Allama Iqbal Open University

Submitted TO :
M.Zulfiqar Ali Mulghani
Submitted By:
Shehr Bano

ROLL NO:
CB643471
Course code:
8603
LEVEL.B.ED 1/2

Semester: Autumn, 2021

QNO#1: write a comprehensive definition of curriculum.
critically analyze the primary level curriculum process in
Pakistan.

Curriculum Definition
As part of an overarching strategy to align the work across Rhode Island,
RIDE facilitated the development of a statewide definition of curriculum
as a foundation for understanding and more equitable implementation.
Curriculum
Curriculum is a standards-based sequence of planned experiences where students practice and
achieve proficiency in content and applied learning skills. Curriculum is the central guide for all
educators as to what is essential for teaching and learning, so that every student has access to
rigorous academic experiences. The structure, organization, and considerations in a curriculum are
created in order to enhance student learning and facilitate instruction. Curriculum must include the
necessary goals, methods, materials and assessments to effectively support instruction and learning.
Goals
Goals within a curriculum are the standards-based benchmarks or expectations for teaching and
learning. Most often, goals are made explicit in the form of a scope and sequence of skills to be
addressed. Goals must include the breadth and depth to which a student is expected to learn.
Methods
Methods are the instructional decisions, approaches, procedures, and routines that teachers use to
engage all students in meaningful learning. These choices support the facilitation of learning
experiences in order to promote a student’s ability to understand and apply content and skills.
Methods are differentiated to meet student needs and interests, task demands, and learning
environment. Methods are adjusted based on ongoing review of student progress towards meeting the
goals.
Materials
Materials are the tools selected to implement methods and achieve the goals of the curriculum.
Materials are intentionally chosen to support a student's learning. Material choices reflect student
interest, cultural diversity, world perspectives, and address all types of diverse learners.
Assessment
Assessment in a curriculum is the ongoing process of gathering information about a student’s
learning. This includes a variety of waays to document what the student knows, understands, and can
do with their knowledge and skills. Information from assessment is used to make decisions about
instructional approaches, teaching materials, and academic supports needed to enhance opportunities
for the student and to guide future instruction.

What is a Comprehensive Curriculum?

Comprehensive curriculum is a written plan that guides the design of children’s goals for learning and
development, the experiences children will have to achieve those goals and the way in which adults, both
staff and families, will support children’s learning to achieve school success. A sound, comprehensive
curriculum is more than a resource guide that contains ideas and activities to do with children in your
classrooms or homes. It is evidence-based or relies on what research tells us about the way in which
children grow and learn and has many different parts or elements. When these elements work together,
they provide early childhood professionals with a framework that helps ensure that children have
standards-based, fun and challenging experiences that are developmentally, linguistically and culturally
appropriate (developmentally appropriate practice-DAP).

Content in a comprehensive curriculum focuses on all domains of learning: social-emotional, physical,

cognitive (intellectual), and communication (language and literacy). A curriculum that has been designed
to support children’s learning in a more specific area such as literacy or mathematics, is a valuable
resource that offers additional ideas to help children learn in that domain. It is considered a supplementary
curriculum, and while it complements a program’s selection of a comprehensive tool, it does not replace a
more expansive, broad-scope curriculum that programs must use to support children’s integrated learning
and development.

A comprehensive curriculum includes these elements:

Goals and Objectives

Goals tell us the intent of activities. They are designed to allow for individualization to support meeting
each child’s needs and interests and should be developed to help children learn and develop in all of the
different domains – social emotional, physical, literacy and cognitive. In fact, many activities will help
children’s skills grow in different goals at the same time.

Experiences for Children’s Learning

A well-defined comprehensive curriculum helps children achieve their learning goals and objectives. The
activities that children experience will encourage them to construct their understanding and knowledge
through play, active exploration, and investigation of materials and ideas. The curriculum should promote
both child-directed and teacher-directed activities; large group, small group and individualized learning
opportunities; and learning during every day routines and experiences. A strong curriculum is flexible and
will promote teachers’ use of both planned experiences and those experiences that occur naturally as a
result of children’s interests. Both indoor and outdoor environments are important learning spaces where
the large equipment, learning materials, and spatial arrangement of these materials are key to supporting
children’s learning. The way in which teachers design classroom environments optimizes children’s
interaction with materials and concepts in ways that assure children’s growth and development, and at the
same time, provides opportunities for the teacher to authentically assess and build on those learning
experiences.

Varied Domains of Learning

A rich curriculum will assure that children have opportunities to expand their learning and development
in all domains or areas of learning. This is known as “the whole child.” These areas include social and
emotional learning, physical development, language and literacy skills, and the cognitive areas of
knowledge that address mathematics, science, social studies and creative expression. Experiences that are
included within the curriculum framework should be integrated or demonstrate how they can incorporate
varied domains within one activity. Technology is also a new, but important, area of learning that should
be included within a curriculum model.

Connection to Learning Standards

Delaware’s Early Learning Foundations for Infants and Toddlers and Preschoolers are based on the
ageappropriate expectations for children that explain what children should know and do at specific ages.
When a curriculum is aligned or cross-walked with the Early Learning Foundations, it assures that
children are receiving experiences that are based on age-appropriate standards across all of the domains of
learning and that the expectations for learning are challenging, yet realistic and attainable. A
comprehensive curriculum will also correspond to classroom or teacher assessments such as the
Environment Rating Scale or CLASS to assure classrooms plan for high quality performance that is
demonstrated in their scores.
Plans for Teachers
A curriculum should include ways that teachers can help children achieve or reach their goals and
objectives. Delaware’s Educational Enduring Understandings state that teachers must understand how
children learn and design learning environments that complement children’s learning needs. The
curriculum should guide teachers’ thinking about their own intentional role and include ways in which
they can purposefully provide materials, ask questions or design the environment to help children learn
through play and investigation. Delaware’s teachers use essential questions to stimulate children’s
thinking and help them transfer current knowledge to new situations (scaffolding).

Ways to Measure Children’s Learning

Curriculum must include an ongoing process for understanding each child’s growth and development and
progress towards meeting their learning goals. This process provides the evidence that children are
learning and should include strategies for observing and documenting children’s current levels of
development, their interests and their needs as well as analyzing that information to develop new or
modify learning objectives.

Diversity and Inclusivity

Activities that are linked to children’s personal experiences are more meaningful and often provide more
successful ways for them to learn. The curriculum should provide information on ways to provide
experiences that reflect the cultures and backgrounds of the children within the early learning site. The
curriculum should also be appropriate or provide for adaptations for children with varied abilities
including children that are English Language Learners or children with disabilities.

