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/ 26
Section I Bare Aluminum Wire and Cable
Chapter 3
Engineering Design
‘This chapter deseribes the principal design features of
bare uninsulated conductors; however much that applies
to bare conductors also pertains to the metallic part of in-
sulated or covered conductors which are considered in
Section IIL
“Many types of bare conductors are in use depending on
application requirements. They may differ in electrical and
physical properties, configuration, method of assembly,
fnd corrosion resistance. Certain’ general physical prop-
erties have been described in previous chapters. Detailed
physical and electrical properties of the various com-
mercial sizes of bare conductors are listed in Chapter 4.
For many years it has been the practice to employ code
‘words to identify and precisely define specific conductor
Constructions and designs (conductor size, stranding,
insulation type, voltage rating, neutral configuration and
size, number of phase conductors, type of assembly,
etc). In our text, code words are often used, as in the
example under Table 3.6 whercin the code word “Blue.
bell” identifies a specific cable, in this case a 1,033,500
mil, 37 strand, bare aluminum 1350 conductor. These
Code words are tabulated in Aluminum Association
publications “Code Words for Underground Distribution
Cables” and "Code Words for Overhead Aluminum
Electrical Cables.”
Symbols for types of aluminum conductors: AAC—
all-aluminum conductors (of 1350 aluminum); AAAC—
all-aluminum alloy-conductors (of 6201-T81); ACSR—
‘aluminum-conduetor steel-reinforced (steel wire rein-
forcement): ACAR—aluminum conductor aluminum al
loy-reinforced (high strength 6201-T81 wire reinforce-
ment).
Except as otherwise referenced, graphs and data in
tables are taken from Alcoa Aluminum Overhead Con-
ductor Engineering Series handbooks.
Mechanical Design of Conductors
"American Wire Gage (AWG)
This wire system,
and
is now standard for wire in the United States. Successive
AWG numbered sizes represent the approximate reduction
in diameter associated with each successive step of wire
drawing.
Fig. 3-1 shows typical full-size cross-sections, and
approximate relationships between the sizes.
Wire sizes of 4/0 AWG and
smaller also are often designated in cir mils. One cir mil
is the area of a circle 1 mil (0.001 in.) diameter; that is, the
area in cir mils equals diameter-in-mils squared.
‘Asoneemil = +/4sq mils (Eq3-1)
‘Area in cit mils = 1.2732 X 10° area in sq. in
Expressing diameter of wire D, in inches
D = 10°? emiloremil = 10°D™ (Eg.3-2)
“Thus a solid round conductor of 1.000,000 cir mis has
Stranded Conductors
Flexibility requirements for conductors vary widely. The
conductors accordingly may be cither lengths of single
wires of a stranded group of smaller wires arranged in
an)
Nominal AAG Ne EWS
Diameter. mils 10 101.9 3249 460.0
‘Area, cmils 100 10,380 105,600 211,600
Approximate Relationships
(1) An increase of three gage numbers doubles area and
weight, and halves de resistance.
(2) An increase of six gage numbers doubles diameter.
) An increase of ten gage numbers multiplies area and
‘weight by 10 and divides de resistance by 10
Fig. 3-1. Typical cross-sections of solid-round AWG-size
wires and approximate relationships. (Actual size.)
34 bare aluminum wire and cable
some regular manner. In either case, the total cross-
Sectional area of all component conducting wires deter
mines the AWG or cmil size of the assembled conductor.
Concentric-Lay Stranding
Most bare power conductors are in concentric-lay
stranded form; that is, a single straight core wire is sur-
rounded by one or more helically curved wires. The direc.
tion of twist of lay is usually reversed in adjacent layers.
All wires of a given layer generally are of same diameter.
The direction of lay is either right- or left-hand depending
fon whether the top wire of the helix extends to right or
left as the conductor is viewed axially in the direction
away from the observer. The length of lay is the axial
length parallel to the center line of the assembled
tor f the helix of a single wire.
the
former usually for bare-wire overhead applications and the
latter for covered overhead lines.
Still greater flexibility of stranded conductors, mostly
used for insulated conductors, are those with Class B,C.
D. or even finer strandings. These have more wires for a
given size of conductor than used for Class AA of A
stranding. Wires of softer temper than the usual hard
Grawn wires can be used. Added flexibility also may be
tained by using small braided wires or those in
uunched”” arrangement.
The stranding arrangement of each class is also specified
in ASTM Conductor Standards. Fig. 3-2 shows typical
examples of concentric-lay stranded bare conductors for
vari 28 of flexibility
in a compact
concentric-lay-stranded configuration. The design is de-
scribed in ASTM B 778, and the properties are listed in
Tables 4-10 and 4-11
Single layer 0.586 in, OD
vw 17/.1953, (Class AA)
Two layer, 0.593 in, OD
19/.1185, (Class A)
19)
Three layer, 0.594 in. OD
37/.0849, (Class B)
aw
Fig. 3-2. Typical Examples of Concentric Lay Conduc-
tors. All 266.8 kemil.(Mlustrations are approximately to
scale.)
3-2
TABLE 3-1
Strand Lengths vs Solid Conductor
Lengths for ASTM B 231
Incremental increase for
WeightanddcResistance
Of Stranded Over that
of Solid Conductors
Sizes 4,000,000 to 3,000,001 cmit 4%
Sizes 3,000,000 to 2,000,001 emit 3%
Sizes 2,000,000 emit or under 2%
Differences Between Stranded and Solid Conductors
Because of the helical path of the strand layers there
is more length of metal in a given length of stranded con-
ductor than in a solid round conductor of the same AWG
size, hence both the weight and de resistance per uni
length are increased.
‘or the standard i
increase listed in Table 3-1 (also from ASTM B
bewsed.
‘The tens¥€ load on a conductor is not always equally
divided among the strands. This effect can reduce the total
load at which the first strand breaks as compared with
that of a solid conductor of equal cross section. How-
ever, this effect is more than offset by the fact that the unit
tensile strength of commercially cold-drawn wire generally
increases as its diameter is reduced, as is evident by the
‘comparison for H19 stranded conductor in Table 3-2,
According to ASTM Standards, aluminum conductors
that are concentric-lay stranded of 1350 or 6201 alloys
n the various tempers have their rated tensile strength
(or minimum rated strength) taken as the following
percentages of the sum of the minimum average tensile
Strengths of the component wires, multiplied by rating
factors, as below
1) may
7 wires per conductor One layer 96%
19 wires per conductor Two layers 93%
37 wires per conductor Three layers 1%
61 wires per conductor Four layers 90%
91 wires per conductor Five layers 89%
(and over) (and over)
Similarly, the rated strength of ACSR is obtained by ap-
plying rating factors of 96, 93, 91, and 90 percent, te-
spectively, to the strengths of the aluminum wites of con.
ductors having one, two, three, or four layers of aluminum
wires, and adding 96 peccent of the minimum stress in the
steel wires at 1.0 percent elongation for cables having one
central wire or a single layer of steel wires, and adding 93
percent of the minimum stress at 1.0 percent elongation if
there are two layers of steel wires.
Alll strengths are listed in pounds to three significant
figures, and these strengths also apply to compact-round
conductors. Special Conductor Constructions @
Large conductors requiring exceptional flenibil
be of rope-lay construction. Rope-lay stranded
concentriclay stranded, utilizing component members
which are themselves ‘either concentric stranded or
bunched, Bunched members are cabled with the individual
components bearing no fixed geometric relationship be-
tween strands. Rope-lay stranded conductors may be
Stranded with subsequent layers reversing in direction,
Of may be unidirectional with all layers stranded in the
Same direction but with different lay lengths.
‘Some cables are designed to produce a smooth outer
surface and reduced overall diameter for reducing. ice
loads, and under some conditions wind loading. The
stranded cables are smoothed in a compacting operation
50 that the outer strands loose their circularity; each strand
keys against its neighbor and many interstrand voids dis-
appear. (Fig. 3-3) A similar result is commonly obtained by
se of trapezoidal strands that intertie with adjacent
strands to create a smooth, interlocking surface. (Fig. 3-7)
‘Another cable design, expanded core concentric-lay
conductor, uses fibrous or other material to increase the
Giameter and increase the ratio of surface area to metal
ross-section or weight.
they provide a more
‘economical balance between cable diameter and current
carrying capacity.
‘A “bundled” conductor arrangement with (wo or more
conductors in parallel, spaced a short distance apart, is
flso frequently used for HV or EHV lines. Although the
atio of radiating area to volume increases as the individual
Conductor size decreases, the design advantages of bun-
ling are not wholly dependent upon ampacity. Normal
radio interference, etc., and the usual controlling design
Characteristics are discussed elsewhere, but the current
Carrying capacity relationship is similar. Thus, two 795
kemil ACSR Drake under typical conditions of spacing
and temperature provide 24 percent more ampacity per
kemil than a single 1780 kemil ACSR Chukar.
