑸𝒖 𝑸𝒃 𝑸𝒔
𝑸𝒂𝒍𝒍 = = +
𝑭𝑺 𝑭𝑺𝒃 𝑭𝑺𝒔

Where Fs is factor of safety on total capacity (for the first term), 𝐹𝑆𝑏 is factor of safety on shaft
resistance and 𝐹𝑆𝑠 is factor of safety on base resistance (for the second term). Their value is given in
table below as per IS 2911.
Factor of Safety shall be used by giving due consideration to the following point:
 Reliability of soil parameters used for calculation
 Mode of transfer of load to soil
 Importance of structure
 Allowable total and differential settlement tolerated by structure

Generally, Partial factors of safety for shaft & base capacities respectively
 For shaft, use 1.5 (typical)
 For base, use 3.0 (typical)

In the case where the values of 𝑄𝑠𝑢 and 𝑄𝑏𝑢 can be obtained independently, the allowable bearing
capacity of pile can be written as:

13 FOUNDATION ENGINEERING-II BY: DINKA FULEA (MSc.)

 CIVIL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

Note: it is permissible to take a safety factor equal to 1.5 for skin friction because the peak value of
skin friction on a pile occurs at a settlement of only 3 to 8mm (i.e relatively independently of shaft
diameter and embedded length but may depend on soil parameters), whereas, the base resistance
requires a greater settlement for full mobilization.
The behavior of Frictional Pile and End bearing Piles under loading vs Settlement shown as graph
below.

 Shaft resistance fully mobilized at small pile movement (<1%D)

 Base resistance mobilized at large movement (10% ~ 30% D)

1.6. Axial Load Capacity of Vertical Piles

Like shallow foundation, a pile foundation should be safe against shear failure and excessive settlement. The
bearing capacity of a pile is dependent on the size, shape and type of pile and on the properties of the soil in which it
is embedded. The ultimate bearing capacity is the load beyond which the soil undergoes shear failure.

The bearing capacity of isolated vertical piles can be determined from one of the following four methods:
 Pile load tests  Dynamic formulas
 Sounding tests  Analytical methods

1.6.1. Axial Load Capacity based on Pile Load Tests

The most precise way to determine the ultimate downward and upward load capacities for deep
foundations is to build a full-sized prototype foundation and slowly load it to failure at the proposed
construction site. All the other methods determined the axial load capacities indirectly and therefore are
less precise. However, static pile load tests are much more expensive and time-consuming, and thus
must be used more judiciously.
The objective of a static pile load test is to develop a load-settlement curve or, in case of uplift tests, a

14 FOUNDATION ENGINEERING-II BY: DINKA FULEA (MSc.)

 CIVIL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

load-heave curve. This curve is then used to determine the ultimate load capacity of a single isolated pile.
Once we have obtained the load-settlement curve, it is necessary to determine the ultimate load
capacity, which means we must define where “failure” occurs. For piles in soft clays or predominantly
frictional piles, this is relatively straight forward. In these soils, the load settlement curve has a distinct
plunge, as shown by curve A in fig 1.3, and the ultimate capacity is the load that corresponds to this
plunge. However, piles in sands, intermediate soils and stiff clays or predominantly end bearing piles have
a slopped curve with no clear point of failure, as shown by curve B. For such piles, it is often difficult to
define an ultimate limit state from a load settlement plot showing a continuous curvature.

Figure 1.3: Typical load-settlement curve from pile load test

Many different methods have been proposed to determine the ultimate capacity of piles with load-
settlement curves having no clear point of failure. However, EBCS-7 doesn’t provide with a specific
detail to determine the ultimate load. In other codes, such as the British Standard, the settlement of the pile
equal to 10% of the pile base diameter should be adopted as the "failure" criterion. The ultimate load
Corresponds to the force at which the penetration (settlement) is equal to 10% of the diameter of the
base of the pile. More than one pile load test may be carried out depending on the variability of the soil
condition at the site. The mean value of the ultimate bearing capacity Rcm should be determined by
considering both the average of the ultimate loads and the lowest value of the ultimate loads.
Once the mean ultimate bearing capacity is obtained, it should be divided by the variability factor𝜉, to get the
characteristic bearing capacity Rck of isolated piles. The variability factors are given in EBCS-7. The variability
factors are given for both cases where the average and lowest ultimate loads are considered. The characteristic bearing
capacity of the piles will then be the minimum value of these two cases.

15 FOUNDATION ENGINEERING-II BY: DINKA FULEA (MSc.)

 CIVIL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

Using a mathematical equation, the calculation of Rck can be expressed as:

Table 1.2: Values of  according to table 7.1 of EBCS-7

Number of static pile load tests 1 2 >2
Factor  on mean Rcm 1.5 1.35 1.3
Factor  on lowest Rcm 1.5 1.25 1.1

Where ξ1; ξ2 are correlation (variability) factors to evaluate the results of static pile load tests and and
are applied to the mean (Rcm) mean and the lowest (Rcm) min respectively.
After the characteristic bearing capacity is determined, it should be divided by a partial safety factor to
obtain the design pile bearing capacity Rcd which will be used for ultimate state design of the pile. EBCS-
7 provides these partial safety factors and these values are presented in the table below. In this table, b
represents partial safety factor for base (tip) resistance, s represents partial safety factor for shaft (side)
resistance, and t represents partial safety factor for total resistance. Since the base resistance and shaft
resistance cannot be distinguished in pile load tests, t must be used to obtain the design pile load
capacity.
Table 1.3: Values of b, s and t according to table 7.2 of EBCS-7
Component factors b s t
Bored piles 1.3 1.3 1.3
Driven piles 1.6 1.3 1.5
CFA (Continuous Flight Auger) piles 1.45 1.3 1.4

Example 1.1: Two pile load tests were carried out on exact prototypes to determine the design
bearing capacity of a 30cm diameter driven pile and the following load-settlement data was obtained.

Load (kN) 0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500

Settlement(cm) Test 1 0 0.85 1.65 2.55 3.8 6
Test 2 0 0.83 1.6 2.4 3.5 5.6

Determine the design bearing capacity of the pile.

16 FOUNDATION ENGINEERING-II BY: DINKA FULEA (MSc.)

 CIVIL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

1.6.2. Axial Load Capacity based on Sounding Tests

The bearing capacity of piles can also be determined from sounding tests. The most widely used
sounding tests which are used for this purpose are the standard penetration tests and the Dutch cone test.
The bearing capacity determined from these tests is based on empirical formulas and good judgment
should be applied while using the result for design purposes.
a. Standard Penetration Test. The unit base resistance (qb,cal) and the unit skin friction (qs,cal) of a pile can be
estimated from the standard penetration test value (N).(Meyerhof 1976).
 For driven piles in sand

 For bored piles in sand

Where B is the width (diameter) of the pile

D is the length of the pile for
driven piles
Db is the length of the pile for bored piles
N is the uncorrected standard penetration value,
N̄ is the average of the uncorrected standard penetration values
b. Dutch Cone Test. Meyerhof (1965) relates the unit base resistance (qb,cal) and the unit skin friction (qs,cal)
of driven piles to the cone point resistance (qc).

17 FOUNDATION ENGINEERING-II BY: DINKA FULEA (MSc.)

 CIVIL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

The unit point resistance (qb,cal) and the unit skin friction (qs,cal) should be multiplied by the area on
which they act to get the corresponding ultimate base and shaft resistances. The determination of the
mean, characteristic and ultimate values of pile bearing capacity follows the same procedure as
depicted in section 1.6.1 using the same variability and partial safety factors.

1.6.3. Axial Load Capacity based on Dynamic Methods

The third way of determining axial load capacity of deep foundations is to use dynamic methods,
which are based on foundation’s response to dynamic loads, such as those from a pile hammer or
some other impact source. By monitoring the response to these dynamic loads, engineers can develop
prediction of static load capacity. These formulae have been developed for driven piles (precast
type) using dynamic principles. A drop/falling hammer is used to drive the pile to the desired
depth or until refusal.
There are five dynamic approaches to determine the static load capacities of pile foundations. All
dynamic formulae are based on the following two assumptions.
a) The resistance to driving of a pile can be determined from the kinetic energy of the driving
hammer and the movement of the pile under a blow.
b) The resistance to driving is equal to the ultimate bearing capacity for static loads.
There are many dynamic formulae, in all of which the energy available in the hammer at the moment
of impact is equated to the work done in overcoming the resistance of the ground to the penetration
of the pile. Allowances are made for the energy supplied by the hammer which is not usefully
employed in moving the pile to a new position but is lost in causing elastic strains and vibrations in
the pile, cap and soil. The various assumptions made in the calculation of these losses give rise to a
variety of dynamic formulae (Whitaker 1976). The dynamic methods which are used to determine the
static load capacity of piles are:
1. Engineering News formulas 4. High-strain dynamic tests and
2. Pile-driving formulas 5. Low-strain dynamic tests
3. Wave equation analyses
i) Engineering News Formulae
The Engineering News Formulae was proposed by A.M. Wellington (1818) in the following formulae.
This formula is the simplest and the most popular of dynamic pile formula.
𝑾𝑯 𝑹𝒄𝒎 𝑾𝑯
𝑹𝒄𝒎 = and 𝑹𝒄𝒅 = = 𝑹𝒄𝒅 =
𝑭(𝑺+𝑪) 𝑭 𝑭(𝑺+𝑪)

Where 𝑅𝑐𝑑 = design pile bearing capacity, H = height of fall in cm, W = weight of hammer in Kg, F=
18 FOUNDATION ENGINEERING-II BY: DINKA FULEA (MSc.)
 CIVIL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

factor of safety which is recommended as F =6, S= final set (penetration) per blow in cm, usually
taken as average penetration, cm per blow for the last 5 blows of a drop hammer, or 20 blows of a
steam hammer. C = empirical constant, C = 2.5cm for drop hammer, C = 0.25cm for single and double
acting hammers.
Having this value the above reduces to the following form:

Example 1.2: A wooden pile is being driven with a drop hammer weighing 20kN and having a free fall
of 1m. The penetration in the last blow is 5mm. Determine the load carrying capacity of the pile and
design pile bearing capacity according to the Engineering News Formula

ii) Pile-driving formulas

Pile-driving formulas are the oldest type of dynamic method. They attempt to correlate static load
capacity with blow count, hammer type and other factors. Unfortunately, these formulas over simplify the
pile driving process, and thus are not very precise, especially if they have not been calibrated with an onsite
load test. EBCS-7 recommends to calibrate pile-driving formulas using exact prototype static pile load tests
before using them. Pile-driving formulas are convenient because the engineer can compute the capacity
of each pile as it is driven by simply determining the number of blow counts required to drive the pile
the final 250mm. When a pile driving formula is applied to verify the compression resistance of a pile,
the pile driving test should be carried out on at least 5 piles distributed at sufficient spacing in the piling area
in order to check a suitable blow count for the final series of blows.
Driving formulae are not directly applicable to deposits such as saturated silt, mud, marl, clay, and chalk; they
should be used with caution in any soil if on redriving after a period of rest the resistance has decreased. If the use of
driving formulae is restricted to those piles whose bearing capacities are predominantly at the toe in gravels, sands
and other non-cohesive soils of this type, then one of the more reliable formulae should give a calculated result
within the range of 40 % to 130 % of the ultimate bearing capacity that would be determined by a test load. There is no
completely reliable formula and, provided statistical appraisal shows a formula to give reliability of this order, a

19 FOUNDATION ENGINEERING-II BY: DINKA FULEA (MSc.)

 CIVIL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

formula which is simple to use should be chosen in preference to a more complicated one. If as a result of test
loadings on a given site a correcting coefficient can be applied to the formula, the results should then be of
reasonable reliability for that particular site.