Family Engagement
Families and teachers work in partnership to help children achieve learning success. The curriculum
should include ways in which families share in children’s individualized goal-development, provide
information about their progress, or participate in classroom experiences. It should include ways to
assure family celebrations or events include consideration of family cultures and ethnic practices and
provide ways to make adaptations for those cultural or ethnic practices or for adults who may have special
needs. Suggestions for at-home connections will enrich the families’ understanding and supports for
children’s experiences and learning and should be provided throughout the curriculum model.
PROCESS OF CURRICULUM
DEVELOPMENT IN PAKISTAN

Before 1972, there was no permanent institution responsible for curriculum development in
Pakistan. Saeed (1977) noted that before this time, curriculum development was not visualized as
distinct, separate and specialized function.The entire curricular activity was carried out through
committees which were created for a specific purpose at a specific time and were dissolved as soon as
U1e task was over. To fulfill the gigantic task of curriculum revision and further development, the
National Bureau of Curriculum in Islamabad was reorganized and strengthened in 1972. A primary
feature which distinguished the education system in general and curriculum in particular, however, in all
four provinces of Pakistan, parallel Bureau of Curriculum and Extension Wings were established in 1972
independently aimed at revising the school curriculum in close collaboration with the Central Bureau of,
Curriculum and Textbooks, Islamabad, but the role of the Provincial Bureau of Curriculum and
Extension Centre was somewhat limited (Memon 1989). The present processes of curriculum
development are based on the center-periphery approach which emphasizes achieving the desired
objectives with the formulation of aims and goals by the bureaucrats at the central level under the
directives of the education policy. The goals provide a platform for the development of curriculum and
textbooks. The provincial curriculum committees consist of concerned teachers, heads of schools, teacher
educators, subject experts and curriculum experts who work on the proposals. After prolonged
deliberation, the provincial committees formulate and tryout the draft and arrange the test edition of the
textbooks and training of teachers. After necessary amendment, the modified provincial draft is placed
before the national curriculum committee under the control of central government for formulating a
uniform draft for the whole country. It may be noted that the central government is the only guiding and
controlling authority in this matter, and final approval is therefore, only sought from the central
government. Therefore, the textbooks and relevant instructional material are published in collaboration
with the Provincial Bureau of Curriculum and Extension Wings. In reality, the renewal of the curricula is
either based on 'arm chair research' or 'intuitive knowledge' of the so called experts of curriculum in
general or imported innovation from western countries in particular. In some cases, donordriven
innovations are also introduced and their impact on the improvement of education as a whole has to be
examined.