Composite Conductors
Composite conductors, conductors made up of
strands of yo different materials, are used
TABLE 3-2
Strength of 1350-H19 Aluminum Conductors
jee ‘Strand
AWG Rated Strength, Lb
2 | Solid | 0.2576 1225
2. | 7 Strand | 0.0974 1350
2. |19 Strand | 0.0591 1410
Galealated from ASTM 8 230 and B 231
engineering design
Rope lay Concentric Sranded Conductor
‘Compact Concentric Stranded Conductor
‘Expanded Core Concentric Stranded Conductor
Fig, 3-3. Typical cross-sections of some special conductor
shapes.,
where the required strength is greater than the strength
obtainable with 1350-H19 grade aluminum strands. The
principal kinds of composite conductors are (1) 1350
Stranded conductors reinforced by a core of steel wires
(ACSR), Q) 1350 stranded conductors reinforced by alu:
minum-clad steel wires which may be in the core or dis
tributed throughout the cable (ACSR/AW), or (3) 1350
Stranded conductors reinforced by wires of high-strength
aluminum alloy (ACAR).
consists of a solid or stranded steel core sur-
founded by strands of aluminum 1350, Table 3-3 compares
breaking strengths of several all-aluminum stranded con-
ductors with ACSR and one of hard-drawn copper, all of
approximately equal d-c resistance. The principal eco-
‘nomic factors involved are weight, strength, and cost.
Historically, the amount of steel used to obtain higher
strength soon increased to become a substantial portion of
JACSR, but more recently as conductors became larger,
the trend has been toward use of a smaller proportion
of steel, To meet varying requirements, ACSR is available
3-3 bare aluminum wire and cable
TABLE 3-3
Comparison of Properties of Typical ACSR Conductor With Those
of Similar All-Aluminum and Hard-Drawn Copper Stranded Conductors"
de Re- ] Relative
sistance | Weight | Rated
Ohms per | tb per | Breaking
Size Strand- | Diam. | 1000 | 1000 | strength | strenath | conduc-
mil Type ing | on, | atz0re ft tb % tance
396,400 | 1sonts | 19 | 666 | costa | aise | esso ase | 4024
34500 | e20rtet | 19 | o721 | oost1 | ara | ssa00 78 | 1018
proee | wet | 907 | a7 | oosce | serr | i700 | sooo | ioe
— 211,800 | HD Copper | 7 | 0522 | o0st6 | 6533 | aise seo | 028
“Abstract trom ASTM Standards and industry sources,
Fra pars ata based on LACS % conductvits O61 2% for 13509; for sel: 52.5% fr €201-TB; and 97.0% for HD. Copper. so05-
#119, although inciuded in earlier exons ofthis handook,
has been deleted from this edton because iis no longer commercialy avaliable;
ee
in @ wide range of steel content—from 7% by weight
for the 36/1 stranding to 40% for the 30/7. Today, for the
larger-than-AWG sizes, the most used strandings arc 18/1,
45/7, 72/7, and 84/19, comprising a range of steel content
from 11% to 18%, and for the moderately higher strength
ACSR 54/19, 54/7, and 26/7 strandings are much used.
having steel content of 26%, 26% and 31%, respectively
‘Typical stranding arrangements for ACSR and high.
strength ACSR are depicted in Fig. 3-4. The high-strength
ACSR, 8/1, 12/7 and 16/19 strandings, are used mostly
for overhead ground wires, extra long spans, rivet cross.
ings, etc. Expanded ACSR, Fig. 3-6, is a conductor the
diameter of which has been increased or expanded by
aluminum skeletal wires between the steel core and the
outer aluminum layers. This type of cable is used for lines
above 300 kV,
The inner-core wires of ACSR may be of zinc-coated
(ealvanized) steel, available in standard weight Class A
coating or heavier coatings of Class B or Class C thick-
nesses. Class B coatings are about twice the thickness of
Class A and Class C coatings about three times as thick
as Class A. The inner cores may also be of aluminum
coated (aluminized) steel or aluminum-clad steel. ‘The
latter produces a conductor designated as ACSR/AW in
which the aluminum cladding comprises 25 percent of the
area of the wire, with a minimum coating thickness of
{0 percent of overall radius. The reinforcing wires may
be in a central core or distributed throughout the cable
Galvanized or aluminized coats are thin, and are ap-
plied to reduce corrosion of the steel wires. The condue.
tivity of these thin-coated core wires is about 8 percent
(ACS). The apparent conductivity of ACSR/AW tein.
forcement wire is 20.3% (IACS).
The incremental increase for de resistance over that of
Solid round conductors, because of stranding of ACSR,
3-4
differs from that stated in Table 3-1, and depends on type
Of stranding. The amount of increase also may be com.
uted according to a method described in ASTM B232.
Table V of B232 is reproduced on next page as Table 3-4.
A description of the method of computing rated break.
ing strength of ACSR found in ASTM B 232 is abstracted
in right-hand column of page 3-2.
ACSR/TW is a new design of ACSR composed of
shaped aluminum wires (Trapezoidal) stranded around a
standard steel core. It is fully deseribed in ASTM B 779
and Tables 4-19 to 4-22,
ee
Another form of stranded composite conductor consists
of 1350-H19 strands reinforced by a core or by otherwise
distributed wires of higher-strength 6201-T81 alloy.
The ASTM approved method for determining ACAR
rated strength is described in ASTM B 524 as follows:
(The mentioned Table 4 is that of ASTM B 524.)
(The rated sirenath of completed conductors shall be taken as
the aggregate sttenath of the’ (380 aluminum und. aluminum alloy
components calculated as follows. The strength contibution ofthe 1490
aluminum wires shall be taken a that percentage according to the
‘number of layers of 1380 aluminum wires indicated in Table of the
sum of the strengths of the 1350-H19 wires, calculated from thee
specified nominal wire diameter and the appropriate speced minim
le strength given in ASTM Specification B24. The
bution ofthe aluminum alley wires shall be taken 8 thet
Bereentage, according to the number of layers of shuminun alloy
dicated in Table 4 of the sum of the Strength ofthe alumnn,
Wires calculated from their specified nominal wite diameter snd ie
‘minimum stress as 1 percent extension, This shall be considered fo be &
BAIS.
&
SAMS.
12 alts.
6AITS.
Eo
18 AVIS.
a
24 AIT.
38 AI19 S.
26 AUT S.
54 AIS. 90 AUT S.
REESE
ESS
16 Ali9 S.
45 AUT S.
Fig, 3-4. Typical siranding arrangements of aluminum
cable steel-reinjorced (ACSR). The conductor size and
‘ampacity for any arrangement depends on the size of the
individual wires.
21 AUST S.
engineering design
195 percent of the minimum average tensile strength specified for the
wite diameter in Table 2 of ASTM Specification B 398. Rated strength
dnd breaking strength values shall be rounded-off to three significant
Figures inthe fra valve only
Because the 6201-T81 reinforcement wires in ACAR
may be used in the core and/or for replacement of some
of the 1350-HI9 wires in the strands, almost any desired
ratio of reinforcement 1350-H19 wires is achieved, thereby
obtaining a range of strength-conductance properties be-
TABLE 3-48
Increase, Percent, of Electrical Resistance
‘of Aluminum Wires in ACSR of Various Strandings
(Table 5, ASTM B 232)
J % de % de
Stranding | Resistance | Standing | Resistance
en 18 2277 25
an 15 a7 | 25
an 20 43/7 25
18/1 20 34/7 25
ger | 20 | 30
1207 25 | 16/9 25
247 25 30/19 278
25/7 25 54g 30
30/7 275 T6N9 30
aani9 30
‘The above resistance factors also are usually taken into account in
tables of de resistance for ACSR.
