CLINICAL BACTERIOLOGY - LECTURE

Lesson 1: Introduction to Microbiology

NOMENCLATURE OF MICROOGANISMS
LEARNING CONTENT
Carolus Linnaeus:
Introduction:
 established in 1735 the system of nomenclature (naming) for
For many people, the words germ and microbe bring to mind a group of organisms in use today
tiny creatures that do not quite fit into any of the categories in that old  Scientific names are latinized because Latin was the language
question, “Is it animal, vegetable, or mineral?” Germ actually comes traditionally used by scholars.
from the Latin word germen, meaning to spo ut from, or germinate.
 Scientific nomenclature assigns each organism two names-the
Think of wheat germ, the plant embryo from which the plant grows. It
genus (plural: genera) is the first name and is always capitalized;
was first used in relation to microbes in the nineteenth century to
the specific epithet (species name) follows and is not capitalized.
explain the rapidly growing cells that caused disease. Microbes, also
called microorganisms, are minute living things that individually are  The organism is referred to by both the genus and the specific
usually too small to be seen with the unaided eye. The group includes epithet, and both names are underlined or italicized. By custom,
bacteria, fungi ( yeasts and molds), protozoa, and microscopic algae. It after a scientific name has been mentioned once, it can be
also includes viruses, those noncellular entities sometimes regarded a s abbreviated with the initial of the genus followed by the specific
straddling the border between life and nonlife. epithet.
 Scientific names can, describe an organism, honor a researcher,
Lesson Proper:
or identify the habitat of a species.
Microbiology is the study of microorganisms, a large and diverse group  For example: o Staphylococcus aureus - a bacterium
of microscopic organisms that exist as single cells or cell clusters; it also commonly found on human skin. o Staphylo-
includes viruses, which are microscopic but not cellular. Microorganisms describes the clustered arrangement of the cells;
have a tremendous impact on all life and the physical and chemical coccus indicates that they are shaped like spheres.
makeup of our planet. They are responsible for cycling the chemical The specific epithet, aureus, is Latin for golden, the
elements essential for life, including carbon, nitrogen, sulfur, hydrogen, color of many colonies of this bacterium.
and oxygen; more photosynthesis is carried out by microorganisms than
o The genus of the bacterium Escherichia coli is
by green plants.
named for a scientist, Theodor Escherich,

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PRONUNCIA SOURCE OF SOURCE OF
TION GENUS NAME SPECIFIC
whereas its specific epithet, coli, reminds us that E.
EPITHET
Salmonella coli live in theHonors
sal'mo- colon, or large intestine.
public Found in the
TYPES OF MICROORGANISMS
enterica NELlah en- health intestines
Bacteria (singular: bacterium)
(bacterium) TER-ikah microbiologist (entero-)
Daniel Salmon
 Relatively simple, single-celled (unicellular) organisms. Because their genetic material is not enclosed in a special nuclear membrane, bacterial cells
are called prokaryotes. Prokaryotes include both bacteria and archaea.

Bacterial cells generally appear in one of several shapes:

Streptococcus strep'tō- Appearance of Forms pus (pyo-)
pyogenes KOKkus pi-
 Bacillus: rodlike cells in chains
(bacterium) AH-jenez (strepto-)
 Coccus: spherical/ovoid
Saccharomyc sak'kar-o- Fungus (-myces) Makes beer
 Spiral: corkscrew/curved
es cerevisiae Misez se-ri- that uses sugar (cerevisia)
 Starshaped
(yeast) VISe1 (saccharo-)

 Bacteria are enclosed in cell walls that are largely composed of a carbohydrate and protein complex called
peptidoglycan in contrast to plant cell wall cellulose is the main substance.
Penicillium pen'i-SIL-  Bacteria generally
Tuftlike or reproduce by dividing ainto two equal cells; this process is called binary fission.
Produces
chrysogenum leum kri-S0 paintbrush yellow (chryso-)
(fungus) jenum (penicill-) pigment
appearance
microscopically

Trypanosoma tri'pa-no-SŌ- Corkscrew Honors

cruzi mah KROOZ- (trypaño-, borer; epidemiologist
(protozoan) ě soma-, body) Oswaldo Cruz