Under the current situation, the schools are effectively discouraged from devising and using their own
curriculum. Teachers are legally bound to use the printed books which are approved by the relevant
provincial Textbook Boards which acts as 'gatekeepers' to make sure that prescribed books are in use in
the schools. One of the Textbook Boards in its circular mentioned that all the heads of schools, teachers,
parents and students are requested to see that the textbooks prepared and published under the 'authority of
the Sindh Textbook Board alone are purchased. and no book other than these is used in the classroom
(Sindh Texbook Board, 1987). This indicates that the teachers' authority is restricted to use of the
prescribed books in order to avoid running any risk that students will not be specially prepared for the
relevant examination which is all based on the official syllabus. Public prestige and status of secondary
schools is primarily based on the relevant success of their students in the examination.
Resources:
• Understanding and Design Principles. Retrieved from http://www.doe.k12.de.us/info
• National Association for the Education of Young Children and the National Association of Early
Childhood Specialists in State Departments of Education. (2003) Joint Position Statement. Early
Childhood Curriculum, Assessment, and Program Evaluation. Building an effective, accountable
system in programs for children birth through age 8. Retrieved from
http://naeyc.org/positionstatements/cape
• North Carolina Division of Child Development & Early Education. North Carolina Approved
Early Childhood Curricula. (2011). Retrieved from http://nccchildcare.dhhs,state.nc.us
• Taylor, H.H., (2000). Curriculum in Head Start. Head Start Bulletin. Issue 67. Retrieved from
http://eclkc.ohs.act.hhs.gov
QNO#2: Identify the recommendation regracurriculum
reforms contained in the all educational policies and
highlight the main differences.
The objectives of the research study were to critically analyze the policies related to higher education
sector from 1947 to 2009.
Findings and Discussions:
1947-1957:
1947-1957 time frame, Pakistan organized Conference on Education in 1947 while India assembles the
report on Radhakrishan Commission.
The agenda of Pakistan Educational Conference were setting up an advisory board of education;
desirability of establishing an inter university board; ways and means of promoting scientific research,
oversees scholarship scheme; policy. Nunn (1949) stated that the development of higher learning in India
through teaching staff by reducing the overcrowding at the university, the number of working days, the
curricula research in postgraduate training, finance and constitutional parallel lists were the main features
of the policy. It has been suggested to establish the separate scholarship commissions in university for the
award of grants.
Rao (1964) stated that Indian education primarily focused on consolidating and expanding provision in
the present day institutions. Coordination and forethought of higher learning at federal was done by the
boards of higher education. More assistance would be given to ensure exploration of new ideas and
methodology on current situations in universities. Within the university system appropriate forms of
independent management system will be provided to promote national research facilities for the
researchers.
From 1958-1968:
During this period India published its first national educational policy of 1968, but Pakistan prepared a
report in1959 on the recommendations of the National Education Commission.
In length Pakistan’s report discussed higher education in general, professional education including
engineering, agriculture, legal, commercial and medical education. Considering that a National Policy on
Education of India was published on the basis of the report 1964-1966. Education commission
concerning higher education, enrolled number of students in college or university was decided on the
facilities provided in laboratory and library provision.
It was recognized that the creation of departments for research in universities required efficient and
knowledgeable personnel’s with new and innovative ideas. It has been suggested that the individuals with
sufficient research qualifications would be the master trainer of masters and doctorate students. For the
recruitment of faculty and reader’s steps would be taken to recruit the individuals with high qualification
and several years of experience and publication of research. This would help in the sustainability of
quality research. In particular, the higher degrees of research or doctorate degrees would be accompanied
by a condition of eminent work, according to international standards. (Government of Pakistan 1959).
It was also suggested that it is necessary for starting Ph. D program in the department to satisfy the board
of advanced studies in terms of mandatory facilities including efficacious supervision. It was also
recommended that it is the duty of the board of advanced studies to review the situation to ensure quality
and provision of equipment with respect to existing Ph. D work. Universities pay special attention to the
areas that affect national development (1959). Senior fellowship is granted to the talented Ph. D holders
without the restriction of age. It was also suggested to youth who had demonstrated outstanding skills at
masters or doctoral level and are granted with National Scholarship, Fellowship, Senior Professorship or
persons of recognized eminence to limited numbers. Govt of Pakistan (1959).
Indian’s National Education Policy pays special attention on research in higher education. It is suggested
that the research institute may function within the universities or any research organization associated
with same objectives (Govt of India, 1968). It is stated that the curricula is divided into two types of
courses such as part time and the correspondence courses. Correspondence courses may be developed on
large scale for the higher education. Education through these courses will be given the status as to the
regular studies. These facilities will facilitate the adjustment of school and work (Govt of India 1968).
From 1960-1980:
Three national education policies of Pakistan were published in the years 1970, 1972-1980 and 1979,
while India did not formulate new education policy only revision of the existing policy was done by the
Government officials.
The new Policy on Education of Pakistan (1970) was adapted by the cabinet. The policy proposed to
establish a national research grant program to create a pool of promising young scientist, and researchers
in several other important dimensions. The one of the important suggestions is to establish a system of
National Professorship to use the expertise of renowned specialist. Federal government would help in
terms of financial assistance is for accomplishment of these plans. Statutory bodies such as University
Grant Commissions were established for the resolution of the problems faced during planning and
coordination without compromising the autonomy of the university (1970). Ph. D and Postgraduate
research programs would greatly enhance the institutes. It was also suggested to establish a UGC which
would serve as a moderator amongst the University administration and government bureaucracy, for
ensuring sufficient funds by objectively assessing the needs of the institutes. The Interuniversity council
of Pakistan may serve as the focal point of the University Grant Commission. Mohatny (1993) argued
that in the 1970’s, the Indian Education system was evaluated and the UGC was invited to prepare the
statement on research, philosophy and strategies for the development of universities and colleges in the
country.
In the Policy related to Education of Pakistan (1972-80) it was suggested to establish University Grant
Commission (UGC) which may serve as the moderator between the government bureaucracy and the
university administration. It was proposed to create professional’s councils to establish minimum
standards in professional fields. It was recommended that the National Professorship program would be
established to enable researchers for the quality improvement of research and teaching. Furthermore, it is
the responsibility of the university to assign teaching to the research fellows of the institute. It has been
proposed to establish national research fellowships at the universities and other appropriate institutions
receiving financial support to enable them to provide material and other facilities for the work of high
level specialist.
Ramaro and Sudarshanam (1996) mentioned that the Indian National Education Policy (1979) stated that
an ideal education system allow people to develop their Intellectual and physical potentials. It enhances
their awareness of social values and norms, so that they can acquire the strong character and function as
responsible members of society. Higher education is gaining importance because it opens the doors of
national development. (Govt of India, 1985).
In addition to these major recommendations, it also covered agriculture, medicine and physical
education. Three language formulas, exam reforms, role of teachers and teacher training. While
recognizing the importance of financial contributors it placed great emphasis on the human intellectual
contribution and suggested a revision every five years, to be modified in the light of previous experience.
The document on the education development ‘Challenge of Education’ policy perspective addresses the
challenges ahead of education and formulates new policy that addresses these challenges. The university
system has the principal charge in the preservation of traditional values, dissemination and extension of
knowledge to the society as a whole in addition, to it preserves the traditional values of the society and
culture and promotes balanced education of individuals and training of high level personnel in all areas.
In the Pakistani Education Policy of (1979) it was felt an urge of autonomous department of higher
education or University Grant Commission/Committee which take over the higher education. The
recommendations concerning the higher education were as follows: The University Grant Commission
will organize a program of pre-service and in-service training of college and university faculty members
at the National Academy of Higher Education. (Govt of Pakistan, 1979).
Mohatny (1993) argued that scholarships must be granted to faculty members for higher education and
advance research at home and in abroad as well. An integral system of evaluation and accountability of
teachers must be implemented. Practical programs based on the guidance and charge of supervisors
should be established to enable universities to generate their own funds. The good will of the students
and the teachers should be motivated to promote the national homogenization. Several other functions
were envisaged for modern Indian universities to choose between the alternative system and to inculcate
and promote basic human values; association and promotion of our great culture with the essential
elements of other cultures; Promote a scientific genius and a pragmatic perspective , act as a critical
objective and assist in the development of national goals and programs for its realization of the society;
special emphasis on national issues is addressed by the development of science and technology and
promote commitment to excellence.
From 1981-2009:
In Pakistan three education policies were published in 1992, 1998, and 2009, while India revised the
policy in 1986 and amended it in 1992. So far, its policy did not change till now.
The National Education Policy of India (1986) was adapted after careful consideration and deliberation at
the national level, which put sufficient emphasis on higher education. Higher education reflects on the
critical, social, economic, cultural, moral and spiritual issues faced by mankind. Therefore, it helps in the
contribution of national development through specialized knowledge and technical skills. For the
education system it plays vital role in producing the teachers being at the apex of the educational
pyramid. Whereas, the National Education Policy of Pakistan (1992) also pointed to allocate special fund
for research. Further support is given by the additional funds for the participation in international
conferences for the university researchers. For seminars and research liberal funds may be allocated. The
Research Fund of the National Council for scientific research and development (NSRDB) is assigned a
promotion associated to the economic stability of the nation (Govt of Pakistan, 1992).
Research has been conducted in universities to strengthen support and measures have been taken to
ensure the quality of higher education in India. The UGC has established an appropriate procedure to
coordinate research in institutions, including science and technology. Independent management system is
developed to encourage the establishment of national research facilities within the university system.
Research in various disciplines of ideology (Govt of India, 1986), while in Pakistan professional
associations of different disciplines have been encouraged and have received significant amount for the
publication of research journals and the organization of professional conferences (Govt of Pakistan,
1992).
Special training is designed for the director of all universities in higher education management.
University professors who conduct research masters and doctorate students in philosophy have received a
research
grant (Govt of Pakistan, 1992). With the collaboration of universities and UGC a ten-year program of
higher education was developed, taking into account manpower requirements to build for the growing
industries in the fields of science and technology (Govt of Pakistan, 1992) while, the 1986 National
Education Policy of India was modified in 1992 accordingly.
Pakistan’s National Education Policy (1998) focused on preparing students for professional and
specialized education and improving the quality of higher education through the research in accordance
with international standards and by improving the teaching and learning process. The India on program
of action (1986) was ready to implement the 1986 National Education Policy to improve research funding
in universities and collaborative research facilities would be established in universities would have an
appropriate independent management mechanism (Govt of India, 1986).
It was suggested to establish a Foundation of National Research of India for the quality control and
coordination. The Foundation of National Research was an institute created by several organizations. It
was also identified that research was not just about securing the degree, but about being a way to improve
things, to discover a new understanding of the facts. It is about discovering the unknown by the
formulation of an objective followed by an analysis and conclusion in research (Govt of India, 1986)
while, in Pakistan, the center of excellence and other academic departments were introduced nationwide
for the development of the teachers for local programs of masters and doctorates. Appropriate
contributions have been made to strengthen the laboratories and libraries. The split doctorate programs
were initiated in alliance with renowned overseas universities, as the faculty members completed their
studies abroad (Govt of Pakistan, 1998).
Liaison programs with overseas universities have been developing to promote intercontinental alliance
and educational adaptability. Through these links, projects have been developed such as collaboration in
research, short and long term teacher visits and interchange of data. In universities the balance between
teaching and research has been shifted to the benefit of the research (Govt of Pakistan, 1998). Funding
for education has increased from 2.2% to 4% of GNP with an increase in the allocation for universities.
Universities and higher education institutions have been revitalized to admit students as part of the
selffinancing program (Govt of Pakistan, 1998).
In the Indian Action Program (1986) it was proposed to start research studies, surveys, field works,
projects and other task related to the scientific and technical knowledge of social problems of national
economy. Measures have been implemented in the areas of teaching methodology, curriculum, including
reforms in the assessments procedure. It was determined that the research grants would receive at least
80% of the general benefits that an breadwinner with the same initial aptitude would benefit from the fact
that the researcher could focus more on his or her research. The Junior Research Fellows (JRF) would
have access to residence and health facilities (Govt of India, 1986).
Scholarships programs have been initiated at the master and doctorate level, preferably in the scientific
and technological fields. Immediately 200 doctoral scholarships for prospective and emerging
technologies and selected fields after being launched for university professors. At the end of their studies,
their services will be used by the universities and educational institutions (Govt of Pakistan, 1998). A
national research fund called “Prime Minister’s Research Fund” has been created with Rs. One Billion
endowment fund. Each Ph. D product received an additional grant for facility expansion and institutional
strengthening. Research degrees were encouraged in the disciplines of socio-economic development in
Pakistan (Govt of Pakistan, 1998). Efforts have been made in the areas of control and assessment of
Indian university research. The doctoral Examiners’ reports should be available at the UGC or partner
organizations (Govt of India, 1986).
In this Educational Policy of Pakistan (2009), it was mentioned that accreditation mechanism had been
established for programs and universities in the line with the best practices in international countries and
to improve the availability of quality education. The main political actions have been described below
(2009).
Opportunities would be offered to students and teachers from the global scientific community. The
universities will collaborate to improve the quality of their teaching in areas of specialization. Quality
assurance Programs would be developed in the universities, including the evaluation of foreign experts
(2009). Scholarship programs based on needs may be started to provide access to higher education.
To undertake postdoctoral work with insurance diplomas related to the research career, it was proposed
in the Action Program of India (1986) to create special frameworks for research. Admission to research
must be based on merit, which must include the ability to investigate as an element. Measures have been
taken for quality of research and strengthen the interaction between supervisors and academics to allow
efficient use of time. A National Research Council may be established to cover all higher education
institutions and coordinate the general vision of research, monitor, progress, define policies and priorities
and suggest ways to more funds important for the education sector.