The Hiley formula is one of the more reliable and is probably the most commonly used in many
countries. The Hiley formula is given by:

Where Rcm is the calculated pile resistance for the particular pile
K1 = 0.3 – 0.6 depending on the material type and ram cover (lower values of highly
deteriorated condition and high values for less deteriorated condition)
K3 = 0.65 – 1.00 depending on the type of hammering (0.75-1.00 for drop hammer,
0.75-0.85 for single acting hammers, 0.85 for double acting hammers and
0.85-1.00 for diesel hammers)
Q1 = weight of hammer [kg]
Q2 = weight of pile [kg]
h = dropping height [cm]
Se = elastic compression [cm]
Sp = permanent set or penetration per blow at the end of driving [cm]
The elastic compression Se and permanent set Sp could be directly measured while driving the pile in
question. This is done by holding or clamping a piece of paper or board on the pile and moving a
pencil horizontally across the edge of the paper or board. A curve will be traced showing elastic
compression of pile and soil and a permanent set.
The characteristic bearing resistance can be calculated considering the number of dynamic tests
performed. Its value can be taken as a minimum of the ratio of Rcm values calculated as above with
respect to mean value and lowest value and their respective variability factors as per the following
formula:

The values of the variability factors 3 and 4 which are dependent on the number of dynamic pile
tests are given in the following table.

20 FOUNDATION ENGINEERING-II BY: DINKA FULEA (MSc.)

 CIVIL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

Table 1.4: Values of  according to table A.11 of BS EN 1997

Number of dynamic pile load tests 2 5 10 15 20
Factor  on mean Rcm 1.60 1.50 1.45 1.42 1.40
Factor  on lowest Rcm 1.50 1.35 1.30 1.25 1.25

Once the characteristic bearing resistance is calculated, the design bearing capacity of each pile will then
be determined by dividing the characteristic bearing resistance determined by the above procedure by
the partial safety factors given in table 1.3.

Example 1.3: A reinforced concrete pile weighing 30kN is driven by a drop hammer weighing 40kN and
having an effective fall of 0.8m. The average set per blows is 1.4 cm. The total temporary elastic
compression is 1.8 cm. Determine the pile resistance capacity (Rcm).

iii) Wave equation analyses

The ultimate bearing capacity of a pile may be predicted from analysis of the stress wave resulting from
the hammer blow. The wave is damped by friction on the pile shaft and the form of the reflected wave
depends on the friction, the resistance at the pile base and the properties of the pile. By the use of suitable
equipment to measure forces and accelerations at the pile head and analysis of the wave- form, estimates
of the dynamic resistance can be made which can be correlated with the static bearing capacity. The results
of these analyses include a bearing graph (which is a plot of static capacity vs. blow count), and the pile
driving stresses, which form the basis for drivability analyses.

iv) High-strain dynamic tests

High-strain dynamic tests use instruments mounted on the foundation to record its response to applied
dynamic loads. These loads are usually from a pile hammer, but also may be generated by a drop hammer
or a controlled explosion. The data obtained from these instruments may be used to determine the static
load capacity.
v) Low-strain dynamic tests
Low-strain dynamic tests consists of striking the top of the foundation with a small load and
monitoring the resulting waves using one or more accelerometers. These tests typically use a
carpenter’s mallet to generate the load, so the induced strains are very small and the settlement is not
nearly sufficient to fully mobilize the side friction or toe-bearing resistance. Therefore, low-strain
dynamic tests do not provide an indication of static load capacity. However, they are very useful for
evaluating structural integrity and for determining the as-built length.
21 FOUNDATION ENGINEERING-II BY: DINKA FULEA (MSc.)
 CIVIL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

1.6.4. Axial Load Capacity based on Analytical Methods

These methods are developed for piles and deep foundations using the soil properties in which they are
founded. They assume equilibrium of the pile under the applied loads and resistance offered by the soil
in terms of point bearing capacity and the friction and adhesion of the shaft. The weight of the pile and
the load it carries are supported by the frictional resistance or adhesion of the soil on the surface of the
shaft and the bearing resistance at the end or base. Thus the load is transferred to the soil partly as point
bearing pressure at its base and partly as friction and adhesion along the surface of the shaft. The two resistances
generally act together and it is customary to assume that the ultimate bearing capacity of a pile is
reached when both the resistances are fully mobilized. Thus, the design bearing resistance Rcd of pile
foundations can be found from static equilibrium equation as:

Rcd = Rbd + Rsd (1.13)

Where Rbd is the design base resistance and
Rsd is the design shaft resistance

The design base resistance Rbd and the design shaft resistance Rsd should be derived from:

Where Rbk and Rsk are the characteristic base and shaft resistances
respectively

Ab is the nominal plan area of the base of the pile

Asi is the nominal surface area of the pile in soil layer i
n is the number of soil layers in which the pile is embedded in
qbk is the characteristic value of the base resistance per unit area of the base
qsk is the characteristic value of the shaft resistance per unit area of the shaft in soil layer i
22 FOUNDATION ENGINEERING-II BY: DINKA FULEA (MSc.)
 CIVIL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

The values of b and s shall be taken from table 1.3. The values of the characteristic unit base resistance qbk
and characteristic shaft resistance Rsk can be determined from the calculated values of corresponding
resistances as per the following formulae:

The values of the variability factors 5 and 6 which are dependent on the number of soil profile tests
and calculations are given in the following table.

Table 1.5: Values of  according to table A.10 of BS EN 1997

Number of soil profile tests 1 2 3 4 5 7 10
Factor  on mean Rcm 1.40 1.35 1.33 1.31 1.29 1.27 1.25
Factor  on lowest Rcm 1.40 1.27 1.23 1.20 1.15 1.12 1.08

For open section foundations, open ended steel piles and steel H-piles, it is difficult to calculate the
actual values of Asi and Ab due to poorly defined foundation-soil contacts. Many factors affect the
formation of soil plug but in general it assumed that a soil plug will be formed when the depth of
penetration to diameter ratio is greater than 10 in clays or 25 in sands. Once they become plugged, open
ended steel tube piles will have the same side friction area As and base area Ab as closed-end piles. With
H-piles, the plugging affects both the toe-bearing and shaft resistance area. The space between the
flanges of H-piles is much smaller than the space inside pipe piles, so less penetration is required to for a
soil plug. For steel H-piles, the pile will have larger frictional area and smaller base area when the soil is
not plugged and vice versa when the soil is plugged. Both cases (when the soil is plugged and not plugged)
should be analyzed and the smaller value should be taken as a pile resistance. The plugged cross-sections of
open-ended steel piles and H-steel piles are shown below.

(a) (b)
Figure 1.4: (a) Plugged open ended steel pile (b) Plugged H-pile
23 FOUNDATION ENGINEERING-II BY: DINKA FULEA (MSc.)
 CIVIL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

EBCS-7 suggests that the calculated base and shaft resistance values qb,cal and qs,cal shall be derived from
calculation rules based on established correlations between the results of static load tests and the results of
field or laboratory ground tests. These calculation rules shall be devised such that the ultimate bearing
resistance using the calculated values qb,cal and qs,cal do not exceed the measured ultimate bearing
resistances used for establishing the correlation divided by 1.6 on average. However, in the absence of such
static load tests, the values of qb,cal and qs,cal can be determined as follows.

The values of the above parameters depend on the soil type, drainage condition and method of
installation. Thus, the determination of qb,cal and qs,cal will be discussed in detail for different soil
conditions and installation method.
i. Driven Piles in Sand

In sandy soils, the value of cohesion and adhesion can be neglected and the first terms in eq. (1.20) and eq.
(1.21) will vanish. The value of B for pile foundations is small and the third term in eq. (1.20) can be safely
neglected. Thus, eq. (1.20) can be simplified into:
qb,cal = qNq∗ (1.22)
Eq. (1.21) will also be simplified into:
qs,cal = 𝜎v Ks tan ∅a (1.23)

Extensive researches on piles indicate that the vertical effective stress adjacent to piles is not necessarily
equal to the effective overburden pressure, but reaches a limiting value at a depth called critical depth. As a
result, the unit shaft and base resistances of a pile do not necessarily increase linearly with depth, but
instead reach almost constant value beyond a certain depth.
24 FOUNDATION ENGINEERING-II BY: DINKA FULEA (MSc.)
 CIVIL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

In order to develop a method of ultimate load prediction that better represents the physical reality that
the conventional approaches, an idealized distribution of effective vertical stress with depth adjacent to a
pile is shown in the figure below:

Figure 1.5: Idealized distribution of vertical effective stress adjacent to pile

The values of q and v in eq. (1.22) and eq. (1.23) should be determined based on such idealized
distribution of vertical effective stress.

The value Nq ∗ in eq.(1.22)

q is dependent on the angle of internal friction of the soil. Several researchers
have come up with different relationships between them. The most widely accepted one is given in the
following figure.

Figure 1.6: Relationship between  and 𝑁𝑞 ∗

The variation of the critical depth and Kstan’a with respect to the angle of internal friction are shown
25 FOUNDATION ENGINEERING-II BY: DINKA FULEA (MSc.)
 CIVIL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

in the figure below:

Figure 1.7: (a) zc/d vs.  graph 1 (b) Kstan’a vs.  graph (c) Kstan’a vs.  graph

Example 1.4: A 24.4m closed-end steel pile having a diameter of 0.32m is to be driven in entirely
sandy soil to support a structure. Field explorations indicate the following ground conditions:
 There is water table 3.4m below the surface.
 Bulk unit weight above water table = 17.3kN/m3
 Submerged unit weight below the water table = 7.8kN/m3
 The angles of internal friction prior to installation are:
 ’1 = 25o (0-2.4m)
 ’1 = 32o (2.4-18.3m)
 ’1 = 30o (18.3-20.8m)
 ’1 = 33o (>20.8m)
Determine the design bearing capacity of the pile.

26 FOUNDATION ENGINEERING-II BY: DINKA FULEA (MSc.)

 CIVIL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

ii. Driven Piles in Clay

a. Undrained Load Capacity

If the clay is saturated, the undrained angle of internal friction is zero and a may also be taken as zero. In
addition, N∗ =1 and N∗ =0, for =0, so that eq. (1.20) and eq. (1.21) will reduce to:
∗
qb, cal = cu Nc
c +q (1.24)

qs,cal = ca (1.25)

The value of Nc ∗ in eq.c(1.24) usually used in design is that proposed by Skempton (1951) for a circular
area, which increases from 6.14 for surface foundation to a limiting value of 9 for a length ≥ 4*diameter.
Since most pile foundations satisfy this latter criteria, a value of Nc ∗ = 9 is usually used.
There are two widely used methods to determine the calculated unit shaft resistance qs,cal for piles driven
into undrained clayey soils: the  method and  method. They will be discussed as follows:

The  method

A general method for pile skin resistance was initially proposed by Tomlinson (1971). The 𝛼 method
states that the adhesion between the pile and the clay ca can be given as a scalar multiple of the undrained
cohesion of the clay soil cu. This scalar is called empirical adhesion faction and is denoted by 𝛼.
According to eq. (1.25), the calculated unit shaft resistance is equal to the adhesion ca and thus can be
given by:
qs,ca = αcu (1.26)

The value of  depends on the undrained cohesion of the clay soil cu and the effective vertical stress at the
middle of the layer under consideration ’o. The variation can be depicted in the figure below.