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Archaea  The unicellular forms of fungi, yeasts,

are oval microorganisms that are larger than bacteria.
 Consist of prokaryotic cells, but if they
 The most typical fungi are molds. They s form visible masses called
have cell walls, the walls lack
mycelia, which are composed of long filaments (hyphae) that branch
peptidoglycan.
and intertwine.
 Archaea, often found in extreme
 Fungi can reproduce sexually or asexually. They obtain nourishment
environments, are divided into three main
by absorbing solutions of organic material from their environment-
group:
whether soil, seawater, fresh water, or an animal or plant host.
 Methanogens produce methane as a waste product from
respiration. Protozoa (singular: protozoan)
 Extreme halophiles (halo = salt; philic = loving) live in extremely  Unicellular eukaryotic microbes
salty environments such as the Great Salt Lake and the Dead  They moved by pseudopods, flagella, or cilia. Amoebas move by
Sea. using extensions of their cytoplasm called pseudopods (false feet).
 Extreme thermophiles (therm = heat) live in hot sulfurous Other protozoa have long flagella or numerous shorter appendages
water, such as hot springs at Yellowstone National Park. for locomotion called cilia.
 Archaea are not known to cause disease in humans.  Protozoa have a variety of shapes and live either as free entities or
as parasites (organisms that derive nutrients from living hosts) that
absorb or ingest organic compounds from their environment. 
Fungi (singular: fungus) Protozoa can reproduce sexually or asexually.
 Eukaryote organisms whose cells have a distinct nucleus containing
the cell's genetic material (DNA), surrounded by a special envelope
called the nuclear membrane. Algae
 Organisms in the Kingdom Fungi may be unicellular or multicellular.  Photosynthetic eukaryotes with a wide variety of shapes and both
Large multicellular fungi, such as mushrooms, may look somewhat sexual and asexual reproductive forms.
like plants, but they cannot carry out photosynthesis.  The algae of interest to microbiologists are usually unicellular.
 True fungi have cell walls composed primarily of a substance called
chitin.

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 The cell walls of many algae, are composed of a carbohydrate

called cellulose. Algae are abundant in fresh and salt water, in soil,
and in association with plants.
 As photosynthesis, algae need light, water, and carbon dioxide for
food production and growth, but they do not generally require
organic compounds from the environment.

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1. Bacteria (cell walls contain a protein-
Viruses carbohydrate complex called
peptidoglycan)
 They are so small that most can be seen only with an electron
2. Archaea (cell walls, if present, lack peptidoglycan)
microscope, and they are acellular (not cellular).
 Virus particle contains a core made of only one type of nucleic
3. Eukarya, which includes the following:
acid, either DNA or RNA. This core is surrounded by a protein
coat. Sometimes the coat is encased by an additional layer, a lipid o Protists (slime molds, protozoa, and algae) o Fungi
membrane called an envelope. (unicellular yeasts, multicellular molds, and mushrooms)
 Viruses are considered to be living when they multiply within host o Plants (includes mosses, ferns, conifers, and flowering
cells they infect. On the other hand, viruses are not considered to plants)
be living because outside living hosts, they are inert. o Animals (includes sponges, worms, insects, and
vertebrates)
Multicellular Animal Parasites
TYPES OF MICROORGANISMS
 Multicellular animal parasites are not strictly microorganisms but
they are of medical importance. a) The rod-shaped bacterium Haemophilus influenzae.
 Animals are eukaryotes. The two major groups of parasitic worms b) Mucor, a common bread mold, is a type of fungus.
are the flatworms and the roundworms, collectively called c) An ameba, a type of protozoan.
helminths. d) The pond alga Volvox.
CLASSIFICATION OF MICROORGANISMS e) Zika virus (ZikV).

All organisms were grouped into either the animal kingdom or the
plant kingdom.

 In 1978, Carl Woese devised a system of classification based on

the cellular organization of organisms.

It groups all organisms in three domains as follows:

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 The period from 1857 to 1914 has been named the First Golden
Age of Microbiology. During this productive period,
microbiologists studied the chemical activities of microorganisms,
improved the techniques for performing microscopy and culturing
microorganisms, and developed vaccines and surgical
techniques.
 The Second Golden Age of Microbiology
 After the relationship between microorganisms and disease was
established, medical microbiologists next focused on the search
for substances that could destroy pathogenic microorganisms
without damaging the infected animal or human.