QNO#3: Select any subject from the curriculum of ADE

program of AIOU and identify the different foundations
of the curriculum from it. Also, highlight the focused
foundation that is reflected at this level of the curriculum
with examples.
THE INFLUENCE OF PSYCHOLOGY TO CURRICULUM: FOUR MAJOR
FOUNDATIONS
The curriculum is influenced by psychology. Psychology provides information about the
teaching and learning process. It also seeks answers as to how a curriculum will be organized to
achieve students’ learning at the optimum level and what amount of information they can absorb
in learning the various contents of the curriculum.
The following are some psychological theories in learning that served as major foundations of
curriculum development:

1. BEHAVIORISM
Education in the 20th century was dominated by behaviorism. The mastery of the subject matter
is given more emphasis. So, learning is organized in a step-by-step process. The use of drills and
repetition are common.

For this reason, many educational psychologists viewed it as mechanical and routine. Though
many are skeptical about this theory, we can’t deny the influences it had on our educational
system.

2. COGNITIVISM
Cognitive theorists focus on how individuals process information, monitor and manage their
thinking. The basic questions that cognitive psychologists zero in on are:

▪ How do learners process and store information?

▪ How do they retrieve data and generate conclusions?
▪ How much information can they absorb?
With their beliefs, they promote the development of problem-solving and thinking skills and
popularize reflective thinking, creative thinking, intuitive thinking, discovery learning, and
others.
3. HUMANISM
Humanism is taken from Gestalt’s theory, Abraham Maslow’s theory, and Carl Rogers’ theory.
This group of psychologists is concerned with the development of human potential.
In this theory, the curriculum is after the process, not the product; focuses on personal needs, not
on the subject matter; and clarifying psychological meanings and environmental situations. In
short, curriculum views founded on humanism posits that learners are human beings who are
affected by their biology, culture, and environment. They are neither machines nor animals.

This article explains the four major foundations of curriculum and their importance in education. Examples are
provided to stress the importance of curriculum in the academe. Read on and reflect on some of the experiences you
have had in school to match it with how philosophy, history, psychology and sociology influence those experiences
of yours.

The Influence of Philosophy to Curriculum

Educators, curriculum makers and teachers must have espoused a philosophy or philosophies that are deemed
necessary for planning, implementing, and evaluating a school curriculum. The philosophy that they have embraced
will help them define the purpose of the school, the important subjects to be taught, the kind of learning students
must have and how they can acquire them, the instructional materials, methods and strategies to be used, and
how students will be evaluated.
Likewise, philosophy offers solutions to problems by helping the administrators, curriculum planners, and teachers
make sound decisions. A person’s philosophy reflects his/her life experiences, social and economic background,
common beliefs, and education.

When John Dewey proposed that “education is a way of life”, his philosophy is realized when put into practice.
Now, particularly in the Philippines, Dewey’s philosophy served as anchor to the country’s educational system.

History and Its Influence to Curriculum

The history of one’s country can affect its educational system and the kind of curriculum it has. If we are going to
trace the formal beginning of curriculum, we get back in time to Franklin Bobbit’s book entitled, “The
Curriculum” which was published in 1918.

From the time of Bobbit to Tyler, many developments in the purposes, principles and contents of the curriculum
took place. Please read the Six Famous Curriculum Theorists and their Contributions to Education for more
information.

The Influence of Psychology to Curriculum

Curriculum is influenced by psychology. Psychology provides information about the teaching and learning process.
It also seeks answers as to how a curriculum be organized in order to achieve students’ learning at the optimum
level, and as to what amount of information they can absorb in learning the various contents of the curriculum.