27 FOUNDATION ENGINEERING-II BY: DINKA FULEA (MSc.)

 CIVIL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

Figure 1.8: Variation of  with cu/ ’o.

The 𝝀 method

The 𝝀 method is based on the assumption that the displacement of the soil caused by pile driving results
in a passive lateral pressure at any depth and that the characteristic unit shaft resistance is:

Where 𝐶𝑢 − is the weighted average of the undrained cohesion for the entire pile length.
𝜎𝑜 − = mean effective vertical stress on pile length.
𝜆 = frictional capacity coefficient
The method is found fairly reliable for pile less than 25 m. For long pile, the method yields too
conservative bearing load.

The value of  changes with depth of penetration of the pile according to the table below:
Table 1.6: Variation of  with pile embedment length.

The mean effective stress for the entire embedment length 𝜎𝑜 − is calculated
o by first drawing the vertical

28 FOUNDATION ENGINEERING-II BY: DINKA FULEA (MSc.)

 CIVIL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

effective stress distribution diagram for each layer and then determining the area under the stress
distribution diagram for each layer and dividing the sum of the areas for all layers by the total depth of
penetration.

Figure 1.9: Application of  method in layered soils.

Where A1, A2 ... are areas of the effective stress diagrams, and L is the total penetration depth
In clays, the vertical effective stress doesn’t have a limiting value as in sands and actual values
of effective vertical stresses should be used in both methods.

29 FOUNDATION ENGINEERING-II BY: DINKA FULEA (MSc.)

 CIVIL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

b. Drained Load Capacity

The β-method
This method is suggested by Burland (Bowles, 1996). For piles in stiff, over consolidated clays, the
drained load capacity, rather than the undrained may be the critical value. If the simplifying assumption
is made that the drained soil-pile adhesion ca is zero, and the terms 𝑁 ∗𝑐 and 𝑁 ∗𝛾 can be ignored, the
so that eq. (1.20) and eq. (1.21) will reduce to eq. (1.22) and eq. (1.23) respectively. The value 𝑁 ∗𝑞 in
eq. (1.22) may be taken to be the same as that of sands. The value of 𝐾𝑠 𝑡𝑎𝑛∅𝑎 in eq. (1.23) is usually
equated with a parameter β. This method is called β-method. Thus the calculated unit shaft resistance
can be given as:

In clays, the vertical effective stress doesn’t have a limiting value as in sands and actual values of effective
vertical stresses should be used.
Example 1.5: A 30m pipe pile is to be driven in clay soils. The pipe has an outside diameter
of 406mm and a wall thickness of 6.35mm. The field exploration test results at the site of pile
installation using three SPT tests are shown in the figures below. Determine the design bearing
capacity of the pile using  method and  method.

30 FOUNDATION ENGINEERING-II BY: DINKA FULEA (MSc.)

 CIVIL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

iii. Bored Piles

Bored piles are constructed by drilling a hole into the ground and filling it with concrete. The pile can be
straight sided for its full length or may be constructed with a bell (or pedestal) at its base. The piles with
pedestals are also known as under-reamed piles.
The load carrying capacity of the bored piles can be determined using the procedure similar to that
adopted for driven piles. However, the values of the soil parameters are different as described below.

a. Bored piles in sand

The same equations which are used for determination of pile resistance for driven piles, i.e. eq. (1.22)
and eq. (1.23) will be used to determine the calculated bearing resistances. However, the sand in bored
piles is loosened as a result
q
of the boring operation, even though it may initially be in dense or medium
dense state. The value of  to be used to determine Nq ∗ in eq. (1.22) should be for the qloose condition.
The value of  which should be used for bored piles is given in Fig. 1.7 and the corresponding value of
Nq ∗ should be determined from Fig. 1.7(b).
For bored or jacked piles, the values of Kstan𝜙𝑎 in Fig. 1.7(b) are considered to be far too large and it is
suggested that the values derived from the data of Meyerhof (1976) are more appropriate for design. These
values are shown in Fig. 1.7(c) and have been obtained by assuming 𝜙′a = 0.75𝜙.

b. Bored piles in clay

Eq. (1.24) and eq. (1.26) can be used to determine the calculated unit base and shaft resistances for
undrained case. The value of Nq ∗ in eq. (1.24) can still cbe taken to be 9 for piles having their length
greater than four time their diameter.

The value of  in eq. (1.26) depends on the pile type and method of drilling. For straight shafts excavated
dry,  is taken equal to 0.5 and that when drilled with slurry is 0.3. For belled shafts the corresponding
values are 0.3 and 0.15.

For drained case, the base resistance of bored piles is calculated with the same procedure and parameters
as the driven piles. However, the shaft resistance of bored piles is about half the value for driven piles.

c. Under-reamed piles in clay

The base area of under-reamed piles is increased by under-reaming and providing bulb. Thus the area of
the base which is used to calculate the base resistance should be the area of the enlarged base. The value of
Nq ∗ is take as 9. The adhesion factor  is taken asc 0.4.

31 FOUNDATION ENGINEERING-II BY: DINKA FULEA (MSc.)

 CIVIL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

1.7. Negative Skin Friction

When a pile is installed through a stratum which undergoes consolidation after the pile is in place, the
downward movement of the consolidating soil and of any overlying soils relative to the pile will cause a
drag on the shaft of the pile. This is termed “negative skin friction”. The consolidation of the soil may be
caused by the self-weight of the deposit, the imposition of a surcharge such as a loaded floor or fill,
disturbance due to vibration or as a result of remoulding during the installation of the pile. The downward
drag on the pile may throw enough additional load on the pile point or base to make the total settlement
excessive. In some cases, the downward drag force may be excessive and cause foundation failure.

As shown figure below (a) single pile (b) a group of pile passing through a recently filled cohesive soil.
The soil below the fill had completely consolidated under its own overburden pressure. When the filled
up soils starts consolidating under its own overburden pressure, it develops a drag on the surface of the
pile. This drag on the surface of the pile is called as negative skin friction. Negative skin friction may
also be developed if the fill material is loose cohesion less soil. Negative friction can also occur when
fill is placed over peat or soft clay strata.

Negative friction may also develop by the lowering of the ground water which increases the effective
stress causing consolidation of the soil with the resultant settlement and friction forces being developed
on the pile.

Negative friction must be allowed for when considering the factor of safety on the ultimate carrying
capacity of pile. The factor of safety, Fs, where negative friction is likely to occur may be written as:
Ultimate Carrying Capacity of a single or group of pile
Fs =
working Load+Negative Skin friction Load on pile
Computation of Negative Friction on Single Pile
The magnitude of negative skin friction Fn for a single pile in filled up soils may be taken as:
a) For Cohesive soils
Fn = PLnS
b) For Cohesion less soils
1
Fn = 2 𝐿𝑛 2 𝛾𝐾𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛿
Where: Ln = length of piles in the compressible material
S= shear strength of cohesive soils in the filled up zone
P = perimeter of pile
K = earth pressure coefficient which lies between the active and the passive earth pressure

32 FOUNDATION ENGINEERING-II BY: DINKA FULEA (MSc.)

 CIVIL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

Coefficient
∅
𝛿 = angle of wall friction which may vary from 2 to ∅
Computation of Negative skin friction on Pile Groups
When a group piles passes through compressible filled up soil, the negative skin friction, Fng, on the
group may be found by any of the following methods:

1) Fng =nFn
2) Fng = SLnPg +𝜸LnAg
Where: n= number of pils in the group
𝛾 = unit weight of soil within the pile group up to depth Ln
Pg = perimeter of pile group
Ag = Area of pile group within the perimeter of Pg
S = shear strength of soil along the perimeter of the group pile
Equation (1) gives the negative skin friction forces of the group as equal to sum of the friction forces
all the single piles. Equation (2) assumes the possibility of block shear failure along the perimeter of
the group which includes the volume of the soil 𝛾LnAg enclosed in the group. The maximum value
from equation (1) or (2) should be used.
When the fill is underlain by a compressible stratum as shown in figure below (c) the total negative
skin friction may be found out by as follows:

1) Fng = n (Fn1 + Fn2)

Fng = S1L1Pg + S2L2Pg + 𝛾1L2Ag + 𝛾L2Ag
2) = Pg(S1L1 + S2L2) + Ag(𝛾1L1 + 𝛾2L2)
Where: L1 = depth of pilled up soil
L2 = depth of compressible natural soil
S1 and S2 = shear strength of the fill and compressible soils respectively
𝛾1 and 𝛾2 unit weights of fill and compressible soils respectively
Fn1 = Negative friction of a pile in the fill
Fn2 = Negative friction of a single pile in the compressible soil
The maximum value of the negative skin friction obtained from equation (1) or (2) should be used for
the design of pile groups.

33 FOUNDATION ENGINEERING-II BY: DINKA FULEA (MSc.)

 CIVIL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

When piles are driven through sensitive clays the resulting remoulding may initiate local consolidation. The
negative friction force due to this consolidation may be estimated as the cohesion of the remoulded
clay multiplied by the surface area of the pile shaft.
Where it is expected that the soil around the shafts of end-bearing piles will consolidate, the skin
friction exerted by the downward moving soil should be estimated in accordance with the properties of the
materials as it is done for positive skin friction. The downward force will need to be taken into account
when the design load on the pile is calculated. The negative skin friction should be deducted from the
bearing resistance of the pile while calculating the design load. In doing so, the negative skin friction
shouldn’t be reduced by any partial safety factors.
Consideration should be given to reducing negative friction by proprietary coatings or sleeving applied to
the relevant length of pile.
1.7.1 Methods of Mitigating Negative Skin Friction
To reduce negative skin friction, the following measures have been used:
Using pre-cast concrete piles with shafts of small cross-sectional area compared with the points
Driving piles inside a casing with the space between pile and casing filled with a viscous
material and the casing withdrawn
Reducing the down drag by using a protective sleeve or coating bitumen to the pile for the
section that is embedded in the settling soil.

Example 1.6: A square group of nine piles with three piles in a row were passed through a recently filled
up fill. The depth of fill is 3 m. The diameter and space between the piles were 30cm and 90 cm respectively.
The unconfined compressive strength of filled up soil is, qu = 60 kPa and unit weights of fill,𝛾 = 15 𝑘𝑃𝑎 ,
compute the negative skin friction acted on the pile.