A BRIEF HISTORY OF MICROBIOLOGY  The Third Golden Age of Microbiology

• In 1665, after observing a thin slice of cork through a crude  Stephen Jay Gould said we now live in the “age of bacteria.” New
microscope, Englishman Robert Hooke reported that life’s DNA-sequencing tools and computers allow investigators to
smallest structural units were “little boxes,” or “cells.” Using his study all the DNA in an organism, helping them to identify genes
improved microscope, Hooke later saw individual cells. Hooke’s and their functions. Microorganisms can now be genetically
discovery marked the beginning of the cell theory— the theory modified to manufacture large amounts of human hormones and
that all living things are composed of cells. other urgently needed medical substances.
• Dutch merchant and amateur scientist Anton van Leeuwenhoek
was probably the first to observe live microorganisms through the
magnifying lenses of the more than 400 microscopes he
constructed. Van Leeuwenhoek made detailed drawings of
organisms he found in rainwater, feces, and material scraped
from teeth. These drawings have since been identified as
representations of bacteria and protozoa.
• The First Golden Age of Microbiology

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 1892 Winogradsky Sulfur cycle Robert Koch
CLINICAL BACTERIOLOGY
1898 -Shiga
LECTURE Shigella (1843-1910)
dysenteriae
1908 Ehrlich Syphilis Established
treatment experimental
1910 Chagas Trypanosoma steps for directly
cruzi linking a specific
1911 Rous Tumor causing microbe to a
virus (1966 specific disease
Nobel Prize

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 FIRST GOLDEN AGE OF MICROBIOLOGY
1857 Pasteur Fermentation CLINICAL BACTERIOLOGY - LECTURE
1861 Pasteur Disproved
spontaneous
generation Louis Pasteur
1864 Pasteur Pasteurization (1822-1895) -
1867 Lister Aseptic surgery Demonstrated
1876 Koch Germ theory of that life did not
disease arise
1879 Neisser Neisseria spontaneously
gonorrhoeae from nonliving
matter.
1881  Koch  • Yellow fever
Finlay • Pure cultures
1882 Koch Mycobacterium
tuberculosis
1883 Koch Vibrio cholerae
1884 • Metchnikoff • Phagocytosis
Joseph Lister
• Gram • Gram- (1827-1912)
staining Performed
procedure surgery under
• Escherich • Escherichia aseptic
coli conditions using
1887 Petri Petri dish phenol. Proved
1889 Kitasato Clostridium tetani that microbes
1890 • von • Diphtheria caused surgical
Bering antitoxin wound infections.
• Ehrlich • Theory of
immunity

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- LECTURE

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SECOND GOLDEN AGE OF MICROBIOLOGY 1980s Sanger and Techniques for virus in a patient
Gilbert sequencing DNA with swollen
1940s Fleming, Penicillin César Milstein
lymph nodes, the
Chain, and (1927-)
virus was human
Florey Fused cancerous
immunodeficiency
1950s Waksman Streptomycin cells with
virus.
H. Krebs Chemical steps antibodyproducing
of the Krebs cells to produce a
cycle hybrid cell that
Jerne, Technique for
grows
Enders, Poliovirus Köhler, and producing
continuously and
Weller, and cultured in cell Milstein monoclonal Youyou Tu
produces
Robbins cultures (single pure) (1930-)
therapeutic
antibodies
antibodies.
Beadle and Genetic control Tonegawa Genetics of Extracted
Tatum of biochemical antibody artemisinin from a
reactions production Chinese sage
Bishop and Cancer-causing plant Artemisinin
1960s Medawar Acquired immune Françoise Barré- Varmus- genes inhibits the
Sinoussi (1947-) (oncogenes) malaria parasite
tolerance
Discovered a

Table 1.1 Some Important Events in the Development of

Microbiology
Date Microbiological History Other Historical
Events
1838- Schwann and Schleiden, the Cell England issues first
1839 Theory postage stamp
(1840)

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1835- Bassi discovers that silkworm disease

1844 is caused by a fungus and proposes
that many diseases are microbial in Marx’s Communist
origin Manifesto (1848)
1847- Semmelweis shows that childbed fever Velocity of light first
1850 is transmitted by physicians and measured by Fizeau
introduces the use of antiseptics to (1849)
prevent the disease
Clausius states the
first and second laws
of thermodynamics
(1850)
1849 Snow studies the epidemiology of a Graham
cholera epidemic in London distinguishes
between colloids and
crystalloids