The following are some psychological theories in learning that influenced curriculum development:
1. Behaviorism

Education in the 20th century was dominated by behaviorism. The mastery of the subject matter is given more
emphasis. So, learning is organized in a step-by-step process. The use of drills and repetition are common.

For this reason, many educational psychologists viewed it mechanical and routine. Though many are skeptical
about this theory, we can’t deny the fact the influences it had in our educational system.

2. Cognitivism

Cognitive theorists focus on how individuals process information, monitor and manage their thinking. The basic
questions that cognitive psychologists zero in on are:

• How do learners process and store information?

• How much information can they absorb?

With their beliefs, they promote the development of problem-solving and thinking skills and popularize the use of
reflective thinking, creative thinking, intuitive thinking, discovery learning, among others.

3. Humanism

Humanism is taken from the theory of Gestalt, Abraham Maslow’s theory and Carl Rogers’ theory. This group of
psychologists is concerned with the development of human potential.

In this theory, curriculum is after the process, not the product; focuses on personal needs, not on the subject matter;
and clarifying psychological meanings and environmental situations. In short, curriculum views founded on
humanism posits that learners are human beings who are affected by their biology, culture, and environment. They
are neither machines nor animals.
A more advanced, more comprehensive curriculum that promotes human potential must be crafted along this line.
Teachers don’t only educate the minds, but the hearts as well.

4. Sociology and Curriculum

There is a mutual and encompassing relationship between society and curriculum because the school exists within
the societal context. Though schools are formal institutions that educate the people, there are other units of society
that educate or influence the way people think, such as families and friends as well as communities.

Since the society is dynamic, there are many developments which are difficult to cope with and to adjust to. But the
schools are made to address and understand the changes not only in one’s country but in the world as well.

Therefore, schools must be relevant by making its curriculum more innovative and interdisciplinary. A curriculum
that can address the diversities of global learners, the explosion of knowledge through the internet, and the
educational reforms and policies recommended or mandated by the United Nations.
However, it is also imperative that a country must have maintained a curriculum that reflects and preserves its
culture and aspirations for national identity. No matter how far people go, it is the country’s responsibility to ensure
that the school serves its purpose of educating the citizenry.

Now, it is your time to reflect. Can you think of your experiences in which the major foundation of curriculum can
explain it?

Try to ask yourself the following questions:

1. Why should I take history, philosophy, psychology or even PE subjects in college?

2. Why is it that there is K to 12 and the mother tongue-based curriculum being implemented by the Department
of Education?

3. Why is there institutional amalgamation?

4. Why is there “One UP” (One University of the Philippines) now in the Philippines?

5. Why is there a need for a globalized higher education?

These questions imply that change will take place in the near future. So, brace yourself for the many changes that
will take place in education!

QNO#4: Q.4 Evaluate the following stages in the

process of curriculum development with examples.
a. Taxonomies of Educational Objectives
b. Selection of Content and Curriculum Foundation
c. Selection of Methods and Level of Education
d. Curriculum Planning
A:
The Taxonomy of Educational Objectives provides a common language with which to discuss educational
goals.
Bloom’s Original Taxonomy
Benjamin Bloom of the University of Chicago developed the Taxonomy in 1956 with the help of several
educational measurement specialists.
Bloom saw the original Taxonomy as more than a measurement tool. He believed it could serve as a:

• common language about learning goals to facilitate communication across persons, subject matter, and
grade levels;
• basis for determining in a particular course or curriculum the specific meaning of broad educational
goals, such as those found in the currently prevalent national, state, and local standards;
• means for determining the congruence of educational objectives, activities, and assessments in a unit,
course, or curriculum; and
• panorama of the range of educational possibilities against which the limited breadth and depth of any
particular educational course or curriculum could be contrasted (Krathwohl, 2002).

Bloom’s Taxonomy provided six categories that described the cognitive processes of learning: knowledge,
comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis, and evaluation. The categories were meant to represent
educational activities of increasing complexity and abstraction.
Bloom and associated scholars found that the original Taxonomy addressed only part of the learning that takes
place in most educational settings, and developed complementary taxonomies for the Affective Domain
(addressing values, emotions, or attitudes associated with learning) and the Psychomotor Domain (addressing
physical skills and actions). These can provide other useful classifications of types of knowledge that may be
important parts of a course.
The Affective Domain

1. Receiving
2. Responding
3. Valuing
4. Organization
5. Characterization by a value or value complex

From Krathwohl, Bloom, & Masia. Taxonomy of Educational Objectives, the Classification of Educational
Goals. Handbook II: Affective Domain. (1973).
Psychomotor Domain

1. Reflex movements
2. Basic-fundamental movements
3. Perceptual abilities
4. Physical abilities
5. Skilled movements
6. Nondiscursive communication

From Harrow. A taxonomy of psychomotor domain: a guide for developing behavioral objectives. (1972).
The Revised Taxonomy
Bloom’s Taxonomy was reviewed and revised by Anderson and Krathwohl, with the help of many scholars
and practitioners in the field, in 2001. They developed the revised Taxonomy, which retained the same goals as
the original Taxonomy but reflected almost half a century of engagement with Bloom’s original version by
educators and researchers.
Orignal vs Revised Bloom’s Taxonomy
[1] Unlike Bloom’s original “Knowledge” category, “Remember” refers only to the recall of specific facts or
procedures
[2] Many instructors, in response to the original Taxonomy, commented on the absence of the term
“understand”. Bloom did not include it because the word could refer to many different kinds of learning.
However, in creating the revised Taxonomy, the authors found that when instructors use the word
“understand”, they were most frequently describing what the original taxonomy had named “comprehension”.
Structure of the Cognitive Process Dimension of the Revised Taxonomy

1.0 Remember – Retrieving relevant knowledge from long-term memory

1.1 Recognizing
1.2 Recalling
2.0 Understand – Determining the meaning of instructional messages, including oral, written, and graphic
communication
2.1 Interpreting
2.2 Exemplifying
2.3 Classifying
2.4 Summarizing
2.5 Inferring
2.6 Comparing
2.7 Explaining
3.0 Apply – Carrying out or using a procedure in a given situation
3.1 Executing
3.2 Implementing
4.0 Analyze – Breaking material into its constituent parts and detecting how the parts relate to one another and
to an overall structure or purpose
4.1 Differentiating
4.2 Organizing
4.3 Attributing
5.0 Evaluate – Making judgments based on criteria and standards
5.1 Checking
5.2 Critiquing
6.0 Create – Putting elements together to form a novel, coherent whole or make an original product
6.1 Generating
6.2 Planning
6.3 Producing
One major change of the revised Taxonomy was to address Bloom’s very complicated “knowledge” category,
the first level in the original Taxonomy. In the original Taxonomy, the knowledge category referred both to
knowledge of specific facts, ideas, and processes (as the revised category “Remember” now does), and to an
awareness of possible actions that can be performed with that knowledge. The revised Taxonomy recognized
that such actions address knowledge and skills learned throughout all levels of the Taxonomy, and thus added
a second “dimension” to the Taxonomy: the knowledge dimension, comprised of factual, conceptual,
procedural, and metacognitive knowledge.
Structure of the Knowledge Dimension of the Revised Taxonomy

• Factual knowledge – The basic elements that students must know to be acquainted with a discipline
or solve problems in it.
• Conceptual knowledge – The interrelationships among the basic elements within a larger structure
that enable them to function together.
• Procedural knowledge – How to do something; methods of inquiry; and criteria for using skills,
algorithms, techniques, and methods.
• Metacognitive knowledge – Knowledge of cognition in general as well as awareness and knowledge
of one’s own condition.