34 FOUNDATION ENGINEERING-II BY: DINKA FULEA (MSc.)

 CIVIL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

1.8. Pile Groups

When loads are large, it is often necessary to use more than one pile to support them. The piles acting
together to support one or more columns are known as a pile group. The Pile group is typically capped
by a reinforced concrete block known as the pile cap. That is, a pile cap is constructed over group
piles. The column is placed on the pile cap so that the column load is equally distributed among the
individual piles in the group through the pile cap.
A pile is not used singularly beneath a column or wall, because it is extremely difficult do drive the pile
absolutely vertical and to place the foundation exactly over its centerline. If eccentric loading results,
the connection between the pile and the column may break or the pile may fail structurally because of
bending stresses. Where a single pile is used under a lightly loaded column which does not have lateral
structural support, the heads of single piles shall be braced in two directions by grade beams. In actual
practice, structural loads are supported by several piles acting as a group. The loads are usually transferred
to the pile group through a reinforced concrete slab, structurally tied to the pile tops such that the piles act
as one unit. This slab is known as a pile cap. It is this pile cap which distributes the load coming from
the superstructure to each pile.
When only two piles are needed, their heads shall be connected by a concrete cap braced by grade
beams in only one direction, perpendicular to the line joining the piles. When three or more piles, in at
least two rows, are provided with reinforced concrete caps, no grade beams are required for lateral
stability.

Figure 1.10: Pile group

35 FOUNDATION ENGINEERING-II BY: DINKA FULEA (MSc.)

 CIVIL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

1.8.1. Number of Piles and Piles Spacing

Very rarely structures are founded on single piles. Piles are normally installed in groups. Because of
anticipated alignment problems and inadvertent eccentricities, some building codes do not permit the
use of less than three piles under major columns and less than two piles under foundation walls.

The spacing of piles in group depends upon many factors such as:
 Overlapping of stresses of adjacent piles
 Cost of foundation
 Efficiency of pile group
Pile spacing within the group is one of the critical design decisions. Because, the spacing of piles, S, in
a group plays an important economic role in the design of pile caps. Excessive spacing makes the pile
caps to too costly. When piles are too closely spaced, they transfer an increasing portion of their loads
no to the foundation soil but to neighboring piles, reducing the net load that each pile can carry and
thus pile group efficiency. The optimal spacing depends on various factors, such as type of structure,
magnitude of the loads and number of piles in the group.
The spacing of piles should be considered in relation to the nature of the ground, their behaviour in
groups and the overall cost of the foundation. The spacing should be chosen with regard to the resulting
heave or compaction and should be wide enough to enable the desired number of piles to be installed to
the correct penetration without damage to any adjacent construction or to the piles.
The cost of a cap carrying the load from the structure to the pile heads, or the size and effective length of a
ground beam, may influence the spacing, type and size of piles. The spacing of piles will be determined
by:
a) the method of installation, e.g. driven or bored;
b) the bearing capacity of the group.

Working rules which are generally, though not always, suitable, are as follows.
 For friction piles the spacing center-to-center should be not less than the perimeter of the pile or,
for circular piles, three times the diameter.
 For end-bearing piles passing through relatively compressible strata, the spacing shall not be less
than 2.5 times the diameter of the pile.
 For end-bearing piles passing through relatively compressible strata and resting on dense sand or
stiff clay, the spacing shall not be less than 3 and 3.5 times the diameter of the pile,

36 FOUNDATION ENGINEERING-II BY: DINKA FULEA (MSc.)

 CIVIL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

respectively.
 For driven cast-in-situ piles, the spacing shall not be less than 2.5 times the diameter of the pile.
 For bored cast-in-situ piles, the spacing shall be at least 3 times the diameter of the pile, but not
less than 1.10m.
 For under-reamed piles, the spacing shall not be less than 2 times the diameter of the under-
reamed pile base.
Minimum pile spacing according to EBCS-7

Pile Spacing (Center-to-Center Distance): International Building Code Guidelines

In no case the minimum center to center spacing of pile should be less than 0.6m.
For circular piles: minimum distance (center-to-center)—twice the average diameter of the butt.
Rectangular piles (minimum center-to-center distance)—3/4 times the diagonal for rectangular piles.
The minimum spacing (center to center) of piles suggested by a few building codes are given in the
following Table below (Bowles, 1996).

37 FOUNDATION ENGINEERING-II BY: DINKA FULEA (MSc.)

 CIVIL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

Figure 1.11: Pile spacing

1.8.2. Pile Layout Pattern

Piles can be arranged in a number of ways so that they can support load imposed on them. Symmetry is
also an important consideration when placing piles with respect to the location of the load and the
shape of the pile cap so as to transfer the load as evenly as possible onto each pile. Examples of pile
layout patterns are shown below. And also depending on the type of structure and eccentricity of the
load, they can be arranged in different patterns.

Figure 1.12: Typical Arrangement (Layout) of pile group

Figure bellow illustrates the three basic formation of pile groups.

38 FOUNDATION ENGINEERING-II BY: DINKA FULEA (MSc.)

 CIVIL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

1.8.3. Efficiency of pile group

When several closely spaced piles are grouped together, it is reasonable to expect that the soil pressure
developed in the soil as resistance will overlap that is, when piles are placed close to each other, the
failure surfaces may overlap as shown in figure below.

Figure 1.13: stress overlap of group plies

The bearing capacity of a pile group may or may not be equal to the sum of the bearing capacity of
individual piles constituting a group. Theory and tests have shown that the total bearing value 𝑄𝑢𝑔 of a
group of friction piles, particularly in clay, may be less than the product of the friction bearing value
𝑄𝑢𝑔 of an individual pile multiplied by the number of piles n in a group. However, there is no reduction
due to the grouping occurs in end bearing piles. For combined end bearing and friction piles, only the

39 FOUNDATION ENGINEERING-II BY: DINKA FULEA (MSc.)

 CIVIL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

load carrying capacity of the frictional portion is reduced. A method of estimating the bearing capacity
of a group of friction piles is to multiply the quantity n𝑄𝑢𝑔 by a reduction factor called the efficiency of
pile group.

The group efficiency depends on type of soil, method of installation of piles and spacing of piles.
It is a common practice to calculate the capacity of a pile group by means of an efficiency factor 𝜂
given as:

Several empirical efficiency formulae are used to relate group efficiency to pile spacing for piles in
cohesive soils (Poulos, 1980). The following are some of the empirical formulas used for the
determination of the pile group efficiency.
Converse–Labarre formula (Poulos, 1980): The Converse-Labarre formula is commonly accepted
for pile group efficiency.

Where 𝜂𝑔 = 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑖𝑙𝑒 𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑝, m= number of rows, n = number of piles in a row,

𝐷
𝜃 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛− [ 𝑆 ] , D = diameter of pile and s = spacing of pile.
This equation can only be applied to rectangular groups with regular arrangement, that is, m, n and s
can be identified.

Example 1.7: A groups of 16 piles of 600mm diameter is arranged in a square pattern with center to center
spacing of 1.2 m as shown figure below. Calculate the efficiency of the pile group using Converse–Labarre
formula.

40 FOUNDATION ENGINEERING-II BY: DINKA FULEA (MSc.)

 CIVIL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

Seiler-Keeney formulae:

Where s = center tio center average spacing in meters

Feld’s rule:
Feld’s rule, which reduces the calculated load capacity of each pile in a pile group by 1/16 for each
adjacent pile taking no account of the pile spacing (Ramiah and Chickanagappa, 1981).

According to this rule, the efficiency of each pile in a group is reduced by 1/16 for each adjacent pile
along row, column or diagonal. The efficiency of the group is the average of that of all the piles. Figure
below clarifies the rule.

Efficiency Pile Group According to AASHTO (1992) Guidelines

The following tables use AASHTO guidelines for pile group efficiency in different types of soils.

41 FOUNDATION ENGINEERING-II BY: DINKA FULEA (MSc.)

 CIVIL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

Note! Clearly, high pile group efficiency is desirable; the question is how to improve the group
efficiency. Pile group efficiency is dependent on the spacing between piles. When the piles in the group
are closer together, the pile group efficiency decreases. When the piles are placed far apart, efficiency
increases, but because the size of the pile cap has to be larger, the cost of the pile cap increases.

1.8.4. Load Capacity of Pile Groups

Determining the load bearing capacity of group piles is extremely complicated and has not yet been
completely resolved. When the piles are placed close to each other, a reasonable assumption is that
the stresses transmitted by the piles to the soil will overlap (Fig. 1.10), reducing the load bearing
capacity of the piles. Ideally, the piles in a group should be spaced so that the load bearing capacity of
the group is not less than the sum of the bearing capacity of the individual piles.

Figure 1.14: Stress overlap of group piles

In examining the load bearing capacity of group piles, it is necessary to distinguish between the two
types of group:
a) A free-standing group, in which the pile cap is not in contact with the underlying soil
b) A “piled foundation”, in which the pile cap is in contact with the underlying soil

For both types, it is customary to relate the ultimate load capacity of the group to the load capacity of
a single pile through an efficiency factor , where:

(1.32)

42 FOUNDATION ENGINEERING-II BY: DINKA FULEA (MSc.)

 CIVIL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

1.8.4.1. Pile Groups in Clay

The effect of driving piles into cohesive soils (clays and silts) is very different from that of
cohesionless soils. When piles are driven into clay soils, particularly when the soil is soft and sensitive
there will be heaving of the soil between the piles since compaction during driving cannot be achieved
in soils of such low permeability. There is every possibility uplifting of the pile also during this process
of heaving of the soil. Bored piles are therefore, preferred to driven piles in cohesive soils.
Experimental results, have indicated that the when a pile group installed in cohesive soils is loaded, it
may fail by any one of the following ways.
1. May fail as block called a block failure
2. Individual piles in the group may fail
When piles are spaced at closer intervals, the soil contained between the piles moves downward with
the piles and at failure, piles and soil move together to give the typical block failure. But for wider
spacing the piles fail individually.
i. Free Standing Groups
For free-standing groups of friction or floating piles in clay, the efficiency is unity at relatively large
spacing s, but decreases as the spacing decrease. For point-bearing piles, the efficiency is usually considered
to be unity for all spacing s – that is, grouping has no effect on load capacity, although in theory the
efficiency could be greater than unity for closely- spaced piles that are point-bearing, for example in
dense gravel.

One of the most widely used means of estimating the group-load capacity is that given by Terzaghi and
Peck (1948), whereby the characteristic group capacity is the lesser of

(a) The sum of the characteristic capacities of the individual piles in a group; or
(b) The bearing capacity for block failure of the group, that is, for the whole area of the
pile cap, given by eq. (1.33b) below:

in section 1.6.4. To avoid complication in the design process, the design group capacity is determined
by dividing the characteristic capacity by the partial safety factor for base resistance.
43 FOUNDATION ENGINEERING-II BY: DINKA FULEA (MSc.)
 CIVIL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

ii. Piled Foundations

The ultimate load capacity of piled foundations (i.e., a pile group having a cap cast on or beneath
the surface of the soil), relatively increases due to compaction of the soil by the pile cap. In such
cases, the characteristic load bearing capacity may be given as the lesser of the following two
values:

(a) The characteristic load capacity for block failure condition given by eq. (1.33b)
(b) The sum of characteristic load capacity of the cap and the piles, acting individually
given by:

Where Rck,g is the characteristic group capacity

Rck is the characteristic capacity of individual pile n is total number of piles
Ap is the plan area of the pile cap
Ab is the cross-sectional area of the individual pile
N∗ is bearing capacity
cc factor for the pile cap = 5.14
cu is the average undrained cohesion of the soil for the entire depth of penetration

The values of £5 and £6 should be taken from table 1.5. To avoid complication in the design
process, the design group capacity is determined by dividing the characteristic capacity by the
partial safety factor for base resistance.