Melville’s Moby Dick

(1851)
Otis installs first safe
elevator (1854)
Bunsen introduces
the use of the gas
burner (1855)
1857 Pasteur shows that lactic acid
fermentation is due to a microorganism
Table 1.1 Some Important Events in the Development of
Microbiology
Date Microbiological History Other Historical Events
1546 Fracastoro suggests that Publication of Copernicus’s work
invisible organisms cause on the heliocentric solar system

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disease (1543)
1590- Jansen develops first useful Shakespeare’s Hamlet
1608 compound microscope (16001601)

1676 Leeuwenhoek discovers J. S. Bach and Handel born

“animalcules” (1658)
1688 Redi publishes work on Isaac Newton publishes the
spontaneous generation of Principia (1687)
maggots Linnaeus’s System Nature (1735)
Mozart born (1756)
1765- Spallanzani attacks
1776 spontaneous generation
1786 Mϋller produces first French Revolution (1789)
classification of bacteria
1798 Jenner introduces cowpox Beethoven’s first symphony
vaccination for smallpox (1800)
The battle of Waterloo and the
defeat of Napoleon (1815)
Faraday demonstrates the
principle of an electric motor
(1821)

1858 Virchow states that all cells come from Darwin’s On the 1885 Pasteur develops rabies vaccine First motor vehicles
cells origin of Species Escherich discovers Escherichia coli, a developed by Daimler
(1859) cause of diarrhea (1885-1886)
1861 Pasteur shows that microorganisms do American Civil War 1886 Fraenkel discovers Streptococcus
not arise by spontaneous generation (1861-1865) pneumoniae, a cause of pneumonia
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Mendel publishes his 1887 Petri dish (plate) developed by Richard

genetics experiments Petri
(1865) 1887- Winogradsky studies sulfur and Hertz discovers radio
Cross-Atlantic cable 1890 nitrifying bacteria waves (1888)
laid (1865)
1889 Beijerinck isolates root nodule bacteria Eastman makes box
1867 Lister publishes his work on antiseptic Dostoevski’s Crime camera (1888)
surgery and Punishment 1890 Von Behring prepares antitoxins for
(1866) diphtheria and tetanus
1869 Miescher discovers nucleic acids Franco-German War 1892 Ivanowsky provides evidence for virus First zipper patented
(1870-1871) causation of tobacco mosaic disease (1895)
1876- Koch demonstrates that anthrax is Bell invents 1894 Kitasato and Yersin discover Yersinia
1877 caused by Bacillus anthracis telephone (1876) pestis, the cause of plague
1895 Bordet discovers complement Rontgen discoveries
Edison’s first light X rays (1895)
bulb (1879) 1896 Van Ermengem discovers Clostridium
1880 Laveran discovers Plasmodium, the botulinum, the cause of botulism
cause of malaria 1897 Buchner prepares extract of yeast that Thomson discoveries
1881 Koch cultures bacteria on gelatin Ives produces first ferments the electron (1897)
Pasteur develops anthrax vaccine color photograph Ross shows that malaria parasite is Spanish-American
carried by the mosquito War (1898)
(1881)
1882 Koch discovers tubercle bacillus, First central electric 1899 Beijerinck proves that a virus particle
Mycobacterium tuberculosis power station causes the tobacco mosaic disease
constructed by 1900 Reed proves that yellow fever is Planck develops the
Edison (1882) transmitted by the mosquito quantum theory
1884 Koch’s postulates first published Mark Twain’s The (1900)
Metchnikoff describes phagocytosis Adventures of 1902 Landsteiner discovers blood groups First electric
Autoclave developed Huckleberry Finn typewriter (1901)
Gram stain developed (1884)