TABLE 3—4B
Strength Rating Factors
Extract from ASTM Specification B 524 for
Concenirie-Lay-Stranded Aluminum Conductors,
Aluminum Alloy Reinforced (ACAR)
‘Referenced in ASTM B 524 as Table 4)
a Rating Factor
of Wires | Number of Layers™ per cent
eortst | 580 Ter | 1380 @20e TRL
3 1 1 «(8%
4 a 1 8%
1 1 ' % 9%
4 3 ' 31 %
7 2 1 3%
2 2 rs)
wD ' 2 % 8
st 7 3 1 1%
8 8 3 2 v8
2 » 2 2 98
ae 2 3 Ot
n » 3 2 9 98
oR 3 3 3 1
a 2 3 ol
poses of determining sivengih rating factors. mixed
Considered to be full layers for each materia
3-5 bare aluminum wire and cable
KEY
© 128009 wee
Q s201.18 wie
41350
3.6201
15.1350 12.1350
4.6201 7.6201
30-1350, 24-1360 18.1350
7-6201 13-6201
96201
48-1360 42.1350
13-6201 19.6201
Strength/ Strength/ Strength/
Stranding Wt ratio Stranding, Wt ratio Stranding Wi ratio
43 26,000 30/7 21,800 48/13 21,600
1s/4 22,100 24/13 24,100 ag 23,500
12/7 25,100 18/19 26,800 34/7 20,200
Seon optoal stranding arrangements of aluminum cable alloy-reinforced (ACAR). Assuming the reinforcement ts
S201 TAI alloy, and that individual wires are lager than 0.150 in. diameter the strengthweight ratios are ac shown ithe
sirens are slightly higher if smaller wires are used). The strengthlwt. ratios compare rated strength per ASTM B04
and conductor weight in Ibift.
3-6 tween constructions of all 1350-H19 wires or those of all
6201-181 wires. Fig, 3-5 depicts several stranding ar-
Fangements of ACAR cables of 1350-H19 and 6201-T81
wires.
‘The rating factors for various strandings of ACAR
using 6201-T81 reinforcing wires arc shown herewith as
extracted from ASTM B 524, They are used as the basis
for calculating the properties of ACAR listed in Chap~
ter 4)
International Annealed
Copper Standard
GaH91 the International Electro-Technical Commis-
sion (ACS)
which in terms of weight resistivity specifies the resistance
of a li id dow re that weighs one gram.
Calculation of de Resistance
USA. practice is to express conductor conductivity in
19 « 0.0977" STEEL WIRES
4 0.168" ALUMINUMA WIRES
AH LAY 8 4x 0,168" ALUMINUM.
WIRES-RH. LAY
24 « 0.1591" ALUMINUM WIRES
LHL IAY
30 « 0.1597" ALUMINUM WIRES
RHLAY
Fig, 3-6. Air-Expanded ACSR. The size shown is 1595
kemil. OD is 1.73 in. The diameter of equivalent regular
ACSR is 1.54 in
engineering design
Fig, 3-7. Composite conductors similar to ACSR also may
be manufactured by using trapezoidally shaped strands
{a5 shown above for self damping conductor.
terms of percent International Annealed Copper Standard
(IACS) instead of in mhos (the unit of conductance).
Resistivity is expressed as follows
4
‘Volume Resistivity = ¢) = — R in which (Eq. 33)
zs
A = Cross-sectional area
L= Length
Resistance
Ww, 7
Weight Resistivity = 2R in which (Eq. $4)
L
W = Weight
‘These resistivity constants may be stated in whatever
form is required by the units used for area, length, weight,
land resistance, and if these units are used consistently R
may be obtained for any 4, L, or W, by inverting the
pL pelt
aan
as
equation; thus, from Eq. 3-3, R =
the case may be.
For USA practice, two volume resistivity constants® are
used (Table 3
representing the resistance in ohms of
‘ round conductor 0.001 in. diameter I ft long,
(GUGAW GTA, representing the resistance in ohms
of a conductor of I sq in. in cross-sectional area and { ft
long. This constant is sometimes multiplied by 1000 which,
provides ohms per 1000 ft.
he resistivity constants are based on ohms when conductor is
at ASTM Standand temperature of 20°C (68 F). Some tables are based
Shtemperature of 25°C Ise, new resistivity constrantscan be computed
for IC i considerable work is to be done (see Table 37) oF
1 temperature coefficient can be applied to the 20°C value of Ru 0
fbtain that for 28°C, 8 below.
Multiply the 20° value by
L3sp419 S2.0%FIACS 1.02038
ES0-HI9 GLOIACS 1.02015
GUT SASKIACSLOITM bare aluminum wire and cable
TABLE 3-5
Equivalent Direct Current (de) Resistivity Values
for Aluminum Wire Alloys at 20°C*
Volume Weight
Alloy Conductivity Volume Resistivity Resistivity
Percent Ohm-cmil Ohm-mm2 Ohms-in? ‘Ohms-tb
lacs per ft perm per 1000 ft er mile2
1950-19 612 16.946 .02817 0013310 435.13
6201-181 525 19.754 c.03284 0.018515, 507.24
Alumoweld 20.33 51.01 0.08481 0.04007, 3191.2
Stee! 80 128.64 0.21552 0.10182 95740
HD Copper 97.0 10.692 oor777 o.oosse7s | s02.27
“Abstracted and calculated from ASTM Standards.
For stranded conductors, resistance values obtained
by use of these factors are to be increated by the stranding-increment
ratio, per Table 3-1 for all aluminum conductors, or per Table 3.4A for ACSR.
Example: Find de resistance at 20°C of one
ductivity, allowing 2% stranding increment.
Applying resistivity factor from Table 36, 8 =
5280 x 16.946 x 1.02
mile of Bluebell cable of 1,033,500 mil area of 1350 of 61.2% IACS con-
= 0.0883 ohms
1,033,500
(68°F). Some tables,
however, specify which are related to
20°C values by the factors in footnote on page 3-7, or may
be read directly from Table 3-7.
Change of de Resistance with Temperature
c)
with ine
crease of temperature, this
Ril-+ ae: (T2— 7] (Eq. 3-5)
Resistance at temperature T;
Resistance at temperature T
1 = Temp, coefficient of resistance at T,
Temperature-Resistance Coefficients
Jor Various Temperatures
From Eq, 3-5 it is apparent that the temperature co-
efficient for 20°C cannot be used when the known re-
sistance is at some other temperature. For this condition
1
sS5 (Eq3-6)
=, + T= 20)
in which « = Temp. coefficient at T, deg C.
‘Temperature coefficient at 20°C
3-8
Example: The 200C remperature coelficien cx
TACS) alloy is 0.00408. What isi for 50°C?
Applying Eg. 3.6
for 1350 (61.2%
1
«9 = = 0.00360
1
+ (5020)
0.00404
For coefficients for other temperatures see Table 3-7,
Calculation of ac Resistance*
‘Skin effect is by convention regarded as inherent in the
conductor itself; hence when the ac resistance of a con.
ductor is stated, what is meant is the de resistance usually
in ohms, plus an increment that reflects the increased ap-
Parent resistance in the conductor caused solely by the
skin-effect inequality of current density.
effect results in a decrease of current density to-
ward the center of @ cylindrical conductor (the current
tends to crowd to the surface).
A longitudinal clement of the conductor near center is,
surrounded by more magnetic lines of force than is an
element near the rim, hence the induced counter-emf is
greater in the center element. The net driving emf at the
“Reports of resistance and Kvar reactive requitements for large-size
{ansmission tine conductors (single, twin, and expanded core) are in
AIEE paper $9-897 Power Appuratus and Sysiems, December 1959
by Earl urrent Carrying Capacity of
ACSR, February 1958, by H. E. House and PD Tuitle. Those
Dapets also reer extensively to the effect on ampacity of wind velecns
and temperature tise. For a complete listing of the formulas covesiog
‘these resistivity relationships see ASTM B 198, Table 3. TABLE 3-6
Temperature Coefficients of de
Resistance of Wire Materials
%, 20°C (68° F)
(Abstracted from ASTM Standards)
‘Conductivity | Temperature Coefficient =
Material | Percent IACS | _at 20°C per degree C
Aluminum
1950-H19 612 0.00404
6201-T81 525 0.00347
Copper (h-d) | 97.0 0.00381
Alumoweld 20.33 0.00360
Stoo! 9.0 0.00320
Example: The resistance of one mile of Bluebell strended
conductor of 61.2% (IACS} 1350-H19 at 20°C is 0.0863
Ohms. What is tt at 50°C?
Applying coefficient from Table 36
Figo = 0.9983 [1 + 0,00404 (50-20)] = 0.0980 ohms
center element is thus reduced with consequent reduction
of current density.
‘The ratio of ac resistance to de resistance (Ryx/Rue) is
almost unity for small all-aluminum conductors at power
frequencies, regardless of load current. It increases to
about 1.04 for the 1113.5 kemil size and to about 1.09
in the 1$90 kemil size.