1.8.4.2. Pile Groups in Sand

iii. Free Standing Groups

For free-standing groups driven piles in sand, the overall efficiency is likely to be greater
than unity unless the sand is very dense or the piles are widely spaced. For bored piles, the
efficiency is usually taken as a value between 2/3 and 3/4.

iv. Piled Foundations

The ultimate load capacity of piled foundations (i.e., a pile group having a cap cast on or
beneath the surface of the soil), relatively increases due to compaction of the soil by the
pile cap. Where cohesionless soils are compacted by the installation of the group, the
design bearing capacity of the group may exceed the design bearing capacity (Rsd) of a
single isolated pile multiplied by the number of piles in the group (n) (Kezdi 1957). The
ultimate bearing capacity of piles end-bearing on rock, or on compact sand or gravel with
equally strong material beneath, will be substantially equal to nRsd.

44 FOUNDATION ENGINEERING-II BY: DINKA FULEA (MSc.)

 CIVIL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

1.8.5. Load Distribution in Pile Group

A vertically loaded pile group is a collection of piles connected by a pile cap subjected to a vertical
load or loads and perhaps moments, but with negligible lateral load. The load to be carried by each
pile in the absence of moments is given as the total load to be supported by the pile group divided by
the number of piles, under the assumption that the pile cap distributes the loads uniformly to each
pile.

For pile groups in which there is a moment applied, due either to eccentricity of the vertical load or to
relatively small lateral loads that produce comparatively large moments, the pile loads can be obtained
from consideration of the moment of inertia of the pile group. The pressure distribution will be assumed to
be planar and the pile reaction will vary linearly with the distance from the centroid of the cap. If the pile
group is subjected to a vertical load with one way eccentricity ex, the total reaction Q at the pile head
may be obtained by the equation:
Q MX
Qi   in i
 Xi
np 2

i 1

Consider the case of a pile group with np piles subjected to a vertical load Q and a moment that we
decompose in the x and y direction (so we have moments Mx = Q.ey about x-axis and moments My = Q.ex
about y-axis) in case of two way eccentricity. For a rigid cap, the axial load Qi acting on ith pile of the
group coming on a pile is given by:

(1.35)
Where Qi = total reaction at the pile head
Q = total vertical load acting on the pile cap
np = number of piles in the group
Mx = Total moment about x-axis = Q*ey
My = Total moment about y-axis = Q*ex
Xi = distance from the pile in question from the y-axis
Yi = distance from the pile in question from the x-axis
∑ 𝑥𝑖 2 = sum of all the squares of the distances of all the piles from the y-axis
∑ 𝑦𝑖 2 = sum of all the squares of the distances of all the piles from the x-axis

45 FOUNDATION ENGINEERING-II BY: DINKA FULEA (MSc.)

 CIVIL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

If the load on any pile is negative, it indicates that the pile is in tension. If the pile is not design for
tension, the load in that pile is taken as zero, the load between other piles is redistributed. This would
cause extra compression in other piles.

Example 1.8: A 20m circular concrete pile is to be driven in homogeneous saturated clay soil.
The soil properties are shown in the figure below. Determine the design bearing capacity of the
pile group. If a load equal to the design pile group capacity acts at x = 0.15m and y = -0.2m on the
pile

46 FOUNDATION ENGINEERING-II BY: DINKA FULEA (MSc.)

 CIVIL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

1.9. Structural Design of Piles and Pile caps

Pile and pile cap sections should be adequate in order to withstand incoming stresses. To ensure this, the
section of piles and pile caps should be structurally designed. As noted in section 1.2, piles can be made
from timber, concrete, steel or composite materials. Since the design of piles made from materials other
than concrete is beyond the scope of this course, only the design of piles and pile caps made from concrete
will be discussed in this section.
1.9.1. Structural Design of Piles

Piles must be designed to withstand stresses caused during their installation, and subsequently when they
function as supporting members in a foundation structure. Stresses due to installation occur only in the case
of piles driven as preformed elements. Such piles must be capable of withstanding bending stresses when
they are lifted from their fabrication bed and pitched in the piling rig.
i. Designing for lifting after fabrication

The reinforcement of piles to withstand bending stresses caused by lifting has to be considered only in the
case of precast reinforced (including prestressed) concrete piles. Bending takes place when the piles are
lifted from their horizontal position on the casting bed for transportation to the stacking area. The most
severe stresses thus occur at the time when the concrete is immature. Reinforced concrete and prestressed
concrete piles have a comparatively low resistance to bending, and the stresses caused during lifting may
govern the amount of longitudinal reinforcing steel needed. The static bending moments induced by
lifting and pitching piles at various points on their length are shown in Table 1.7. The design bending
moment is obtained by multiplying the characteristic bending moments given in Table 1.7 by a partial
safety factor for dead loads, that is, 1.3. For this design moment, the pile should then be designed as if it
is a column subjected to a uniaxial bending and no axial force.
Table 1.7: Bending moments induced by lifting and pitching piles (W = nominal weigh of the pile
, L = length of the pile)
Condition Characteristic static bending moment
Lifting by two points at L/5 from each end WL/40(fig. 1.11a)
Lifting by two points at L/4 from each end WL/32(fig. 1.11b)
Pitching by one point at 3L/10 from head WL/22(fig. 1.11c)
Pitching by one point at L/3 from head WL/18(fig. 1.11d)
Pitching by one point at L/4 from head WL/18(fig. 1.11e)
Pitching by one point at L/5 from head WL/14(fig. 1.11f)
Pitching from head WL/8(fig. 1.11g)
Lifting from center WL/8(fig. 1.11h)

47 FOUNDATION ENGINEERING-II BY: DINKA FULEA (MSc.)

 CIVIL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

Figure 1.15: Methods of lifting reinforced concrete piles

ii. Designing to resist driving stresses

The simplest approach to ensuring that driving stresses are within safe limits is to adopt working
stresses under static loading such that heavy driving is not required to achieve the depth of penetration
required for the calculated ultimate bearing capacity. The usual practice is to assume that the dynamic
resistance of a pile to its penetration into the soil is equal to its design static load-bearing capacity, and then
to calculate the ‘permanent set’ in terms of blows per unit penetration distance to develop this resistance,
using a hammer of given rated energy or weight and height of drop. The driving stress is assumed to be
the ultimate driving resistance divided by the cross-sectional area of the pile, and this must not exceed the
safe working stress on the pile material.

iii. Designing to withstand structural loads

The pile is designed as a reinforced concrete column subjected to axial load and moment. If the pile is
clear between the cap and ground, additional moment due to slenderness may have to be taken into
account. Buckling of axially loaded piles terminating at ground level in a pile cap or ground beam
cannot occur if the piles are loaded to within the permissible working stresses on the pile material. Thus
such piles need not be considered as long columns for the purpose of structural design. However, it is
necessary to check piles for buckling if the piles pass through water or thick layer of weak soil deposit or
if they are completely embedded in soft clay with characteristic undrained cohesion less than 15kPa.

48 FOUNDATION ENGINEERING-II BY: DINKA FULEA (MSc.)

 CIVIL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

BS 8004 recommends that the depth below ground surface to the point of contra flexure should be
taken as 1 m in firm ground and as much as one-half of the penetration depth but not necessarily more
than 3 m in a weak ground such as soft clay or silt. A stratum of liquid mud should be treated as if it
were water. The column strength of the pile is then calculated as for a short column and a reduction
factor is applied to the calculated ultimate load to allow for the slenderness of the column, where the
slenderness is defined as the ratio of the effective length to the breadth or radius of gyration.
Effective lengths for reinforced concrete piles when regarded as columns are defined by EC2 (Clause
5.8.3.2):
Restrained at both ends in position and direction: 0.5 L
Restrained at both ends in position and one end in direction: 0.7 L
Restrained at both ends in position but not in direction: 1.0 L
Restrained at one end in position and direction and at the other end in direction but not in
position: 1.0 L
Restrained at one end in position and direction and free at the other end: 2.0 L

Figure 1.16: Buckling models and corresponding effective lengths

A pile embedded in the soil can be regarded as properly restrained in position and direction at the point
of virtual fixity in the soil. The restraint at the upper end depends on the design of the pile cap and the
extent to which the pile cap is restrained against movement by its connection with adjacent pile caps or
structures. Some typical cases of the restraint of piles are shown in Figure 1.13a to e.

49 FOUNDATION ENGINEERING-II BY: DINKA FULEA (MSc.)

 CIVIL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

Figure 1.17: Conditions of restraint for vertical piles (a) Restrained at top and bottom in position and
direction (b) Restrained at bottom in position and direction; restrained at top in position but not in
direction (c) Restrained at top and bottom in position but not in direction (d) Restrained at bottom in
position and direction; restrained at top in direction but not in position (e) Restrained at bottom in
position and direction; unrestrained at top in position or direction.

Concrete piles should be provided with a minimum longitudinal reinforcement, Aspmin related to the
pile cross-section Ac.

Table 1.8: Recommended minimum longitudinal reinforcement in concrete piles

The cover to all reinforcement in concrete piles shall not be less than 60mm for piles having a diameter
greater than 600mm. For piles of lesser diameter, a 50mm concrete cover will suffice. However, the
minimum cover should be increased to 75mm for cast-in-situ concrete piles if the piles penetrate soft
soil and are constructed without a casing.

1.9.2. Structural Design of Pile Caps

The structural design of pile caps is similar to the design of reinforced concrete footings. The critical
sections for moment, punching shear and bond stress (development length of reinforcement) are
taken to be at the same locations as defined for isolated footings.

50 FOUNDATION ENGINEERING-II BY: DINKA FULEA (MSc.)

 CIVIL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

For the computation of shear on any section through the pile cap, the following is recommended by
EBCS-2.

a) Entire reaction from any pile whose center is located at half the pile diameter or more outside
the section shall be considered as producing shear on that section.
b) Reaction from any pile whose center is located at half the pile diameter or more inside the
section shall be considered as producing no shear on that section.
c) For intermediate positions of pile center, the portion of the pile reaction to be considered as
producing shear on the section shall be based on straight line interpolation between full value
at half the pile diameter outside the section and zero value at half the pile diameter inside the
section.

The spacing of piles should generally be as outlined in section 1.7.1. The piles should be grouped
symmetrically under the loads. Pile caps should extend at least 150mm beyond the theoretical
circumference of the piles. The minimum depth of pile caps above the bottom reinforcement is
300mm. Some details of the pile and pile caps is shown in the figure below:

Figure 1.19: Details of pile and pile cap

Example 1.9: A precast pile foundation system is going to be used for the column
arrangement shown below. The structural analysis results are also shown below. The field
exploration result using one SPT test shows that the soil at the construction site is composed
of a homogenous saturated clay with a saturated unit weight of 18kN/m3 and cu = 100kN/m2
with no indication of water table and bearing rock at any depth. Design the pile and pile cap using
C-30 concrete and S- 400 steel and class I works. All column dimensions are 400x400mm.