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1903 Wright and others discover antibodies First powered aircraft 1931 Van Niel shows that photosynthetic
in the blood of immunized animals (1903) bacteria use reduced compounds as
1905 Schaudinn and Hoffmann show Einstein’s special electron donors without producing
Treponema pallidum cause syphylis theory of relativity oxygen
(1905) 1933 Ruska develops first transmission Hitler becomes
1906 Wassermann develops complement electron microscope chancellor of
fixation test for syphylis Germany (1933)
1909 Ricketts shows that Rocky Mountain First model T Ford 1935 Stanley crystalizes the tobacco mosaic
spotted fever is transmitted by ticks and (1908) virus
caused by a microbe (Rickettsia Peary and Hensen Domagk discovers sulfa drugs
ricketsii) reach North Pole 1937 Chatton divides living organisms into Krebs discovers the
(1909) procaryotes and eucaryotes citric acid cycle
1910 Ehrlich develops chemotherapeutic Rutherford presents (1937)
World War II begins
agent for syphylis his theory of the atom (1939)
(1911)
1911 Rous discovers a virus that causes Picasso and cubism 1941 Beadle and Tatum, one-gene-
cancer in chickens (1912) oneenzyme hypothesis
World War I begins 1944 Avery shows that DNA carries The insecticide DDT
(1914) introduced (1944)
information during transformation
1915- D’Herelle and Twort discover bacterial Einstein’s general Waksman discovers streptomycin
1917 viruses theory of relativity Atomic bombs
(1916) dropped on
Russian revolution Hiroshima and
(1917) Nagasaki (1945)
1921 Fleming discovers lysozyme 1946 Lederberg and Tatum describe United Nations
1923 First edition of Bergey’s Manual Lindberg’s bacterial conjugation formed (1945) First
transatlantic flight electronic
(1927) computer (1946)
1928 Griffith discovers bacterial 1949 Enders, Weller, and Robbins grow
transformation poliovirus in human tissue cultures

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1929 Fleming discovers penicillin Stock market crash 1950 Lwoff induces lysogenic Korean War begins
(1929) bacteriophages (1950)
1952 Hershey and Chase show that First hydrogen bomb 1970 Discovery of restriction endonucleases
bacteriophages inject DNA into host exploded (1952) by Arber and Smith
cells Stalin dies (1952) Discovery of reverse transcriptase in
Zinder and Lederberg discover retroviruses by Temin and Baltimore
First commercial
generalized transduction 1973 Ames develops a bacterial assay for Salt I treaty (1972)
transistorized
the detection of mutagens Vietnam war ends
product (1952)
Cohen, Boyer, Chang, and Helling use (1973)
1953 Phase-contrast microscope developed U.S Supreme Court plasmid vectors to clone genes in
Medawar discovers immune tolerance rules against bacteria
Watson and Crick propose the double segregated schools
helix structure for DNA 1975 Kohler and Milstein develop technique President Nixon
(1954)
for the production monoclonal resigns because of
1955 Jacob and Wollman discover the F Montgomery bus antibodies Watergate cover-up
factor is a plasmid boycott (1955) Lyme disease discovered (1974)
Jerne and Burnet propose the clonal Sputnik launched by
section theory Soviet Union (1957) 1977 Recognition of archaea as a distinct Panama Canal
1959 Yalow develops the radioimmunoassay Birth control pill microbial group by Woese and Fox Treaty (1977)
technique (1960) 1979 Gilbert and Sanger develop techniques Hostages seized in
1961 Jacob and Manod propose the operon First Humans in for DNA sequencing Iran (1978) Three
model of gene regulation space (1961) Insulin synthesized using recombinant Mile Island
1961- Nirenberg, Khorana, and others Cuban missile crisis DNA techniques disaster 1979
1966 elucidate the genetic code (1962) Smallpox declared officially eliminated
Nuclear test ban 1980 Development or the scanning tunneling Home computers
treaty (1963) microscope marketed (1980)
1962 Porter proposes the basic structure for Civil Rights march on
immunoglobulin G Washington (1963) 1982 Recombinant hepatitis B vaccine AIDS first recognized
First quinolone antimicrobial (nalidixic President Kennedy developed (1981)
acid) synthesized assassinated (1963)
Arab-Israeli War
1982- Discovery of catalytic RNA by Cech First artificial heart
(1967)
1983 and Altman implanted (1982)
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Martin Luther King 1983- The human immunodeficiency virus Meter redefined in
assassination (1968) 1984 isolated and identified by Gallo and terms of distance
Neil Armstrong walks Montagnier light travels (1983)
The polymerase chain reaction
on the moon (1969)
developed by Mullis
MODERN DEVELOPMENT IN MICROBIOLOGY
 The groundwork laid during the Golden Age of Microbiology provided the basis for several monumental achievements during the twentieth century.
New branches of microbiology were developed, including immunology and virology. Most recently, the development of a set of new methods
called recombinant DNA technology has revolutionized research and practical applications in all areas of microbiology.