‘The basic calculations of Rac/Rye ratio have been made
for round wires and tubes of solid material, and these
values can be obtained from curves based on such caleu-
lations or tests. Fig. 3-8 shows R../Ra- ratios for solid
round or tubular conductors, and they also may be ap-
plied for stranded conductors by treating the stranded cross,
section as if it were solid,
For use’of the curves of Fig. 3-8, Ra. is first obtained
and corrected for temperature. Ry. is then obtained from
the R,./Ree ratio read from the chart,
Example: Albaluminum Bluebell stranded conductor of 1350-H19
(612% TACS) bas de resistance of 0.0188 ohms per 1000 1 at
S0°C. What is its approsimate R/R,, ratio for 60 Hz
Substituting in equation at bottom of Fig. 3-8 on basis of ohms
per mile, and rr = 0.0,
‘Abscisa parameter ~ (60/(0.0188 x 5.28)" = 24.6 and RyRy. =
1.031 which compares witha valve from published tales of 17530."
‘Skin Effect in Steel-Reinforced
‘Stranded Conductors (ACSR, etc.)
The R,,/Ra:tatio of ACSR conductors that have an
engineering design
even number of layers of aluminum wires (2,4 ete.) may be
festimated from the curves of Fig. 3-8, provided r. is the
radius of the core andr, is the external radius.* By this
method, no accouint is taken of the current in the steel
core. Some tables include the effect of core conductance,
hence show a slight variation of ratio.
If the number of aluminum layers is odd (1.3, ete.),
the Ry-/Rye ratio for ACSR conductors is affected by the
magnetic flux in the core, which occurs because there is
fan unbalance of mmf due to opposite spiraling of adjacent
layers. In such conductors the core flux varies with load
current, hence the R,./Ra. ratio will vary with current
The effect is considerable in one-layer conductors, mod-
erate in 3-layer conductors, and it may be disregarded for
Slayer conductors and more. This effect is further de-
scribed and illustrated by Fig. 3-9and Table 3-84.
‘The comparison at 75% loading, shown in Table 3-8A
illustrates the effect of core permeability in the one-layer
JACSR whereas it has no effect in 2-layer ACSR. The
one-layer ACSR may be less desirable electrically and itis
‘sed mostly where high strength is required at the sacrifice
fof conductance and for small sizes, 4/0 and under.
‘The Ry./Ruc ratios for one-layer ACSR are obtained
from tables or curves that show test results at various load
currents.
Three-layer ACSR, as stated, similarly has the Rao/Ra
ratio affected by load current. However, the effect may
be allowed for by applying values from Fig. 3-9 which
shows the correction factor to be applied to the ratio
with varying load.
Example: A 88/7 ACSR conductor, Curlew of 1083.5 kemil has
dan Roy, rao of 1,025 at 25°C, 6 Hz, without repard to core:
Miugncuc eitect, What are the ratios for Toad currents of 200, 400,
Goer" Go0, and 1000 amp," respectively? See also footnote under
Table 3.8
From the upper curve of Fig. 39, values are tabulated in
col. th). and multiplying these values by the basic ratio provides
the desired ratio in col. (S) of Table 34.
Calculation of skin-effect ratios for composite designs
in which the steel reinforcement is located wholly or partly
away from the central core, or in which the steel is sur-
rounded by a thick aluminum coating is almost impos-
ible except for the simplest configurations. Consequently
such values are taken from tables that represent test re-
sults, Accepted catalog data for most commercial designs
are available.
Proximity Effect
When two conductors are spaced relatively close to one
another and carry alternating curfent, their mutual induc-
tance affects the current distribution in each conductor.
However, if the distance apart of the conductors exceeds
ten times the diameter of a conductor the extra PR loss
Frits equals ratio of diameters, it usually is more con-
venient to use diameters. which ordinarily can be’ read from
Conductor tables, ee footnote, Table 3-6
39 bare aluminum wire and cable
TABLE 3-7
Temperature Coefficients of de Resistance of Wire Materials at Various Temperatures*
‘oy ras08 201-781
Conductivity 612% 100s sam iacs
Tempe 0 0440 oars
1 oii ooase
2 ooeos ‘cose?
2s ooeee oss
20 oosee 000s
0 csr coset
so ose cosa
& oases casos
» 0328 236
% cases ee?
% 0918 overs
fe 100 0208 ‘ooere
“Calculated per NBS Handbook .109.
winarPle: The resistance of one mile of Bluebell stranded conductor of 1350-19 alloy at S0°C is mestured at 0.0990 ohms.
What is it at 209¢?
Anpiving the $09 coefficient from Table 37 in Ea. 35: A29 = 0.0990 [1 + 0.00361 (20 — 50)) = 0.0883 ohms
——
TABLE 3-8
Comparison of Basic and Corrected Rac/Rdc Curlew
Conductor
Te a a Te
(1) | Amps | Resistance | Basic | Corrected
Load | per | multiier | Rac/Rae | Ratio
emit x 106] Fig.3.7 | Ratio | (3) x (4)
194 1007 | 1.025 | 1032
388 1013, | 1028 | 1.038
581 1018 | 1.025 | 1.044
800 | 775 1022 | 1.025 | 1.048
[1000 | ao | tome | tee | tae
“H these current variations occur in a conductor when
‘ambient temperature is constant, the operating temperature
will increase with load, hence the basic Rye/Rye ratio must
be adjusted to reflect the variation of Rae with temperature,
Constants are available from the Aluminum Association that
facilitate this adjustment of Rac/Ru¢ ratio,
3-10
caused by this crowdin;
narily can be neglected,
less than I percent, hence ordi
Hysteresis and Eddy Current Efjects
Hysteresis and eddy current losses in conductors and
adjacent metallic parts add to the effective a-c resistance.
To supply these losses, more power is required from the
line. They are only important in large ampacity conductors
when magnetic material is used in suspension and dead-
end clamps, or similar items which are closely adjacent to
the conductor.
Usual tests that determine R,./Rs, ratios for conductors
a8 reported in tables of properties take into account any
hysteresis or eddy-current loss that is in the conductor
itself, so no separate estimate of them is ordinarily re-
quired.
The calculation of eddy-current and hysteresis loss in
adjacent metallic materials, (structures, housings, etc.) or
estimate by tests is beyond the scope of this book.
Radiation Loss
This component of power loss in a conductor is negligi- ‘engineering design
2-000
| 2010
Rec
Rac
conoycron el
ASR
RATIO OF AC TO DC RESISTANCE
OO 30S
507 Foe
Rag in ohms per mile
Fig. 3-8. Skin-effect factor for solid-round
3 bare aluminum wire and cable
TABLE 3-80
Comparison of R,./Ry. Ratios
for All-Aluminum and ASCR,
266.8 kemil, Single-Layer Conductors, and Equivalent 2-Layer Conductor
Resistance value in ohms per mile
Light Load at 25° 75% Load at 50°¢
Resistance | __Reststance Tg ig,
Conductor | stranding de 60 Hz Py Pac ae 60Hz | Ratio
1950-H19, 61.2% 7 oss9 0.350 1+ 0.204 0.386 | 1.005
lacs
ACSR (1 layer) 67 0.49 0.350 1+ osea osas | 142
ACSA (2 layer) 267 os49 os49 1 0.84 0984 | 1.00
ERE nnnnEaesanneataNEssnIERISROEIEEEEELT
ble at usual power frequencies; it becomes important only
at radio and higher frequencies. Accordingly no method
of estimating such loss is considered herein.
Corona*
Corona occurs when the potential of the conductor is
such that the dielectric strength of the surrounding air
is exceeded. The air becomes ionized and bluish illic
minated gascous tufts or streamers appear around the
conductor, being more pronounced where there are
irregularities of the conductor surface. The discharge
is accompanied by the odor of ozone, and there may
bea hissing sound,
Corona discharge from a bare
may interfere with radio and TV
carrier and signal circuits.
Bundled conductors are frequently used to obtain lower
voltage stress on the air insulation for voltages above
350 kV,
Inductive and Capacitive Reactance
conductor power line
reception, or adjacent
Variable current flow in an electrical conductor, either
as alternating current or as a transient of any kind, gives
rise to the parameters of inductance (usually expressed in
tillihentys) and capacitance (usually expressed in micro.
farads) and their related properties of inductive and
Capacitive reactance, usually expressed as ohms per mile
and megohm-miles, respectively, No energy loss is asso
Siated directly with these parameters, but the 90° out-of.
Phase voltage and current must be supplied to sustain the
magnetic and electric fields created, so a slight increase
“For further information regarding corona, see Standerd Handbook
for Electrical Engineers, McGraw-Hill Company, Sec. 1d. which aie
contains references to the vacious research papers, An excelent war
gn corona and EHV line design isthe EPRI Transmission Lt
Reference Bock, 345 kV and above,
3-12
of ER loss in the conductors occurs because of them.