51 FOUNDATION ENGINEERING-II BY: DINKA FULEA (MSc.)

 CIVIL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

1.10. Batter Piles

Batter pile is defined as a pile driven at an inclination to the vertical to provide resistance to horizontal
forces. In industrial structures such as in thermal power plant structures, boiler, and transmission
towers heavy lateral loads will occur. Accordingly, many fields used batter piles especially when the
resultant of forces inclined, such as retaining walls, bridge abutment and slope stability. The batter
pile capacities and their usage in such areas will be beneficial. Batter piles are usually considered
when the lateral load exceeds an allowable limit for vertical piles.

Batter pile group’s application has been increased in recent years due to its considerable resistance
against lateral loading condition. Actually batter pile groups are more appropriate choice to resist
lateral forces due to seismic excitations and inertial forces, because vertical pile group perform
much weaker while seismic motions affect these structures. These overturning moments are
transferred to the foundation of the structure in the form of horizontal and vertical loads. The
type of foundation usually recommended for such loading conditions is combination of vertical and
batter piles.

Vertical piles are used in foundations to take normally vertical loads and small lateral loads. When the
horizontal load per pile exceeds the value suitable for vertical piles, that is when piles are subjected to
excessive lateral loads, it might be more economical and desirable to provide batter piles combination
with vertical piles, because batter piles are used to transfer inclined load and horizontal forces.

Batter piles can be classified as positive and negative depending on the direction of the horizontal load.
If the lateral loads on the foundation acts in the direction of batter, is called as in batter or negative

52 FOUNDATION ENGINEERING-II BY: DINKA FULEA (MSc.)

 CIVIL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

batter pile. If the lateral load on the foundation acts in the direction opposite to that of the batter, it is
called as an out batter or positive batter pile. Figure bellow shows two types of batter piles

Piles are sometimes subjected to lateral loads due to wind pressure, water pressure, earth pressure,
earthquakes, etc. When the horizontal component of the load is small in comparison with the vertical load
(say, less than 20%), it is generally assumed to be carried by vertical piles and no special provision for lateral
load is made.
Batter piles are also inclined piles or raker piles. The degree of batter that is the angle made by the
pile with the vertical usually inclined at an angle of 10° to 30o. Common batter piles are driven at a
batter ranging from 1:12 to 1:25.
If the horizontal load is large, incline piles, known as raking piles or batter piles, are provided to take
the horizontal load. These piles have a high resistance to lateral loads, as a large portion of the
horizontal component of the load is carried axially by the pile. Batter piles, along with vertical piles,
are provided in situations where the horizontal loads are significant such as bridge piers, retaining wall
and tall chimneys.
Driving of batter piles is more expensive than that of vertical piles. The resistance to failure of
vertical piles subjected to horizontal loads is provided by the passive resistance of a wedge of soil
in front of the piles. In case of batter piles, additional resistance is provided by the skin friction and
the end bearing. Therefore, batter piles are more effective than vertical piles in resisting horizontal
loads.
When piles are oriented in two or three directions, Culman’s method, is used to determine the load in
each pile. The steps in Culman’s method are described below.

53 FOUNDATION ENGINEERING-II BY: DINKA FULEA (MSc.)

 CIVIL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

Figure 1.20: (a) Pile groups (b) Force triangle

Step 1: Group the piles according to their slopes (in Fig. 1.15(a), the piles are grouped in three directions).
Step 2: Draw the geometry of the pile group to some scale, and mark the directions of the inclined load
Qg and the center of each pile group (R1, R2 and R3).
Step 3: Determine the location of point A which is at the intersection of R1 and Qg.
Step 4: Join A to the point B which is at the intersection of R2 and R3.
Step 5: Draw the force triangle. Select line ab parallel to AB. From b draw a line bc parallel to Qg to some
scale. Draw the vertical at c to determine ca which is equal to R1. From b, draw a line parallel to R2, to
complete the triangle abd.
Step 6: Determine forces in piles as follows. The magnitudes of R2 and R3 are, respectively, given by ad
and bd. However, R2 is compressive and R3 is tensile. The magnitude of R1 is given by ca which is
compressive.

Example 1.10: One of the legs of a steel structure rests on a concrete pedestal footing which is supported by a
group of 18 piles. Outside rows are formed from batter piles (1 to 4) as shown below. Each pile is permitted to
resist a horizontal force of 25 kN. Using Culman’s method:
a) Calculate axial loads on all piles.
b) Could the unbalanced horizontal force be overcome?
c) If the allowable bearing value of single pile is equal to 600 kN, state whether or not this pile foundation is
safe?

54 FOUNDATION ENGINEERING-II BY: DINKA FULEA (MSc.)

 CIVIL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

1.11. Laterally Loaded Piles

Piles are commonly used to transfer vertical (axial) forces, Examples of structures where piles are
commonly used as foundations are tall buildings, bridges, offshore platforms, defense structures, and
dams and lock structures, transmission towers, and earth retaining structures, wharfs and jetties.
However, in all these structures, it is not only the axial force that the piles carry; often the piles are
subjected to lateral (horizontal) forces and moments. In fact, there are some structures (oil production
platforms, earth retaining structures, wharfs and jetties) where the primary function of piles is to
transfer lateral loads to the ground.
In the design of laterally loaded piles, there are basically four approaches. These are:
1) The classical earth pressure theory
2) The method of modulus of subgrade reaction
3) Methods of Winkler’s Theory (Matlock and Reese theory, 1956)
4) A method which combines the results of theoretical and experimental investigations.

The first approach is not used since it assumes the mobilization of active and passive earth pressures
which as a matter of fact does not occur except at complete failure. The second method, even if it does
not give an exact solution, is used for preliminary design. Here, a method of subgrade reaction which

55 FOUNDATION ENGINEERING-II BY: DINKA FULEA (MSc.)

 CIVIL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

varies with depth is frequently used. The third method is recommended for long pile, D/B>10 only. The
fourth method gives a relatively reliable result. Tables and diagrams for laterally loaded piles are given.
Their applications is however limited to the conditions in which they are tested. The last two methods will
be discussed in detail in the following sections.
1.11.1. Method of Modulus of Subgrade Reaction

In the design of laterally loaded piles, two types of piles are identified according to this method. These
are short piles and long piles.

i. Design of Short Piles

Short piles are the categories of piles in which D/B<10. Where B is the diameter of the pile and
D is the embedment length. These piles may be considered as rigid columns embedded in an
elastic medium.

According to the method of modulus of subgrade reaction, the intensity of the pile load p in
kN/m would be:

p = Ksh.y.d (1.36)

Where Ksh = horizontal modulus of subgrade

reaction y = horizontal displacement
B = diameter of the pile

Figure 1.21: (a) Rigid pile rotation (b) Modulus of subgrade reaction (c) Contact pressure
distribution (d) Shear force distribution (e) Bending moment distribution
If one considers a short pile subjected to a design horizontal force H and a design moment
Mo, the horizontal displacement y, due to the load H at any depth z (Fig. 1.16(a) will be:

y= yo – m.z (1.37)
Where m = tan


Inserting the value of y in eq. (1.36),

p = Ksh.( yo – m.z).B (1.38)

56 FOUNDATION ENGINEERING-II BY: DINKA FULEA (MSc.)

 CIVIL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

If Ksh varies with depth according to the relationship Ksh = C.z (Fig. 1.16(b)), then the intensity
at depth z would be:

p(z) = C.z.( yo – m.z).B (1.39)

p(z) = B.C.z.yo – B.C.m.z2 (1.40)

noting that m = tan = yo/zo, one may write as follows:

e(z) = B. C. z. yo − B.C.yo z2 (1.41)

zo

From eq. (1.41), one would obtain the design shear force and Q(z) and design bending
moment M(z) at any depth z.

The variations of Q(z) and M(z) are given in Fig. 1.16(c) and Fig. 1.16(d). For the boundary
condition z = D, Q = 0 and M = 0. Eq. (1.44) and eq. (1.47) become:

From the above two equations, one may determine the values of yo and m as:
57 FOUNDATION ENGINEERING-II BY: DINKA FULEA (MSc.)
 CIVIL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

yo = − 24
(Mo + 3K) (1.50)
B.C.D2 D 4

N =− 12
(3Mo + 2H. D) (1.51)
B.C.D 4

The value of Ksh , from which the value of C in the above equations is calculated from, can
also be given as:
n zn
Kch = h B
(1.52)

In which nh is termed as the coefficient of subgrade reaction. The value of the power n depends on the type
of the soil and the batter of the pile. The value of n is taken to be 0.15 for clays and 1.0 for sands. The
values of nh can be obtained from the following tables.

Table 1.9: Typical nh values (lb./ft3) for cohesive soils[1lb/ft3 = 0.1572kN/m3]

Table 1.10: Typical nh values (lb./ft3) for sand[1lb/ft3 = 0.1572kN/m3]

ii. Design of Long Piles

For long piles, the criterion D/B>10 is used. Here the method suggested by Snitko may be used. The pile is
considered to be elastic, infinite in length and embedded in an elastic medium. Using the method of
modulus of subgrade reaction is assumed. The determination of the design bending moments and
shear forces above the point of zero deflection is of importance. The magnitude of the above may be
obtained from the following equations.

58 FOUNDATION ENGINEERING-II BY: DINKA FULEA (MSc.)

 CIVIL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

To determine the location of maximum moment, one may equate the shear equation with zero and
obtain the corresponding depth. The range of values of modulus of subgrade reaction Ks given in table
1.11 may be used as a guide.

Table 1.11: Range of values of modulus of subgrade reaction

Soil Ks(MN/m3)
Loose sand 4.8 – 16
Medium sand 9.6 – 80
Dense sand 64 – 128
Clayey sand (medium) 32- 80
Silty sand (medium) 24-48
Clayey soil
qa ≤200kPa 12-24
200<qa ≤800kPa 24-48
qa >800 >48

Example 1.11: A steel pipe pile of 1.1m outside diameter with a wall thickness of 2.5cm is
driven into dense sand under submerged condition to a depth of 10m. Calculate the maximum
design bending moment on the pile using the method of modulus of subgrade reaction if the
pile is subjected to a design lateral load of 100kN and design bending moment of 50kNm at
ground level.

59 FOUNDATION ENGINEERING-II BY: DINKA FULEA (MSc.)

 CIVIL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

1.11.2. Methods of Winkler’s Theory (Matlock and Reese theory, 1956)

This approach treats a laterally loaded pile as a beam on elastic foundation (Figure 1.22b, c).

Figure 1.22: Behavior of laterally loaded pile: subgrade reaction approach. (a) Beam on elastic
foundation, (b) Winkler's idealization, (c) laterally loaded pile in soil, (d) laterally loaded pile on
springs.
It is assumed that the beam is supported by a Winkler soil model according to which the elastic soil
medium is replaced by a series of infinitely closely spaced independent and elastic springs. The
stiffness of these springs kh, (also called the modulus of horizontal subgrade reaction) can be expressed
as follows (Figure 1.22d):

1.56

Where
p = the soil reaction per unit length of pile
y = the pile deformation and k, has the units of force/length2
Palmer and Thompson (1948) employed the following form to express the modulus of a horizontal
subgrade reaction:

1.57

Where

60 FOUNDATION ENGINEERING-II BY: DINKA FULEA (MSc.)

 CIVIL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

kh = value of kx, at x = L or tip of the pile

x = any point along pile depth
n = a coefficient equal to or greater than zero
The most commonly used value of n for sands and normally consolidated clays under long-term
loading is unity. For over consolidated clays, n is taken zero.