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1986 First vaccine (hepatitis B vaccine) Gorbachev becomes
produced by genetic engineering Communist party
CLINICAL BACTERIOLOGY - LECTURE
general secretary
approved for human use Bacteriology
(1985)
Berlin Wall falls  The study of bacteria. Began with van Leeuwenhoek's first examination of
(1989)
tooth scrapings.
1990 First human gene-therapy testing Persian Gulf War
begun with Iraq begins  One intriguing discovery came in 1997, when Heide Schulz discovered a
(1990) Soviet bacterium large enough 10 be seen with the unaided eye (0.2 mm wide).
Union collapse; This bacterium, which she named Thiomargarita namibiensis, lives in the
Boris Yeltsin mud on the African coast. The bacterium consumes hydrogen sulfide,
comes to power Mycology
(1991) which would be toxic to mud-dwell ing animals.
1992 First human trials of antisense therapy
1995 Chickenpox vaccine approved for U.S  The study of fungi. Includes medical, agricultural, and ecological branches.
use Fungal infection rates have been rising during the past decade,
Haemophilus influenzae genome accounting for 10% of hospital-acquired infections.
sequenced
1996 Methanococcus jannaschii genome Water found on the P arasitology
sequenced moon (1998)
Yeast genome sequenced  Is the study of protozoa and parasitic worms.
1997 Discovery of Thiomargarita
namibiensis, the largest known
bacterium
Escherichia coli genome sequenced
2000 Discovery that Vibrio cholerae has two
separate chromosomes
Immunolog 1933, when Rebecca Lancefield proposed that streptococci be
y classified according to serotypes (variants within a species) based
 The study of immunity. Jenner's first vaccine in 1796. Vaccines are on certain components in the cell walls of the bacteria.
now available for numerous diseases, including measles, rubella Streptococci are responsible for a variety of diseases, such as
(German measles), mumps, chickenpox, pneumococcal sore throat (strep throat), streptococcal toxic shock, and
pneumonia, tetanus, tuberculosis, influenza, whooping cough, septicemia.
polio, and hepatitis B. A major advance in immunology occurred in

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Virology  In the late 1960s, Paul Berg showed that fragments of human or
animal DNA (genes) that code for important proteins can be
 The study of viruses. Originated during the Golden Age of
attached to bacterial DNA.
Microbiology.
 The resulting hybrid was the first example of recombinant DNA.
 In 1892, Dmitri Iwanowski reported that the organism that caused
When recombinant DNA is inserted into bacteria (and other
mosaic disease of tobacco was so small that it passed through
microbes), it can be used to make large quantities of the desired
filters fine enough to stop all known bacteria. At the time,
protein.
Iwanowski was not aware that the organism in question was a
virus in the sense that we now understand the term. In 1935,  The technology that developed from this technique is called
Wendell Stanley demonstrated that the organism, called tobacco recombinant DNA technology, and it had its origins in two related
mosaic virus (TMV), was fundamentally different from other fields. The first, microbial genetics, studies the mechanisms by
microbes and so simple and homogeneous that it could be which microorganisms inherit traits. The second, molecular
crystallized like a chemical compound. Stanley's work facilitated biology, specifically studies how genetic information is carried in
the study of viral structure and chemistry. molecules of DNA and how DNA directs the synthesis of proteins

Recombinant DNA Technology

 Microorganisms can now be genetically modified to manufacture

large amounts of human hormones and other urgently needed
medical substances.

SELECTED NOBEL PRICES AWARD FOR RESEARCH IN Thomas H.