Inductance and capacitance, however, influence system
stability in high-voltage lines to a greater extent than re-
sistance.
Only the reactances that are related to the conductors,
either as parts of a single-phase or a three-phase circuit,
are considered herein, The total system reactance also in.
cludes many factors not related to the conductors; among
them leakage reactance of apparatus, and the extent that
automatic tap-changing and power-factor control are used.
These system conditions are taken into account as a part
of circuit analysis for which a high degree of electrical
engineering skill is required, and their consideration is
beyond the scope of this book
Inductive Reactance
The inductance L of a circuit is a measure of the
number of interlinkages of unit electric current with
lines of magnetic flux produced by the current, both
expressed in absolute units. L also is defined by e~ L
(di/dd) in which difdr indicates the rate of change of
Current with time. L is the coefficient of proportionality,
and e is the momentary induced voltage.
‘The quantity X—2rf L, in which fis frequency in Hz, is
the inductive reactance, expressed in ohms, but in phasor
notation the inductive-reactance drop is perpendicular to
the resistiince drop; that is, the current 7 in a conductor
having both resistance and inductive reactance, but negli-
sible capacitance, and at unity power factor is
1 E/ (R + jX) in which j = Vector operator (1) %
(Eq. 3-7)
Emf, volts, to neutral
Current in conduetor,
amp
X = Inductive reactance,
obms
E
1 engineering design
ros
109 I
ae | Rif stranding
zs
SE 1.0
23
#2
[air stranding]
ral
[ pf +
Ecce erred
00k
205 200 200 305
CURRENT DENSITY
Too 1200, 7409 Te00
60 HZ AMPERES PER MILLION CMIL OF ALUMINUM AREA
Fig. 3-9, Resistance multiplying factors for threelayer ACSR for aluminum conductivity of 62% Without senior! over.
Tibse facts alo maybe used [or aluminum of 61.2% 1ACS conductivity. These data are used to reflect the incretse in resistance
due to magnetizing effects of the core.
Eo ere ee eee
Numerically (R + ix) = (R* +X?) and is desig
nated impedance, also expressed in ohms.
Normally, computations of R and X for transmission
ines are made, for convenience, on the basis of unit
lengths, usually one mile. Tables are set up in this manner.
‘The inductive reactances discussed herein and listed in
tables of conductor properties are suitable for calculations
of either positive- or negative-sequence reactance, as em-
ployed for usual transmission and distribution circuits
Zero-sequence values, as required for unbalanced condi-
tions or fault-eurrents, may be obtained by methods later
described, Inasmuch as zero-sequence inductive reactance
is the principal factor that limits phase-to-ground fault
Currents, its value is important in conductor selection.
Simplifying of reactance calculations is effected if the
reactance is considered to be split into two terms *(1)
that due to flux within a radius of 1 ft (%,) including the
internal reactance within the conductor, and (2) that due
to the flux between 1 ft radius and the center of the
equivalent return conductor—(Xa). A further simplifying
convention is that the tabulation of the latter distance is
the distance between centers of the two conductors instead
of the distance from one-foot radius of one conductor to
T First proposed by W. A, Lewis, See also W. A. Lewis and
B.D. Tulle The Resistance and Reactance of Aluminum Con
actors, Stee! Reinjorced. Trans. AIEE, Vol. 77, Part IIL, 1958.
the surface of the adjacent one; thus. there will be minus
X, values tabulated for distance between conductors that
are less than 1 ft apart.
Conductor spacing D for 3-phase circuits is the geo
metric mean distance (GMD) as later defined,
The sum of the two terms (X, + Xa) is the required
inductive reactance of the conductor X’under usual load
conditions. The values also are useful as a basis for caleu-
fating impedance under fault conditions (zero-Sequence)
Its to be noted that X, is an inherent conductor electrical
property, taking into account the reactance due to the flux
Sut to a distance of 1 ft {rom center of the conductor, and
is so tabulated for round, stranded, and composite con-
ductors, usually as ohms per mile. The values of Xs, how-
ever, depend on spacing of the conductors, and are un-
related to size of an individual conductor, Table 3-9 lists
‘Values of X at 60 Hz based on separation distance between
enters of the conductors, in ohms per mile. The value for
any other frequency is directly proportional; thus, for
25 Hz itis 25/60 of the 60-Hz value,
‘The conductor spacing for other than a simple two-con-
ductor circuit Is its geometric mean distance (GMD) in
ft A few of the usval arrangements and their GMD's are
shown in Table 3-10. If the spacing is unequal, the GMD
is a geometric average value which, however, usually is
satisfactory for preliminary calculations. Thus, in a flat
3-13 bare aluminum wire and cable
TABLE
39
‘Separation Component (X,) of Inductive Reactance
at 60 Hz () Ohms per Conductor per Mile
Separation of Conductors,
Inches z
weit ta iwi e tate lel.) = Te
g) = [03015] -02174) “o.r682| ~o.1393/ —o.1062| -0.0841] ~0.0854] ~o.0482) ~0.0340/ 0.02011 Zoo10e
+ ay | 20027} 9.0187] 0.0271) “o.cs4s| 0.0823) oodee| a.0880| 0.0820) 087s) sore) oes
2) Qogs1 | 9.0891] 10936] o.0986{ o.1o28| o.1071| o.11t2| o.t152| o1190| Gra27| Ure] oO oee
3} 01933 | 0.1366] 0.1309] 0.1430] o.1461] o.1491/ 1520] o.1549| 0.1877] O-1004| Gies| Cte?
4} 9.1882 | 0.1707/ 0.1732] 0.1756] 0.1775) o.1g02| 0.1825] o1847| 0.1800 otsot| ores) Oteey
8) 0.1963 | 0.1973) 01993] o2012| 02081] 02050] 0.2063} o.2087| O210s| O29) Gama) Osos
8] 02174 | 2181) 02207] 02224 2240] 02286] 0.2971] 0.2787| O2902| Gast] wane, Oate,
7) 0.2361 | 02376) 02390] 0.2404) 02418] 0.2491] o.24a5| O2458| O2472| O2iee| Gana) oot?
8] 02523
9| 0.2666
10] 0.2708 | From: Electrica! Transmission and Distr
11] 02910 | ton Reference Book, Westinghoute Elects —_——
12] eaots | Corporation, 1968,
13] o3ni2
44] G.z02 | (1) From formuta: at 60 H2
15) 0.3286 xd 2794 log, od
16| 03264 d= separation in fot 3-phase arrangement of conductors A, B, and C with
17] 03a 5 fe between A and B, 7 ft between Band C. and 12h
18| 03807 between A and C, the reactance voltage drop from any
19] 03673 conductor to neutfal does not vary more than 2.2% fromm
20) 03635 the voltage based on average D(A x Bx C)”, or 7.5 ft,
21| 03694
22) 0.3751 X, and Geometric Mean Radius (GMR)
23 0.3605 The calculation of inductive reactance to a radius of
24 | 03656 1 ft CX.) is aided by the factor GMR. which represents
25| 0.2006 the radius of an infinitely thin tube the inductance of
3] 0.083 which under the same current loading equals that of the
conductor. For non-magnetic material,
28 0.4043 1 _ i
29| oaoae
$0 |"Gatee X_ = 0.2794 — logy —— (Eq. 3-8)
31] 0.4167 aaa 60 GMR
32 | 4208 in which
33] o4za3 Xx = Inductive reactance to 1 ft radius, ohms/mile
34) 04270 =m
35/ 0.4314 f = Frequency, Hz
36 | 0.4348 GMR = Geometric mean radius, ft
2 | o4ase The GMR ot a single oid round conductors 0.7788,
S| pete in which r is radius of conductor in ft Fig. 3-10 te
40| 0.4476 ‘curve showing GMR for an annular ring.
41 | 0.4606 The GMR of a stranded conductor without steel rein-
42] 0.459 forcement or center voids is obtained by using the concent
43 | 0.4564 of concentric rings of solid round wires, each ring beige
44| 0.4592 a specified GMD apart.*
45] oasre
4s | oasis The GMR ofa stranded multsayer ACSR or an exe
inion panded allaluminum conductor with hollow ‘centers
48 | 0.4697
49 | 0.4722
*For methods of calculation see ref. at bottom of page 313. ary os 6 2 we
w
|ATIO. OF INSIDE RADIUS TO OUTSIDE RADIUS
Fig. 3-10. GMR of annular rings.
similarly based on the assumption of a hollow tube of
aluminum wires.
‘The GMR values (in ft) for the various kinds of con-
ductors are listed as an electrical property of the conductor
in the conductor tables herein.