The two dimensions – knowledge and cognitive – of the revised Taxonomy combine to create a taxonomy
table with which written objectives can be analyzed. This can help instructors understand what kind of
knowledge and skills are being covered by the course to ensure that adequate breadth in types of learning is
addressed by the course.
For examples of learning objectives that match combinations of knowledge and cognitive dimensions see Iowa
State University’s Center for Excellence in Learning and Teaching interactive Flash Model by Rex
Heer. http://www.celt.iastate.edu/teaching/effective-teaching-practices/revised-blooms-taxonomy
Structure of Observed Learning Outcomes (SOLO) taxonomy
Like Bloom’s taxonomy, the Structure of Observed Learning Outcomes (SOLO) taxonomy developed by
Biggs and Collis in 1992 distinguishes between increasingly complex levels of understanding that can be used
to describe and assess student learning. While Bloom’s taxonomy describes what students do with information
they acquire, the SOLO taxonomy describes the relationship students articulate between multiple pieces of
information. Atherton (2005) provides an overview of the five levels that make up the SOLO taxonomy:

1. Pre-structural: here students are simply acquiring bits of unconnected information, which have no
organization and make no sense.
2. Unistructural: simple and obvious connections are made, but their significance is not grasped.
3. Multistructural: a number of connections may be made, but the meta-connections between them are
missed, as is their significance for the whole.
4. Relational level: the student is now able to appreciate the significance of the parts in relation to the
whole.
5. At the extended abstract level, the student is making connections not only within the given subject
area, but also beyond it, able to generalize and transfer the principles and ideas underlying the specific
instance.

B: SEVEN CRITERIA FOR THE SELECTION OF SUBJECT MATTER OR

CONTENT OF THE CURRICULUM
The micro curriculum employs the seven criteria for the selection of subject matter below. For
the macro curriculum, the subjects needed for the curricular program or course comprise the
content.

1. SELF-SUFFICIENCY
To help learners attain maximum self-sufficiency most economically is the central guiding
principle of subject matter or content selection (Scheffler, 1970) as cited by Bilbao et al. (2008).
Although the economy of learning implies less teaching effort and less use of educational
resources, students gain more results. They can cope up with the learning outcomes effectively.
This criterion means that students should be given a chance to experiment, observe, and do field
study. This system allows them to learn independently.

With this principle in mind, I suggest that there should be a one-day independent learning
activity each week for a high school curriculum or preparatory year. However, this should be
carefully planned by the teacher. When the students return, they should present outputs from the
activity.

2. SIGNIFICANCE
The subject matter or content is significant if it is selected and organized to develop learning
activities, skills, processes, and attitudes. It also develops the three domains of learning, namely
the cognitive, affective, and psychomotor skills, and considers the learners’ cultural aspects.
Particularly, if your students come from different cultural backgrounds and races, the subject
matter must be culture-sensitive.

In short, select content or subject matter that can achieve the overall aim of the curriculum.

3. VALIDITY
Validity refers to the authenticity of the subject matter or content you selected. Make sure that
the topics are not obsolete.

For example, do not include typewriting as a skill to be learned by college students. It should be
about the computer or Information Technology (IT).

Thus, there is a need to regularly check the curriculum’s subject matter or contents and replace it
if necessary. Do not wait for another five years to change it.

Modern curriculum experts are after current trends, relevance, and authenticity of the curriculum;
otherwise, the school or the country becomes obsolete.

4. INTEREST

Some teachers are bookish.

This criterion is valid to the learner-centered curriculum. Students learn best if the subject matter
is interesting, thus makes it meaningful to them.

However, if the curriculum is subject-centered, teachers have no choice but to finish the pacing
schedule religiously and only teach what is in the book. This approach explains why many
students fail in the subject.

5. UTILITY
Another criterion is the usefulness of the content or subject matter. Students think that a subject
matter or some subjects are not necessary to them. They view it as useless. As a result, they do
not study.

Here are the questions that students often ask:

▪ Will I need the subject in my job?

▪ Will it give meaning to my life?
▪ Will it develop my potentials?
▪ Will it solve my problem?
▪ Will it be part of the test?
▪ Will I have a passing mark if I learn it?
Students only value the subject matter or content if it is useful to them.

6. LEARNABILITY
The subject matter or content must be within the schema of the learners. It should be within their
experiences. Teachers should apply theories in the psychology of learning to know how subjects
are presented, sequenced, and organized to maximize students’ learning capacity.
7. FEASIBILITY
Feasibility means the full implementation of the subject matter. It should consider the school’s
real situation, the government, and society in general. Students must learn within the allowable
time and the use of resources available. Do not give them a topic that is impossible to finish.

For example, you have only one week left to finish the unit, but the activities may take a month
for the students to complete. Thus, this requirement is not feasible.

Do not offer a computer subject if there is no electricity in the area, or there are no computers.

Further, feasibility means that there should be teachers who are experts in that area. For example,
do not offer English for Business Communication if there is no teacher to handle it.

Also, there is a need to consider the nature of the learners. The organization and design of the
subject matter or content must be appropriate to the nature of students.

So, it would be better if students in a subject-centered curriculum (with a pacing schedule that
must be religiously implemented every week) shall be grouped homogeneously; otherwise, many
will flunk in that subject.
c. Selection of Methods and Level of Education
In selecting teaching method, the teacher’s analytical ability comes to play considering the situation at hand.
There are some factors that will guide the teacher’s choice of method to use in teaching a particular lesson; such
factors include:
• The subject matter
• Instructional objectives
• The learner
• The teacher
• The time
• Instructional materials
• The environment
These factors are discussed below:

The Subject Matter

The content of a subject determines what method to be used to achieve effectiveness in the teaching and
learning process. Subjects could be science or arts oriented, and as such, they definitely require different
teaching methods that suit such disciplines. Science subjects are better taught with the inquiry or discovery
methods while the lecture method can be used in some art subjects depending in the content of the subject

Instructional Objectives
The instructional objectives a teacher intends to achieve at the end of a lesson, determines the choice of teaching
method to use in teaching the subject. Example from the objectives of a lesson, the teacher will know if the
lesson intends to acquire new skills or illicit an emotional or aesthetic reaction from th e students; knowledge of
these will go a long way in determining which teaching method to use.