According to Davisson and Prakash (1963), a more appropriate value of n will be 1.5 for sands and
0.15 for clays under undrained conditions. For the value of n = 1, the variation of k h, with depth is
expressed by the following relationship:

1.58
Where nh, is the constant of modulus of subgrade reaction (see table below). This applies to cohesion
less soils and normally consolidated clays where these soils indicate increased strength with depth due
to overburden pressures and the consolidation process of the deposition. Typical values are listed in
Table 4.16.

61 FOUNDATION ENGINEERING-II BY: DINKA FULEA (MSc.)

 CIVIL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

For the value of n = 0, the modulus will be constant with depth and this assumption is most appropriate
for piles in over consolidated clays.
The behavior of a pile can thus be analyzed by using the equation of an elastic beam supported on an
elastic foundation and is given by the following equation:

1.59
Where
E = modulus of elasticity of pile
I = moment of inertia of pile section
p = soil reaction which is equal to (khy)
Equation above can be rewritten as follows:

1.60
Solutions for equation (1.60) to determine deflection and maximum moments for cohesion less soils
and for cohesive soils are given in the following Sections.
1.11.2.1. Lateral Deflection of a Single Pile in Cohesion less Soil in case of Free-Head Pile:
Figure 1.23 below shows the distribution of pile deflection y, pile slope variation dy/dx, moment,
shear, and soil reaction along the pile length due to a lateral load Qg, and a moment Mg, applied at the
pile head. The behavior of this pile can be expressed by equation (1.60).

62 FOUNDATION ENGINEERING-II BY: DINKA FULEA (MSc.)

 CIVIL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

Figure 1.23 A pile of length L fully embedded in soil and acted by loads Qg and Mg, (a) Deflection, y;
(b) slope, dy/dx; (c) moment, EI(d2y/dx2); (d) shear, EI (d3y/dx3); (e) soil reaction, El (d4y/dx4) (Reese
and Matlock, 1956).
In general, the solution for this equation can be expressed by the following formulation:

1.61
Where
x = depth below ground
T = relative stiffness factor
L = pile length
kh, = nhx is modulus of horizontal subgrade reaction
nh = constant of subgrade reaction
B = pile width
EI = flexural pile stiffness
Qg = lateral load applied at the pile head
Mg = the moment applied at the pile head

Elastic behavior can be assumed for small deflections relative to the pile dimensions. For such a
behavior, the principle of superposition may be applied.
By utilizing the principle of superposition, the effects of lateral load Qg on deformation yA, and the
effect of moment Mg on deformation yB can be considered separately. Then the total deflection yx at
depth x can be given by the following:
Total deflection at x (yx) = deformation due to lateral load + deformation due to moment

1.62

63 FOUNDATION ENGINEERING-II BY: DINKA FULEA (MSc.)

 CIVIL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

Where

1.63
f1 and f2 are two different functions of the same terms. In equations 1.63) there are six terms and two
dimensions; force and length are involved. Therefore, following four independent non dimensional
terms can be determined (Matlock and Reese, 1962).

1.64
Furthermore, the following symbols can be assigned to these non-dimensional terms:

1.65

1.66

From equations (1.65) and (1.66), one can obtain the following equation of total deflection yx at x:

Similarly, one can obtain expressions for total moment Mx, total slope Sx, total shear Vx, and total soil
reaction px as follows:

64 FOUNDATION ENGINEERING-II BY: DINKA FULEA (MSc.)

 CIVIL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

Referring to the basic differential equation of beam supported on an elastic foundation and utilizing the
principle of superposition, for both lateral load and moment we get the following equations of soil
reaction:

Substituting for yA and yB from equations of deflection coefficient for lateral load and deflection
coefficient for moment, kh/EI from equation soil modulus function and x/T from equation depth
coefficient as the following,

We get:

For cohesionless soils where soil modulus is assumed to increase with depth kh, = nhx, 𝜙(x) may be

65 FOUNDATION ENGINEERING-II BY: DINKA FULEA (MSc.)

 CIVIL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

equated to Z = x/T. Therefore, equation of soil modulus function becomes:

Solutions for equations of soil reaction due to lateral load and moment by using finite-difference
methods, were obtained analytically by Reese and Matlock (1956) for values of Coefficients Ay, As,
Am, Av, Ap, By, Bs, Bm, Bv, and Bp, which are related to deflection, slope, moment, shear and soil
reaction for various Z = X/T are given as table below.
Also we can write as (Ay, By) be deflection coefficient, (As, Bs) be slope coefficient, (Am, Bm) be
moment coefficient, (Av, Bv) be shear coefficient, and (Ap, Bp) be soil reaction coefficient respectively
for shear load and moment load acting on the pile at the ground level.
Table Dimensionless Factors of Coefficient A for long piles

66 FOUNDATION ENGINEERING-II BY: DINKA FULEA (MSc.)

 CIVIL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

Table Dimensionless Factors of Coefficient B for long piles

1.11.2.2. Lateral Deflection of a Single Pile in Cohesion less Soil in case of Fixed-Head Pile:
For a fixed-head pile, the slope (S) at the ground surface is zero. Therefore, for total slope becomes:

Therefore,

From Tables 6.3 and 6.4 for Z = x/T =0;

Therefore,

The term Mg/QgT has been defined as the non-dimensional fixity factor by Prakash (1962). Then the
equations for deflection and moment for fixed head can be modified as follows:

67 FOUNDATION ENGINEERING-II BY: DINKA FULEA (MSc.)

 CIVIL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

Where values of Cy and Cm are deflection and moment coefficient respectively, and can be obtained
from the following equation.

Where 𝜆 is percent fixity (i.e., 𝜆 = 1 for 100 percent fixity or fully restrained pile head and 𝜆= 0 for
fully free pile head).

Example 1.12: A square concrete pile 30cm*30cm and 5m long is subjected to a horizontal load of
5000N and a moment of 4000Nm at the ground level. Taking a constant of subgrade reaction nh =
20N/cm3 and modulus elasticity of pile, E = 3x106N/cm2, find the maximum deflection and maximum
bending moment on the pile if:
a) The head of pile is considered to be free
b) The head of pile is considered to be fixed with no external moment

Given data
b=30cm, d= 30cm, L =5m, Qg =5000N, Mg= 4000Nm, nh = 20N/cm3, E = 3x106N/cm2
Solution: (a) Freed head case
Step 1: Calculate the important constant parameters from the given data
 Moment of inertia (I)
𝟏 𝟏
I =𝟏𝟐 𝒃𝒅𝟑 = 𝟏𝟐 (𝟑𝟎)(𝟑𝟎)𝟑 = 𝟔. 𝟕𝟓𝒙𝟏𝟎𝟒 𝒄𝒎4

 Flexural pile stiffness (EI)

EI = 3x106N/cm2* 6.75𝑥104 𝑐𝑚4 = 20.25x1010N/cm2
 Relative stiffness factor(T)

68 FOUNDATION ENGINEERING-II BY: DINKA FULEA (MSc.)

 CIVIL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
1/5
𝐸𝐼 1/5 20.25𝑥1010 𝑁/𝑐𝑚2
T =(𝑛 ) =( ) = 100cm
ℎ 20𝑁/𝑐𝑚3

Step 2: Check whether the pile is short or long by finding Zmax to find different values of
coefficients
𝐿
Note! If Zmax = 𝑇 ≥ 5 𝑡ℎ𝑒 pile is considered as long pile
500
Zmax =100 = 5, Hence it is long pile

Step 3: Find the deflection coefficient for lateral load and moment at ground level (Z =0)
Referring to tables of coefficient A (due to lateral load) and coefficient B (due to moment) obtain the
deflection coefficients. From table of coefficient A, At Z =0, Ay =2.435 and from table of coefficient
B, By =1.623
Step 4: Find the maximum deflection (ymax) using the following equation:

𝑄𝑔 ∗ 𝑇 3 𝑀𝑔 ∗ 𝑇 2
𝑦𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑦𝐴 + 𝐵𝑦
𝐸𝐼 𝐸𝐼

5000 ∗ (100)3 4000 ∗ 1000 ∗ (100)2

𝑦𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 2.435 ∗ + 1.623 ∗
20.25𝑥1010 20.25 ∗ 1010
Ymax = 0.06 + 0.032 = 0.092cm
Step 5: Find the maximum bending moment (Mmax) using the following equation:

Let calculate and Convert 𝑄𝑔 ∗ 𝑇 and 𝑀𝑔 into the similar unit, because both of them are moment.
𝑄𝑔 ∗ 𝑇 = 5000*100 =500000 =5x105Ncm
𝑀𝑔 = 4000Nm =4000*100Nm= 4x105Ncm
𝑀𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝐴𝑚 ∗ 𝑄𝑔 𝑇 + 𝐵𝑚 ∗ 𝑀𝑔
Substituting the values of 𝑄𝑔 ∗ 𝑇 and 𝑀𝑔 we get:
𝑀𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝐴𝑚 ∗ 5𝑥105 + 𝐵𝑚 ∗ 4𝑥105 in Ncm
We can rewrite as: 𝑀𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 105 (5𝐴𝑚 + 4𝐵𝑚 ) in Ncm
The maximum moment will occur at any depth Z which is not known at present. However, it will occur

69 FOUNDATION ENGINEERING-II BY: DINKA FULEA (MSc.)

 CIVIL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

at such a value of Z that (5𝐴𝑚 + 4𝐵𝑚 ) is maximum. The computations are done in a tabular form as
table below by taking the value Am and Bm from coefficient table of A and B at various values of depth
ratio, Z = X/T.

From the calculated result, the value of Z at that the value of(5𝐴𝑚 + 4𝐵𝑚 ) maximum is at 1. Hence,
the maximum moment occurs when Z = 1.
Or from the relation Z =X/T, X= ZT =1*100cm=100cm below the ground level.
Therefore, from the above table, the value of(5𝐴𝑚 + 4𝐵𝑚 ) is equal to 7.05
Then the maximum moment is computed as: 𝑀𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 105 (5𝐴𝑚 + 4𝐵𝑚 ) in Ncm
Substituting the value of(5𝐴𝑚 + 4𝐵𝑚 ) into the moment equation we get:
𝑀𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 7.05 ∗ 105 in Ncm
𝑴𝒎𝒂𝒙 = 𝟕𝟎𝟓𝟎𝑵𝒎
b) Solution for Fixed head case:
 Calculate the maximum deflection

When there is fixity at the head of pile, there will be no slope at the ground surface (at Z =0). The
maximum deflection for fixed head pile is computed by using the following simplified formula.

Where Cy is deflection coefficient calculated using the following formula

From table of coefficient A, At Z =0, Ay =2.435 and from table of coefficient B, By =1.623
Where 𝜆 is percent fixity (i.e., 𝜆 = 1 for 100 percent fixity or fully restrained pile head and 𝜆= 0 for
fully free pile head). For our case since the pile is fixed head (fully restrained pile head), 𝜆 = 1.
𝑪𝒚 = (𝑨𝒚 − 𝟎. 𝟗𝟑𝝀𝑩𝒚 )

70 FOUNDATION ENGINEERING-II BY: DINKA FULEA (MSc.)

 CIVIL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

𝑪𝒚 = (𝟐. 𝟒𝟑𝟓 − 𝟎. 𝟗𝟑 ∗ 𝟏 ∗ 𝟏. 𝟔𝟐𝟑) = 0.926

𝑄𝑔 ∗𝑇 3 5000∗(100)3
𝑦𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝐶𝑦 ∗ = 0.926 ∗ = 0.0228cm
𝐸𝐼 20.25𝑥1010

 Calculate the maximum moment

The maximum moment for fixed head pile is computed by using the following simplified formula.