‘The GMR values for single-layer ACSR are not con-
stant because the X, is affected by the cyclic magnetic
flux which in turn is dependent on current and tempera-
ture. The X, values for these conductors are experimentally
determined and made available in tables or curves for
various currents and temperatures.
‘The X, values for 3-layer ACSR is so little affected by
the variable core magnetization that it is customary to
ignore it, hence the GMR values for 3-layer ACSR are
included in tables of conductor properties in the same
manner as are those of other multi-layer conductors.
‘The following examples show the application of some
of the previous equations and the comparative magnitude
of some of the relationships.
Bluebell 1033.5 kemil stranded aluminum cable (overall
diam, 1.170 in.) is listed with GMR as 0.0373 ft and
5. as 0.399 ohms per mile at 60 Hz. Check the X, valuc,
‘and how much it differs from that of a solid round con-
ductor of the same diameter,
engineering design
TABLE 3-10
Values of Geometric Mean Distance, GMD
| conpucror
GEOMETRY
?
@.9
ws
c
| Symmetrical Triangle
c
Right Triangle A= C
| Unequal Triangle
—<
Symmetrical Flat
enac 8 ©
——¢—
Unsymmetrical Flot
ft A to B, 8 {TB to G and
GMDis (6 x 8 x 14)> = 8.76
Interpolating in Table 3-9
and from conductor table
(assuming Bluebell)
Total inductive reactance
of any conductor
cmp
Aor Bor
1122 A
a
1.264
AB/ RX BKC
Example: A 115-kv 3-phase flat-arranged circuit has 6
44 ft Ato C, hence Avg
ft.
1X. = 0.263 ohms per mile
1X, = 0.399 ohms per mile
X= 0,662 ohms per mile
3.15 bare aluminum wire and cable
Check of X,
1
%, = 0.2794 logis ——. = 0,399 which checks table.
0.0373
Comparison with solid round
1.170
0.0380 ft
GMR = 0.7788 x,
2x12
%
1
0.2794 X logis = 0,397
0.0380
‘A corresponding size of ACSR, Curlew, diam. 1.246 in.
is listed with X, of 0.385 and GMR of 0.0420 ft, thereby
showing the reduction of X, because of the hollow-tube
‘effect and increased diameter, as per Eq, 3-8.
‘The variation of X, for different cable constructions of
the same size, according to standard tables of electrical
Properties, is shown below for 26,8 kemil conductors:
Xe
Kind of Overall Ohms per
Cable Code Standing diameter ile
uminum — Daisy 7 oS86in. 0.489
Owl 7 0.633085 @ 400 amps
0.30 @ 200 amp:
0.48 @ 0 amps
ACSRtwo- Partridge 26/7 642s
layer
The increased diameter of Partridge as compared with
that of Daisy shows that X, is reduced 5%, but the one-
layer Owl has 18% greater ‘X, when fully loaded,
Inductive Reactance of Bundled Conductors
For increasing load stability and power capability in
high-voltage lines, each of the individual phase lines is
sometimes subdivided into 2, 3, or 4 subconductors but
the distance between the conductors of a phase group is
small compared with the distance between centers. of
the groups, The design of such a bundled-conductor
Cireuit is beyond the scope of this book. However, for
‘any such arrangement, the inductive reactances may be
found as per the following example, provided the in.
dividual conductors are the same size, the same group
arrangement is used for all phases, and skin and proximity
effects are negligible.*
Example: Consider the arrangement below in which each conducior
'sACSR 795 kemil, Code Drake, 26/7 stranding, 0H.
X, of Drake is 0.399 ohms pet mile
‘The average X, of a phase is 1/3 (0.0492 + 0.0492 +
0.0492) = 0.0492 ohms per mile, in which X, for
L.5 ft is 0.0492 ohms per mile (see Table 3-9).
The reactance to 1 ft radius X? for any group of 2 or 3
subconductors is
[/m) (X, — (m-1) X)} where m is the number of sub-
conductor’ in each group.
For 4 subconductors, X? is
[/m (X, = (m-1) X}) + X,
Hence, for 3 subconductors
= [600.399 — (2)0.0492)] = 0.1002 ohms per mile.
0.0105
2
As the distance between groups is compara
tively large, an approximation for 2° for a single group
is made by considering the inter-conductor distances d as
20 ft, 20 ft, and 40 ft, respectively, whence from Table.
3-9,
pd
Xa (0.3635 + 0.3635 + 0.4476) = 0.3915 ohms
3
per mile. The total inductive reactance of a single group
Xf + Xi = 0.1002 + 0.3915 = 0.4917
is thus x”
‘ohms per mile.
Ifa more accurate value of X} is desired (usually when
distances within a group are not small as compared with
phase distances), an average of all X, values for all dis.
{ances between individual conductors is obtained. Thus,
in the example there are 27 such distances. An X, value
from Table 3-9 is obtained for each of these distances,
then totaled, and divided by 27 to obtain an average X5
Zero-Sequence Resistance and Inductive Reactance
Zero-sequence currents (J,) that occur under fault con-
ditions are all equal and in phase, Hence they move out
simultaneously through the phase conductors and return
either through the earth or a combination of earth and
ground-wire return paths. Zero-sequence currents are the
three components of unbalanced phase currents that are
equal in magnitude and common in phase, Note that [,
flows in each phase conductor, and 3 /, flows to ground.
The influence of the earth return can be given by two
additional terms, an earth resistance and reactance, as
follows
1, = 02886 (in ahms per mie
“r= aa (6) maor700(2) a=
ners 288 ee
per mile at 60 Hz,
if pis taken at 100
(see Table 3-11)
(Eq. 3-10)
* See also AIEE papers 58-41 and $9-897, ibid. p. 3-8 footnote,
(Eq. 3-9) TABLE 3-11
Zero-Sequence Resistance and Inductive
Reactance Factors (FR, and X,)®
Frequency (f) 60 Hz
Frequency (A) oH
Resistivity (o,)
‘Ohm-meter
ohms per conductor
All values
1
5
10
50
100"
500
1,000
5,000
10,000
© From formulas:
a, - 0.2858 co
X,=0.4101 £109 77,760 © 0,
30 f
where f
%
* This is an average value which may be used in the absence of
definite information
frequency
resistivity (ohm-meter)
ac resistivity of the earth return path in
fohm-meters (the resistance between the
faces of a one-meter cube of earth). This
value depends on quality of the earth, and
is in the range shown in Table 3-11, but
an average value of 100 may be used in
the absence of definite information
in which p.
f= Frequency, Hz
In addition, the zero-sequence reactance and impedance
jis also affected by a mutual reactance term because of
nearby ground wires or circuits. The zero-sequence impe-
dance of one mile of a 3-phase transmission line without
{round wires, but with ground return, not including ca-
pacitanee effects, is
Zy= Ret Ret j(Ke+Xe— 2%) (Ea 1D
in which R,, = ac resistance in ohms per phase per mile
Reand X- are given by Eqs. 3-9 and 3-10 above
XX, and Xq are inductive reactances in ohms per mile
engineering design
of a single conductor, as previously noted,
or as taken from table.
Example: Consider the arrangement bslow in which conduct
ACER 795 kml, Drake, 60 Hz
From Eq. 39 Ry = 0.2858, and X. = 2.888, ohms per mile
(0.1370 ohms per mile at 75°
(0,399 ohms per mile
i
Xe = (0.3286 + 0.3286 + 04127) = 03566
ohms per mile in which Xe at 15 ft is
0.3286 and at 30 ft is 04127
Substituting in Eq, 3-11 for impedance 2.
1370 + 0.2858 + j(2.K88 + 0.399 —2(0.3566)) obms/
mile
4228 + j 2.5738 ohms/mile
2,608 angle 80 67°
Shunt Capacitive Reactance
In long high-voltage transmission lines the distributed
capacitance caused by the electric field between and sur-
rounding the conductors can attain high values which
markedly affect circuit properties; among them voltage
distribution, regulation, system stability, corona, lightning.
performance. and transients set up by faulting or line
switching.
The shunt capacitive reactance of a conductor system
b ma
DIC
In which if C is in farads; fis frequency Hz.
It is customary in engineering work to express shunt
‘capacitance in microfarads per mile and X’, the corre-
sponding reactance in megohm-miles, usually for 60 Hz.
The prime (’) is affixed to the X” to prevent confusion
with X-values that represent inductive reactance.