The Learner
The learner is the pivot of teaching a teacher will have to know the student’s prior knowledge. The age, ability
and the number of learners needs to be considered in some teaching method suitable for students within a given
age group; students with different physical and mental abilities/disabilities, interest, students at the primary,
secondary or higher institutions. Example- a method used with the physically challenged cannot be used with
the normal students.

The Teacher
The teacher is the person that has to initiate the particular teaching method or methods he/she intends to use in a
given lesson. He/she should be familiar with such methods and be prepared in every way. The teacher should
endeavour to vary the methods he/she uses in teaching and should not be known to using a particular method
always.

Time
The time allotted to a subject on the school time-table should be considered when determining the choice of
teaching method. Methods like role-playing, simulations can be done within double periods. When there is little
time to cover large scheme of work, then, the lecture method can be used, but the learners must be considered in
every way.

Instructional Materials
These go a long way to determine what teaching methods to use in a given lesson e.g. a teacher that wants to
teach a practical class in biology needs an equipped biology laboratory to demonstrate effectively, but where
there is none; will end up with just a lecture method which does not completely suit that topic.

The Classroom Environment

Classroom environment set a tone for learning and causes learners to behave in certain ways. It is important to
consider the classroom environment in selecting an appropriate teaching method for a lesson. The space
available in a class, ventilation, illumination and other teaching devices in a classroom, etc all these affects the
choice of teaching methods to be used.

D:What is curriculum planning?

Curriculum planning involves the implementation of different types of instructional

strategies and organizational methods that are focused on achieving optimal student development
and student learning outcomes. Instructors might structure their curriculum around daily lesson
plans, a specific assignment, a chunk of coursework, certain units within a class, or an entire
educational program.

During the curriculum planning phase, teachers consider factors that might complement or
hinder their lesson curriculum. These include institutional requirements. Each administrator at a
university or college will have guidelines, principles and a framework that instructors are
required to reference as they build out their curriculums. Educators are responsible for ensuring
that their curriculum planning meets the students’ educational needs, and that the materials used
are current and comprehensible.

Educators should employ the curriculum process that best incorporates the six components of
effective teaching. These components are applicable at both the undergraduate and graduate
level:

▪ To demonstrate knowledge of content;

▪ To demonstrate the knowledge of students;
▪ Select suitable instructional strategy goals;
▪ To demonstrate knowledge of resources;
▪ To design coherent instruction;
▪ Assess student learning.
 What is curriculum design?

Now that we’ve gone over curriculum development and planning, let’s discuss
curriculum design. Curriculum design is the deliberate organization of
curriculum within a course or classroom. When instructors design their
curriculums, they identify what will be done, who will do it and when, as well
as what the objective of each course is. Remember that the curriculum contains
the knowledge and skills that a student needs to master in order to move to the
next level. By thinking about how their curriculum is designed, teachers ensure
they’ve covered all the necessary requirements. From there, they can start
exploring various approaches and teaching methods that can help them achieve
their goals.

QNO#:5 Write a critical note on humanistic model and

process model of the curriculum development. What are
the limitatyion of these models?

Humanistic Curriculum
The learner as human being has prime significance for the Humanistic Curriculum which aims at
development and realization of complete human personality of the student. The humanistic curriculum
does not take student as subservient to society, history or philosophy but as a complete entity. The
humanistic curriculum experts suggest that if education succeeds in development of needs, interests, and
aptitudes of every individual, the students will willingly and intelligently cooperate with one another for
common good. This will ensure a free and universal society with shared interests rather than conflicting
ones. Thus humanists stress on individual freedom and democratic rights to form global community based
on “common humanity of all people”.

The Humanistic Curriculum is based on the belief that the education that is good for a person is also best
for the well being of the nation. Here, the individual learner is not regarded as a passive or at least easily
managed recipient of input. S/he is the choosing or self-selecting organism. To design the Humanistic
Curriculum, we have to focus on the question “What does the curriculum mean to the learner?” Self-
understanding, self-actualization, and fostering the emotional and physical well being as well as well as
the intellectual skills necessary for independent judgment become the immediate concern of the
Humanistic Curriculum. To the humanists, the goals of education are related to the ideals of personal
growth, integrity, and autonomy. Healthier attitudes towards self, peers, and learning are among their
expectations. The concept of confluent curriculum and curriculum for consciousness are the important
types of humanistic curriculum. Socrates, Plato, Aristotle, Locke, Rousseaue, Kant, and Pestalozzi are
some of the great humanists of the world history.
Characteristics.
• The learner as human being has prime significance for the Humanistic Curriculum which aims at
development and realization of complete human personality of the student.
• The humanistic curriculum does not take student as subservient to society, history or philosophy but as
a complete entity

The humanistic curriculum experts suggest that if education succeeds in development of needs, interests,
and aptitudes of every individual, the students will willingly and intelligently cooperate with one another
for common good. • This will ensure a free and universal society with shared interests rather than
conflicting ones.
• Thus humanists stress on individual freedom and democratic rights to form global community based on
“common humanity of all people”.
• The Humanistic Curriculum is based on the belief that the education that is good for a person is also
best for the well being of the nation.
• Here, the individual learner is not regarded as a passive or at least easily managed recipient of input
. • She/he is the choosing or self-selecting organism. To design the Humanistic Curriculum, we have to
focus on the question “What does the curriculum mean to the learner?”
• Self-understanding, self-actualization, and fostering the emotional and physical well being as well as the
intellectual skills necessary for independent judgment become the immediate concern of the Humanistic
Curriculum.
• To the humanists, the goals of education are related to the ideals of personal growth, integrity, and
autonomy.
• Healthier attitudes towards self, peers, and learning are among their expectations. The concept of
confluent curriculum and curriculum for consciousness are the important types of humanistic curriculum.
• Socrates, Plato, Aristotle, Locke, Rousseaue, Kant, and Pestalozzi are some of the great humanists of the
world history.