Where Cm is moment coefficient calculated using the following formula

From table of coefficient A, At Z =0, Am =0 and from table of coefficient B, Bm =1

Where 𝜆 is percent fixity (i.e., 𝜆 = 1 for 100 percent fixity or fully restrained pile head and 𝜆= 0 for
fully free pile head). For our case since the pile is fixed head (fully restrained pile head), 𝜆 = 1.
𝑪𝒎 = (𝑨𝒎 − 𝟎. 𝟗𝟑𝝀𝑩𝒎 )
𝑪𝒎 = (𝟎 − 𝟎. 𝟗𝟑 ∗ 𝟏 ∗ 𝟏) = -0.93
𝑀𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝐶𝑚 𝑄𝑔 ∗ 𝑇 = -0.93*5000N*100cm = -465000Ncm = -4650Nm. Negative sign indicates the
tension effect.

1.11.3. Method of Broms

Assuming different failure mechanisms consisting of plastic hinges, Broms gave charts for determining the
limiting loads for restrained and free-headed piles subjected to horizontal loadings. His analysis is
governed by the following criteria:

a) The lateral deflection at working loads should not impair the proper functioning of the pile
group.
b) Complete collapse of the foundation or of the supported structure should not occur.

Broms used over-load and under-strength factors. Here the design load is multiplied by a factor greater than
one, and the pertinent soil parameter, i.e. shearing strength, by a factor less than one. According to EBCS-
7 table 2.1, the over-load factor is 1.3 for permanent actions and 1.6 for variable actions. In the same table,
it is stated that the under strength factors for all parameters related to the soil strength are all unity.

71 FOUNDATION ENGINEERING-II BY: DINKA FULEA (MSc.)

 CIVIL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

Broms provided solutions for both short and long piles installed in cohesive and cohesionless soils
respectively. He considered piles fixed or free to rotate at the head. Lateral deflections at working
loads have been calculated using the concept of subgrade reaction. It is assumed that the deflection
increases linearly with the applied loads when the loads applied are less than one-half to one-third of
the ultimate lateral resistance of the pile.

i. Lateral Deflections at Working Loads

Lateral deflections at working loads can be obtained from Fig 1.24 for cohesive soil and Fig 1.25 for
cohesionless soil respectively. For piles in saturated cohesive soils, the plot in Fig. 1.17 gives the
relationship between the dimensionless quantity L and (ygkdL)/Pt for free-head and restrained piles
where:

Figure 1.24: Charts for calculating lateral deflection at the ground surface of horizontally loaded pile
in cohesive soil

72 FOUNDATION ENGINEERING-II BY: DINKA FULEA (MSc.)

 CIVIL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

Lateral deflection at working loads of piles embedded in cohesionless soils may be obtained from Fig.
1.25. Dimensionless factor [yg(EI)3/5(nh)2/5]/PtL is plotted as a function of L for various values of e/L
where:

The value of nh may be taken as 2.2, 6.7 and 17.9MN/m3 for loose, medium and dense sand
respectively, when the ground water table is located below the depth L of 2.0. For the case where the
ground water table is located near or above the ground surface, 60% of the above values should be used.

Figure 1.25: Charts for calculating lateral deflection at the ground surface of horizontally loaded piles
in cohesionless soil.

A pile is considered long or short in the following conditions:

Free-head pile Fixed-head pile
Long pile when L > 2.50 Long pile when L > 1.50
Short pile when L < 2.50 Short pile when L < 1.50

ii. Ultimate Lateral Resistance of Piles in Saturated Cohesive Soils

Broms suggests a constant value 9cu for the ultimate soil resistance of piles below a depth of 1.5d.
Figure 1.26 gives solutions for short piles and figure 1.20 for long piles. In the figures, Pu equals Pdesign if the
shear strength parameter cu is reduced by under-strength factor. The solution for long piles involves the
73 FOUNDATION ENGINEERING-II BY: DINKA FULEA (MSc.)
 CIVIL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

yield moment My for the pile section. The equations suggested by Broms for computing My are as
follows:

For a cylindrical pipe section

My = 1.3fyZ (1.58)
For H-section
If the applied load is in the direction of the maximum moment of inertia of the pile,
My = 1.1fyZmax (1.59)
If the applied load is in the direction of the minimum moment of inertia of the pile,

My = 1.5fyZmin (1.60)
Where fy = yield strength of the pile material. (The design yield strength is 0.9 times the average
measured yield strength.)
Z = section modulus of the pile

Figure 1.26: Ultimate lateral resistance of a short pile in cohesive soil related to the embedded length.

Figure 1.27: Ultimate lateral resistance of a long pile in cohesive soil related to the embedded
length.
74 FOUNDATION ENGINEERING-II BY: DINKA FULEA (MSc.)
 CIVIL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

iii. Ultimate Lateral Resistance of Piles in Cohesionless Soils

The ultimate lateral resistance of short piles embedded in cohesionless soil can be estimated making
use of Fig. 1.28 and that of long piles from Fig. 1.29. In Fig. 1.28, the dimensionless quantity Pu/d3Kp
is plotted against the L/d ratio for short piles and in Fig. 1.29, Pu/d3Kp is plotted against My/d4Kp .
In both cases the terms used are:

 = effective unit weight of the soil

Kp = Rankine’s passive earth pressure coefficient = tan2 (45+/2)

Figure 1.28: Ultimate lateral resistance of a short pile in cohesionless soil related to embedded length.

Figure 1.29: Ultimate lateral resistance of a long pile in cohesionless soil related to embedded length.

Example 1.13: A steel pipe pile of 61cm outside diameter with a wall thickness of 2.5cm is
driven into saturated cohesive soil to a depth of 20m. The undrained cohesive strength of the soil is
85kPa. Calculate the design lateral resistance of the pile by Broms’ method with the load
applied at the ground level if
(a) The pile is free-head
(b) The pile is restrained at the top
The pile material has Young’s modulus of 200GPa and yield strength of 300MPa.

75 FOUNDATION ENGINEERING-II BY: DINKA FULEA (MSc.)

 CIVIL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

1.12. Introduction to Piled Raft Foundation

The Piled raft is the foundation which acts as a composite construction consisting of the three load-
bearing elements: piles, raft and subsoil.

The concept of Piled raft foundations was firstly proposed by Davis and Poulos in 1972 and is now
used extensively in Europe, particularly for supporting the load of high-rise buildings or towers. The
favorable application of piled raft occurs when the raft has adequate loading capacities, but the
settlement or differential settlement exceed allowable values. In this case, the primary purpose of the
pile is to act as settlement reducer. Piled raft foundation system is verified to be an economical
foundation type comparing the conventional piled foundations. The use of piled raft foundations is an
effective way of minimizing both total and differential settlements, of improving the bearing capacity
of a shallow foundation, and of reducing in economic way the internal stress levels and bending
moments within a raft.
Piled raft foundations are the composite structures which consist of three elements; piles, raft and the
subsoil. That is, piled raft combines the load-bearing elements of the piles, raft and subsoil in a
composite structure. Applied loads are transferred to the subsoil both through the raft and the
piles. This load transfer mechanism can be simply shown in Figure below. Load sharing between raft
and piles is the main distinctive feature that diversifies this type of foundation from other type of piled
foundations’ design.

Figure 1.30: Simplified load transfer mechanism of piled raft foundations

76 FOUNDATION ENGINEERING-II BY: DINKA FULEA (MSc.)

 CIVIL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

1.12.1. Factors affecting the Behavior of Piled Raft Foundations

Many researchers have examined the behavior of piled rafts. The following factors can be listed
as the main determinants of the behavior:

 The number of piles  Distribution of load

 Length of piles,  Level of load

 Diameter of piles  Raft thickness

 Pile spacing ratio  Raft dimensions.

 Location of piles  Type and stiffness of soil

 Stiffness of piles

1.12.1. Methods for the Analysis of Piled Raft Foundations

Poulos (2001) categorized the methods of analysis of piled raft foundations into three
classes:
1. Simplified calculation methods
2. Approximate computer-based methods
3. More rigorous computer-based methods

1.12.2. Design approaches for the Piled Raft Foundations

Randolph (1994) has presented three design approaches for the piled raft foundations in his state-
of-the-art report as:
1. The Conventional Approach: Piles are designed to carry the majority of the
load.
2. Differential Settlement Control: Piles are located in order to reduce the
differential settlement, rather than the overall average settlement.
3. Creep Piling: Piles are designed to operate at a working load (70-80% of
the ultimate capacity) at which significant creep occurs.
The design of piled raft foundations required a new understanding of soil-structure interaction because
the contribution of both raft and piles is taken into consideration to verify the ultimate bearing capacity
and the serviceability of the overall system. Moreover, the interaction between raft and piles makes it
possible to use the piles up to a load level which can be significantly higher than the permissible design
value for the bearing capacity of comparable single isolated pile.

77 FOUNDATION ENGINEERING-II BY: DINKA FULEA (MSc.)

 CIVIL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

Figure 1.3: Soil-Structure interaction effects of Pile raft foundations

In the design of the foundation for a large building on a deep deposit of clay, it may be found that a raft
foundation would have an adequate factor of safety against ultimate bearing capacity failure, but that the
settlements would be excessive. Traditional practice would then be to pile the foundation and to choose the
number of piles to give an adequate factor of safety against individual pile failure, assuming the piles
take all the load. However, it is clearly illogical to design the piles on an ultimate load basis when they
have only been introduced in order to reduce the settlement of an otherwise satisfactory raft. Thus, in
such conditions, piled raft foundations would be an ideal solution.
Piled rafts or piled mats, as the name suggests, are hybrid (composite) foundations consisting of a raft
and pile working together. First, the piles are installed, and then a mat is built enveloping the pile heads.
One important difference between the raft in this case and a pile cap is that the contact between the raft
and the soil is taken into consideration; pile caps are not assumed to be in contact with the soil and to
develop their own bearing resistance. Another important distinction is that pile caps are assumed and
designed to be “rigid” so that differential settlement between piles in the same group are negligible. The
piles in this case are used to guarantee safety against an ultimate bearing capacity limit state as well as to
limit deflections. In a piled raft, the raft is large enough that classical bearing capacity failure is not possible

78 FOUNDATION ENGINEERING-II BY: DINKA FULEA (MSc.)

 CIVIL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

even without the piles, which are then used to reduce differential settlements or bending moments in the
raft.
When we design a piled raft, we specify the following:

1. The raft (mat) thickness and reinforcement

2. The number of piles to be used.
3. The location of each pile
4. The pile diameter, length and reinforcement.

1.12.3. Advantages of piled Raft foundations

The applications of a piled Raft as foundation concept has the following positive effects:

79 FOUNDATION ENGINEERING-II BY: DINKA FULEA (MSc.)