To obtain the megohms of shunt capacitive reactance
that controls charging current of a line longer chan one
mile, the listed megohm-miles value is to be divided by
Tength of line in mies; that is, for 100 miles of a line using
795 kemil 54/7 ACSR at a phase spacing of 20 ft, the
megohms of shunt capacitive reactance which determines
the charging current will be the listed 0.1805 megohm-
miles divided by 100 or 0.001805 megohms (1805 ohms)
Similar to the use of X, to represent inductive reactance
to radius of 1 ft and X, to represent inductive reactance
in the remaining space up to an adjacent conductor, the
total capacitive reactance similarly may be divided into
‘components as follows:
ohms (Eq. 3-12)
3417 bare aluminum wire and cable
TABLE 3-12
Separation Component (X“s) of Capacitive Reactance
at 60 Hz‘) Megohm-Miles Per Conductor
Separation of Conductors
inches =
el Oe aa ee eas cele aa
a =0.0737 0.0532 | -0.0411 | —0,0326| -0.0260/ —0.0206 0.0160) —0.0120 | —0.0085| —0.0054| —0.0026.
4} 524 29028) 9.0046] c.0066] “o.0085| “o.0103| a0120| ooras| ootse| eorea| ooree| 2.0028
2] 206] e218] 0.0229| 0.0281] 0.0251] aazsa| dozr2| oosae| oes) oolee| 2180) 099
3] @.0326/ 90334) o0342/ o.0360| o.0357| 00965] oos72| case] ooses| oasee| Coes) 0938
@] 90411) 00417) 0.0423) 0.0429) 0.0435] aoset| o.o44s| o.0852| Goss7| Ooms] Coes] 20405
8} 20478) o.o#82/ 0487} o.osse| o.0402| oosot| o.s0s| costa] Hose) ooccs| OoNe2) 90473
8} 20532 | 00836) 0540 ose] o.0s4e| o0ss2| ooses| ousso| aoces| oocss| CoS23| 0.0527
2} 0577} ocse:| see] o.ses| o.oso1| oosee! 0.059| oo60r| aosce| Occes| P0579] 9.9574
8) Oost att
9) Goss
19} 22883 | From: Electrical Transmission and! Distribu
12] 20711 tion Reference Book, Westinghouse Electrie
22| oors7| a
be stacoamis 0.0583 © 0.065 3 2), d,
Tg] 29783) 1) From formu: tor 0 He 7 be + OES Fat da =
15| 0080: ee : (Ea.
alt uees 24 = 0.06831 logyod in which
17] o.0841 4 = Separation in foot X’, = Capacitive reactance in megohm-miles per con-
18] oss ductcr
19) 0.0874 ‘1 = Overall radius of conductor, ft
30] see dy = Separation distance to return conductor, ft
21) 000s Frequency, He
23| 0.0030 The lefthand term of the above two-teom equation
2a| cosas represents X's, the capacitive reactance for | ft spacing
25) 0.0055, (Co It radi); the rghtchand term represents. Xe the
28| o.0907 separation component; both are in terms of meohmn ales
27| 0978 ‘These two values have been tabulated for 60 Hi, Those
a ae for X’, are listed in the tables of electrical properties of
conductors ar ot X"y in Table 3-12.
23} o.oase uctors and those for X's are in Table
31] o1019 Example: For 795 kemil Drake, Raids of conductor B06
a2] octees ot open
33) 01037 Sabian hetero 242
34] o.t0¥6 oo 7
2 leoame = 00688 og, = 006 x 13165 = 0013
38| 0.1063, mmeohmaies
37| o1071 24 00685 lope 20 = 0.068 x 12010 = 00818
38} 0.1079 Teohinentes -
38) 0.1087 = 0.1802 megohm-miles
33) 91087 ¥°.= 00913 00869 = 0.1802 megohm mi
a1] onto2
#2| ot109 Zero-Sequence Capacitive Reactance
43] one An added term E*, that affects zero-sequence capacitive
aa) ois reactance depends on distance above grand: I & repre
45] 0.1129 sented by
ae) ota =
47 0.1142 = 0.0205 © login 2 in which his height of con-
a] onia9 7 ductor above ground, f
49| 0.1165 | (Eq. 3-14)
3-18 ‘The zero-sequence capacitive reactance of one 3-phase
circuit without ground wires in terms of megohm-miles
per conductor
Xt, =X), + Xq— 2K, (Eq. 3-15)
in which the terms have previously been defined.
Capacitive Reactance of Bundled Conductors
“The shunt capacitive reactance of bundled conductors
‘can be found from equations identical with those used in
the numerical example relating to inductive reactance of
bundled conductors (page 3-17). except a prime is added
to each X. Thus (X’,)® and (X’a)® may then be used in
place of X’, and’) in the corresponding equations for
positive- or zero-sequence inductive reactance,
‘Ampacity of Bare Conductors”
‘The major considerations involving the current-carrying.
capacity (ampacity) of overhead transmission conductors
ore the effect of conductor heating by the current and the
Consequent reduction of tensile strength. Most aluminum
transmission conductors are hard-drawn and operate over
predetermined ranges of maximum. sags and tensions.
Fieating to relatively high temperatures for appreciable
time periods anneals the metal, thus reducing the yield
strength and increasing elongation. Hence the ampacity
Of such conductors is generally stated to be the current
Which under the assumed conditions of operation will not
produce sufficient heating to affect significantly the tensile
properties of the conductor,
Basic to the calculation is the establishment of an ambi-
ent temperature level, Obviously the ampacity is related
to temperature rise, and the amount of the latter depends
on temperature of the outside air,
Usual practice is to assume an ambient temperature of
40°C for overhead conductors, and the tables and charts
herein are on that basis, However, lower ambients will be
found in some applications, and the temperature rise for a
given operating temperature must be altered accordingly.
‘The usual maximum operating temperature for ten-
sioned bare conductors is 70° to 85°C, with 100°C and
over permissible only in limited emergencies.
Heat Balance:
‘Temperature rise in a conductor cepends on the bal
ance between heat input (ER loss plus heat received from
sunshine) and heat ouput (due to radiation from the con-
ductor surface, and transfer because of convection of air
currents). The heat loss arising from metallic conduction
to supports is negligible, so is ignored, When the tempera
ture of the conductor rises to the point where heat output
7 Conductor ampacity has been reported extensively by Schurig
and Frick, W. H. MeAdams, House and Tuttle and others, and
inir resulis checked by test programs. The brief treatment herein
Ritstracted from many sources, principally the Alcoa Aluminum
‘Overhead Conductor Engineering Dats book: Section 6.
engineering design
‘equals heat input the temperature remains steady. and the
‘current for such condition is the ampacity for that tempera-
ture under the stated conditions.
‘The factors of importance that affect ampacity for a
given temperature are wind velocity. conductor surface
emissivity, atmospheric pressure (which affects ampacity
at high altitudes). and of course the ambient temperature,
Neglecting sunshine heat input, the heat balance may be
expressed as
ER = (We + W,) A, both terms in watts/linear ft
(Eq. 3-16)
and in which
W. = Convection loss, watts/sq in. of conductor
surface
W, — Radiation loss, watts/sq in. of conductor surface
‘A = Surface area of conductor per ft of fength, sq in.
Reg — Total effective resistance per ft of conductor.
‘ohms, including the resistance-equivalent of
pertinent components of loss under a-c con
Gitions, (skin and proximity effects. reactance
components, ete.)
which reduces to
(Eq. 3-16a)
in which d = Outside diameter of conductor, in.
1 = Carrent for balanced condition (the
ampacity), amp
“The convection heat loss W depends on wind velocity,
temperature rise, and atmospheric pressure (altitude). The
radiation heat loss H, is considered to depend on tempera
ture rise and an emissivity constant ¢ that expresses the
ability of the conductor to radiate internal hea
‘A perfect non-radiative surface would have « = 0, and
1 body that radiates all heat would have « = The emis
Sivity factor « for aluminum conductor surfaces, depends
Gn the degree of oxidation and discoloration of surface,
its roughness, and the stranding. Newly installed conduc-
tors may have « as low as 0.23, and may be 0.90 after
being well-blackened after years of service. A. value of
«0.5 provides a safety factor for the majority of ex
posed conductors which have been installed for several
Sears, This value (c= 0.5) is used for the tables and
Curves herein, which also show values based on a eross-
wind of 2 ft per sec (1.36 miles per fir) as well as for
still but unconfined air (Figs. 3-11 et see.
“The effect of sunlight and altitude as well as of varia-
tions of emissivity constants are shown by small auxiliary
curves of Fig. 3-15.
“The various factors entering the heat balance equations
Ihave been summarized by one conductor engineering
group into the following:
1. Convection Heat Loss (W.) for 2 ft/see wind, at
Sea level for 60°C rise above 40°C ambient
3-19 bare aluminum wire and cable
TABLE 3-13
ings for High-Strength ACSR with Single Layer of
Aluminum Strands 40 C ambient ¢ = 05 emissivity; no sun.