The curriculum development process

The curriculum development process systematically organizes what will be taught, who will be taught,
and how it will be taught. Each component affects and interacts with other components. For example,
what will be taught is affected by who is being taught (e.g., their stage of development in age, maturity,
and education). Methods of how content is taught are affected by who is being taught, their
characteristics, and the setting. In considering the above three essential components, the following are
widely held to be essential considerations in experiential education in non-formal settings:
The CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT MODEL on the next page shows how these components
relate to each other and to the curriculum development process. It begins when an issue, concern, or
problem needs to be addressed. If education or training a segment of the population will help solve the
problem, then curriculum to support an educational effort becomes a priority with human and financial
resources allocated.

The next step is to form a curriculum develop-ment team. The team makes systematic decisions about the
target audience (learner characteristics), intended out-comes (objectives), content, methods, and
evaluation strategies. With input from the curriculum development team, draft curriculum products are
developed, tested, evaluated, and redesigned -if necessary. When the final product is produced, volunteer
training is conducted. The model shows a circular process where volunteer training provides feedback for
new materials or revisions to the existing curriculum.

PHASES AND STEPS IN CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT further illustrates how the 12 essential
steps progress from one to the next. It also shows the interaction and relationships of the four essential
phases of the curriculum development process: ( I) Planning, (II) Content and Methods, (III)
Implementation, and (IV) Evaluation and Reporting. It is important to acknowledge that things do not
always work exactly as depicted in a model!

Each phase has several steps or tasks to complete in logical sequence. These steps are not always separate
and distinct, but may overlap and occur concurrently. For example, the curriculum development team is
involved in all of the steps. Evaluations should occur in most of the steps to assess progress. The team
learns what works and what does not and determines the impact of the curriculum on learners after it is
implemented. Each step logically follows the previous. It would make no sense to design learning
activities before learner outcomes and content are described and identified. Similarly, content cannot be
determined before learner outcomes are described.

In the experience of the author, and confirmed by other curriculum specialists, the following curriculum
development steps are frequently omitted or slighted. These steps are essential to successful curriculum
development and need to be emphasized.

Curriculum Development Steps Needing Emphasis

1. Needs assessment: if not conducted, wonderful curriculum could be developed, but the
appropriate needs of the target audience may not be met.
2. Involving youth: the target audience and volunteers (or staff) who will be the implementors of
the curriculum must be involved (i.e., they participate as full members of the curriculum
development team).
3. Recruiting and training volunteer facilitators: competent and skilled curriculum implementors
are critical (the printed word cannot teach experiential group process, it doesn't provide
feedback).
4. Evaluating and reporting on the impact of the curriculum: is critical for securing human and
financial support from key policy decision makers and for assessing whether the curriculum has
achieved the intended outcome.
1) Identify Issue/Problem/Need

The need for curriculum development usually emerges from a concern about a major issue or problem of
one or more target audience. This section explores some of the questions that need to be addressed to
define the issue and to develop a statement that will guide the selection of the members of a curriculum
development team. The issue statement also serves to broadly identify, the scope (what will be included)
of the curriculum content.

(2) Form Curriculum Development Team

Once the nature and scope of the issue has been broadly defined, the members of the curriculum
development team can be selected. Topics covered in this section include: (1) the roles and functions of
team members, (2) a process for selecting members of the curriculum development team, and (3)
principles of collaboration and teamwork. The goal is to obtain expertise for the areas included in the
scope of the curriculum content among the team members and develop an effective team.

(3) Conduct Needs Assessment and Analysis

There are two phases in the needs assessment process. The first is procedures for conducting a needs
assessment. A number of techniques are aimed toward learning what is needed and by whom relative to
the identified issue. Techniques covered in this section include: KAP - Knowledge, Attitude, and Practice
Survey; focus groups; and environmental scanning.

Analysis, the second part of this needs assessment step, describes techniques on how to use the data and
the results of the information gathered. Included are: ways to identify gaps between knowledge and
practice; trends emerging from the data; a process to prioritize needs; and identification of the
characteristics of the target audience.

(4) State Intended Outcomes

Once the issue is defined, the curriculum team is formed, the needs assessed, analyzed and prioritized, the
next step is to refine and restate the issue, if needed, and develop the intended outcomes or educational
objectives. An intended outcome states what the learner will be able to do as a result of participating in
the curriculum activities.

This section includes: (1) a definition of intended outcomes, (2) the components of intended outcomes
(condition, performance, and standards), (3) examples of intended outcomes, and (4) an overview of
learning behaviors. A more complete explanation of the types and levels of learning behaviours is
included in the Addendum as well as intended outcome examples from FAO population education
materials.

(5) Select Content

The next challenge in the curriculum development process is selecting content that will make a real
difference in the lives of the learner and ultimately society as a whole. At this point, the primary questions
are: "If the intended outcome is to be attained, what will the learner need to know? What knowledge,
skills, attitudes, and behaviours will need to be acquired and practiced?"
The scope (breadth of knowledge, skills, attitudes, and behaviours) and the sequence (order) of the
content are also discussed. Intended outcomes of population education with content topics is provided
in the Addendum section as an example and application of how intended outcomes are linked with
content.

(6) Design Experiential Methods

After the content is selected, the next step is to design activities (learning experiences) to help the learner
achieve appropriate intended outcomes. An experiential learning model and it's components
(i.e., experience, share, process, generalize, and apply) are discussed in this section.

Additional topics include:

1. learning styles and activities appropriate for each style;

2. a list of types of activities (with descriptions);
3. an activity design worksheet for facilitators; and
4. brief discussions on learning environments and delivery modes.

ethinking education

The policy focus is mostly one of socio-economic development. This can be seen as
narrow and it is part of the global discourse. Rethinking education argues that there is
a need to go beyond the strictly utilitarian vision and the human capital approach. It
argues for an integrated approach to education that gives equal importance to the
economic, social, cultural and civic dimensions of learning. This is reflected in the
four pillars of learning to know, to do, to be and to live together (Delors et al., 1996).
The integrated approach is fundamentally under threat in the current system,
particularly; learning to be and to live together.

humanistic principles

A humanistic approach to education and development is based on the foundation of an

integrated approach to knowledge, learning and development. Some core principles
are important: respect for life and human dignity; equal rights and social justice;
respect for cultural diversity, as well as a sense of shared responsibility and a
commitment to international solidarity. These principles are all fundamental aspects
of our common humanity. It is an approach that recognizes the diversity of knowledge
systems, worldviews, and conceptions of well-being as a source of wealth. It
recognizes the diversity of lived realities while reaffirming a common core of
universal values. A humanistic approach implies a central concern for sustainable
human and social development, in which the fundamental purpose of education should
be to sustain and enhance the dignity, capacity and welfare of the human person in
relation to others and to nature.
This implies inclusive policy-making, as well as transparency and accountability in
the provision of meaningful learning opportunities for all.