MICROBIOLOGY Weller, and
bel Laureates Year of Country of Contribution Froderick C.
Presentat Robbins

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ion Birth Joshua Lederberg 1958 United States Described genetic

l A. von 1901 Germany Developed a George Beadle, control of biochemical
ring diphtheria antitoxin and Edward reactions
ald Ross 1902 England Discovered how Tatum
malaria is transmitted Frank Macfarlane 1960 Australia Discovered acquired
ert Koch 1905 Germany Cultured tuberculosis Burnet and Peter Great Britain immune tolerance
bacteria Brian Medawar
l Ehrlich 1908 Germany Developed theories on James D. Watson 1962 United States Identified the physical
immunity Frances H C England structure of DNA
Metchnikoff 1908 Russia Described Crick, and Maunce New Zealand
phagocytosis, the A F. Wilkins
intake of solid
materials by cells François Jacob 1965 France Described how protein
xander 1945 Scotland Discovered penicillin Jacques Manod, syntheses is regulated
ming. Ernst England and André Lwriff in bacteria
in, and England Peyton Rous 1966 United States Discovered
ward Florey cancercausing viruses
man A. 1952 Ukraine Discovered Max Delbrick 1969 Germany Described the
ksman streptomycin Alfred D. United States mechanism of viral
s A. Krebs 1953 Germany Discovered chemical Hershey, and Italy infection of bacterial
steps of the Krebs Salvador E. Luria cells
cycle in carbohydrate Gerald M. 1972 United States Described the nature
metabolism Edelman and England and structure of
n F. Enders 1954 United States Cultured poliovirus in Rodney R. Porter antibodies
cell cultures
ato Dulbecco, 1975 United States Discovered reverse Niels Kai Jeme antibodies (single pure
ward Temin, transcriptase and antibodies)

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David described how RNA Susumu 1987 Japan Described the genetics
imore viruses could cause Tonegawa of antibody production
cancer
iel Nathans, 1978 United States Described the action Johann 1988 Germany Described the
milton Smith, United States of restriction enzymes Deisenhofer, structure of bacterial
Werner Arber Switzerland (now used in Robert Huber, and photosynthetic
recombinant DNA Hartmut pigments
technology) Michel
er Mitchell 1978 England Described the J. Michael Bishop 1989 United States Discovered
chemiosmotic and cancercausing genes
mechanism for ATP Harold E. Varmus called oncogenes
synthesis Joseph E. Murray 1990 United States Performed the first
l Berg 1980 United States Performed and E. Donnall successful organ
experiments in gene Thomas transplants by using
splicing immune-suppressive
on Klug 1982 South Africa Described the agents
structure of tobacco Edmand H. Fisher 1992 United States Discovered protein
mosaic virus (TMV) and Edwin G. kinases, enzymes that
bara 1983 United States Discovered Krebs regulate cell growth
Clintock transposons (small Richard J. 1993 Great Britain Discovered that a
segments of DNA that Roberts and United States gene can be
can move from one Phillip A. Sharp separated onto
region of a DNA different segments of
molecule to another) DNA
ar Milstein, 1984 Argentina Developed a Kary B. Mullis 1993 United States Discovered the
rges J.F. Germany technique for polymerase chain
ler, and Denmark producing monoclonal

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Kyla Yvette Aducayen - Bachelor of Science in Medical Technology (Year 2)
 reaction to amplify
(make
CLINICAL BACTERIOLOGY
Andrew Fire and - 2006
LECTURE
United States Discovered RNA
multiple copies of) Craig Mello interference (RNA), or
DNA gene silencing, by
Peter C. 1996 Australia Discovered how double-stranded RNA
Doherty and Switzerland cytotoxic T cells Harald zur 2008 Germany Discovered that
Rolf M. recognize Hausen human papilloma
Zinkernagel virusinfected calls viruses cause cervical
prior to destroying cancer
them Française 2008 France Discovered human
Stanley B. 1997 United Discovered and BarréSinoussi immunodeficiency
Prusiner States named and Luc virus (HIV)
proteinaceous Montagnier
infectious particles *** END OF LESSON 1 ***
(prions) and
demonstrated a
relationship between
prions and deadly
neurological
diseases in humans
and animals
Peter Agre and 2003 United Discovered water
Roderick States and ion channels in
MacKirron plasma membranes
Aaron 2004 Israel Discovered how
Ciechanover, Israel cells dispose of
Avram Hershko, United unwanted
and Irwin Rose States proteins in
proteasome!
Barry Marshall 2005 Australia Discovered that
and J. Robin Helicobacter pylori
Warren causes peptic ulcers

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Kyla Yvette Aducayen - Bachelor of Science in Medical Technology (Year 2)