] rent in Ampere
toe | tee Temp Rie [Temp ie | Tomp Rie
tow | nh Standing winscondiion | "te. | soe ec
| : : piety
Grouse | 80,000 BAI- 1 St. 2 ft per sec 106 178 236
20,000 sais. | Sula 2 | in 106
Peel 101,800 ran 78 2itpersee | on 263
| 101.800, va 7s. | Stair 75 133 190
Minorca | 110,800 wana 7s. | 2 iepersee we | oan 2
110.800 2a 75¢ stil Ai 70 | ta 201
Leghorn) 134600 12-75 2 fpr sec we | 230 a
| t3teo0 Ware | Salar | tee 231
Guinea | 159,000 waa 7s. | 2tepersee 1 | 266 382
| 59000 aA 784 suit to# 12 202
Dotter! | 176.800 2a 78¢ 2 fe per see me | 265 om
176200 wa 7s. | Siar mm 106 280
Por 190,800 12Al- 78 2feper sec 187 300 304
190,800 aa 78t Sti Ai | 8 26
Cochin | 211300 rea 751 2 ft parse 10 | a0 22
211,300 12Al— 7 St. ‘Still Air | 126 223 318
Brahma | 208200 t6al-198% 21 per sc 1 | 01 30
203,200 reatest. | su ar 10 | 20 236
Secreta
0.5388 (1.01 4 43.22 d “2) watts per ft of
length for d up to 1.6 in. diameter (Eq. 3-17)
22.15 d?* watts per ft of length for d 1.6 in.
diameter and over (Eq. 3-18)
2. Convection Heat Loss (W.) for still air, at sea level
W. (still) = 0.072 a7 A 1.1% watts per ft of
length in which A 1, is temperature rise above
ambient (Eq, 3-19)
3. Radiation Heat Loss (W,) for 60°C tise above
40°C ambient
W, = 6.73 d watts per ft of length for « = 0.5 (an
average emissivity for weathered conductors)
(Eq. 3-20)
4. Sun Heat Gain (W,)—to be subtracted from (W.
++ W,) in the above equations.
0 d watts per ft of length for mid latitudes
(Eq. 3-21)
Af the ambient temperature is less than 40°C, a small
change in ampacity for a given temperature rise may be
obtained because the resistance of the conductor is less
(because of its reduced temperature). However, at the
lower ambient and the same temperature rise, the radiated
heat loss is less. The net result is that the current for a
siven temperature is little changed over a considerable
‘ange of ambient temperature,
Ampacity of 1359-H19 All-Aluminum Conductor
‘and Standard-Strength ACSR Conductors
Ampacity graphs for 1350 all-aluminum conductors,
and Standard-Strength ACSR are shown in Figs. 3-11,
12, 13, and 14 for still air and for 2fps wind at 400C
ambient for « =0.50 and 62% TACS aluminum without
sunlight effect. For 61.2% IACS multiply by 0.994.
‘Small graphs of multiplying factors for sunlight, altitude,
and emissivity corrections are shown in Fig. 3-15. The
W. and W, values for 600C rise are from Eqs. 3-17, -18,
‘and -20. The slope of the lines from the 60°C values is
based on experimental data, Ampacity of Single-Layer High-Strength
ACSR Conductors
Table 3-13 can be used for ampacity values for high-
strength ACSR in larger-than-AWG sizes for 10°, 30°,
and 60°C rise, Values for intermediate temperatures may
be obtained by plotting these values on log-log paper simi-
Jar to that used for Figs. 3-13 and 3-14,
Ampacity of 6201-181 and
‘ACAR Conductors
Inasmuch as heat loss for a given temperature rise is
proportional to conductor surface (or diameter) and heat
input is proportional to I°R, the ampacity of any conductor
of conductivity other than 62% IACS is found closely
per the following example:
Find ampacity in still air for 30°C rise of 394.5 kemil
(0.684 in. diam.) cable of 6201-T81 of 52.5 % IACS con-
ductivity
By interpolating in Fig. 3-11, the ampacity of 62% LACS
1350 conductor of same diameter (if it could be ob-
tained) would be 320 amp. Hence, the ampacity at
52.5% IACS is 320 X (52.5/62.0)"; or 294 amp."
For ACAR which has wires of two conductivities, the
‘equavalent conductivity value is used; thus, for 42/19
ACAR (1350 and 6201-T81) of 1.165 in. outside diameter,
the % IACS conductivity of the ACAR conductor, if the
1350 wires are 61.2%» LACS, is
(42 K 61.2 + 19 X $2.5)/61 = 58.5% [ACS
Examples of Ampacity Values Obtained from Figs. 3-11
to 15 Incl.
‘The following typical examples illustrate the use of the
various graphs:
1. Cable size 795 kemil ACSR 267 stranding,
0.50, diam. 1.1 in, approx., wind of 2 ft per sec.
What is ampacity for 35°C rise, or 75°C operating,
temperature?
At top of Graph Fig, 3-14 note the diagonal tine that
The method described is based solely on comparative I°R loss,
and the values oblained are conservative. If correction is made
for the slight change of Rue/Rue ratio caused by change of in-
Guctance, a slight increase of ampacty, of the order of 1% oF 2%
in this instance is obtained,
engineering design
extends downward from the designated size. It intersects
the 35°C rise horizontal at 835 amp, which is the am-
pacity for the stated conditions,
2. For the cable of Example 1, what is ampacity if
altitude is 10.000 ft with sun, and with emissivity
factor reduced to 0.23?
Note: The multiplying factors of Fig. 3.18 are to be used. These
Strictly are applicable only for 100°C operating temperatures
but inasmuch as the ampacity diagonals on Fig. 3-13 are almost
Sraight line, iti satisfactory 10 apply the multiplying factors
Gireetly to the 35°C rise ampacity of £35 amp.
‘The altitude factor with sun is taken from the left-hand
iagram of Fig, 3-1SD as being 0.83 (approx) for 1.1 in.
diam., and the emissivity factor taken from the right-hand
iagram with sun for « = 0.23 is 0.90. The desired am-
pacity is 835 0.83 0.90 = 630 amp.
Note: If the multiplying factors are applied 10 the 60° Rise
‘ampacity, for conditions stated in Example 1, the unadjusted
fampacity is 1080 amperes. After applying the multiplying fac:
tors this reduces to 1080 X O83 x 0.90 = 785 amp. Entering
Fig, 3-14 et intersection of 60°C rise and 78S amp, and follow
ing down an imaginary diagonal that is parallel 10 an adjacent
Giagonal, itis noted that chs intersects the 35°C line at 630
lamp, the same value a5 previously obtained.
Emissivity Limitations for Figs. 3-11 10 3-14
‘An emissivity of ¢ = 0.5 is the maximum assumed for
‘weathering conditions at high altitudes (10,000 ft). The
maximum assumed emissivity for a fully weathered con-
ductor in normal altitude is 0.91,
Conductor Economics
‘The high cost of energy and generation facilities has
made it very important that power losses be evaluated
When selecting the correct conductor size to be used in
a given project. Construction and energy costs have
increased dramatically during the past decade, and this
tend seems likely to continue. The Aluminum Associ-
ation publication, ““The Evaluation of Losses in Conduc-
tors,” provides details on how such an economic analysis
could be done.
3-21 bare aluminum wire and cable
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0.5. For 61.2% IACS, multiply values by 0.994. No Sun-Sea Level.
For multiplying factors for various sun and emissivities, and for high altitudes, see Fig. 3-15, Chart C. design
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3-25 bare aluminum wire and cable
Chart A Chart B
o-Alliude Effect b. EmiivnyEffect —c.Lminvity fect a. Alltude Effect bEmisivity Elfech cEmisvity Effect
ares ete ay {Og isateet P Epiivity EHFeet cris
25 = Poon 2 2 a
s U BT] § oto a0
ea :
E aq ao
i. | | i
Egos Bas 7
3 No] sf na
sé ; sé x4
8 2 of 41% I 8 Zool te
zl Sin ass fos [feo] aaah | for 8 Ise aa] bo} foad) in
2 os z os
dl ol
30-70 30. TOO TE Tad 859 cs 3S 0S TIS 900
7595795 85°95. 103 UIs 90°90" 10 8090 100 9010010" 8598
A=For stranded 1350 in still air. Fig. 3-11.
B—For stranded 1350-wind 2 fps. Fig. 3-12.
Chart C Chart D
« Alityde Elect Seine