CERAMICS

Structures, Properties, and Applications

Ceramic materials are inorganic and non-metallic materials. They are mostly compounds
comprising both metallic and non-metallic elements. Interatomic bonds are either totally
ionic, or predominantly ionic but having some covalent character. Ceramics can be broadly
categorised into:

(i) Traditional ceramics, which are primarily derived from clay and they include
china, porcelain, bricks, tiles, glasses, and abrasive wheels.
(ii) Industrial ceramics, which are also known as engineering, high-tech, or fine
ceramics. Examples include turbine, automotive, and aerospace components;
heat exchangers; semiconductors; seals; prosthetics; and cutting tools.

The ionic bond present in ceramics has tremendous influence on their properties.
Properties, such as hardness, thermal resistance, and electrical resistance are significantly
higher in ceramics than in metals. Ceramics can be produced as single-crystal or
polycrystalline. Their grain size has a major influence on their strength and properties; the
finer the grain size (hence the term fine ceramics), the higher the strength and toughness.

Clay is the oldest raw material for making ceramics. The most common example kaolinite, a
white clay consisting of silicate of aluminium with alternating weakly bonded layers of
silicon and aluminium ions. The addition of water to kaolinite makes its layers slippery and
this makes the clay soft and plastic (mouldable). Other natural major raw materials for
ceramics are flint (a rock composed of very fine-grained silica, SiO2) and feldspar (a group of
crystalline minerals consisting of aluminium silicates and potassium, calcium, or sodium).
Table 1 shows some ceramics and their characteristics.

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 Table 1: Types of ceramics, characteristics, and applications [5]

Type Characteristics and applications

Oxide ceramics
Alumina High hardness and moderate strength; most widely used ceramic; cutting
tools; abrasives; electrical and thermal insulation.

Zirconia High strength and toughness; thermal expansion close to cast iron; suitable
for high temperature applications.

Silica High-temperature resistance; quartz exhibits piezoelectric effect; silicates

containing various oxides are used in high-temperature non-structural
applications.
Carbides
Tungsten carbide Hardness, strength, and wear resistance depend on cobalt binder content;
commonly used for dies and cutting tools.
Titanium carbide Not as tough as tungsten carbide; has nickel and molybdenum as the binder;
used as cutting tools.
Silicon carbide High-temperature strength and wear resistance; used for heat engines and
as abrasives.
Nitrides
Cubic boron nitride Second-hardest substance known, after diamond; used as abrasives and
cutting tools.
Titanium nitride Gold in colour; used as coatings because of low frictional characteristics
Silicon nitride High resistance to creep and thermal shock; used in high-temperature
applications.
Sialon Consists of silicon nitrides and other oxides and carbides; used as cutting
tools.
Cermets Consist of oxides, carbides, and nitrides; used in high-temperature
applications.
Glasses Contain at least 50 percent silica; amorphous structures; several types
available with a wide range of mechanical and physical properties.
Glass ceramics Have a high crystalline component to their structure; good thermal-shock
resistance and strong.
Graphite Crystalline form of carbon; high electrical and thermal conductivity; good
thermal-shock resistance.
Diamond Hardest substance known; available as single crystal or in polycrystalline
form; used as cutting tools and abrasives and as dies for fine wire drawing.

Carbon nanotubes Unique crystalline form of graphite, with high electrical and thermal
conductivity; under investigation for MEMS and microelectronics
applications and in composite materials

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 Processing of Ceramics

(i) Fabrication and Processing of Glasses and Glass–Ceramics

Glass processing requires high temperature. There are four major glass-forming
techniques, which are pressing, blowing, drawing, and fibre forming.
Pressing is used in the fabrication of relatively thick-walled pieces such as plates
and dishes. The glass product is formed by applying pressure to the raw material
placed inside a graphite-coated cast iron mould having the desired shape. To
ensure an even surface, the mould is usually heated.
Blowing is used for fabricating many art objects, glass jars, bottles, and light
bulbs. Some glass blowing is still done manually, although automation is now
common in the industry.

Figure 13: The press-and-blow technique for producing a glass bottle [3]

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 Figure 13 shows the steps involved in the fabrication of a glass bottle. A raw gob
of glass (also called parison) is mechanically pressed in a mould. This piece is
then introduced into a finishing or blow mould, where pressurized air is applied
to make the piece take the shape of the mould.
Drawing is used to form long glass pieces such as sheet, rod, tubing, and fibres,
which have a constant cross section. Fibres are formed by drawing the molten
glass through many small orifices.
Mechanical properties may be enhanced by annealing and/or tempering
treatments.

(ii) Fabrication and Processing of Clay Products

Hydroplastic forming and slip casting are the two major fabrication techniques
for clay products.
Hydroplastic forming of clay is accomplished by the addition of water. Clay
minerals, when mixed with water, become highly plastic and can be easily
shaped without cracking. Water/clay ratio (consistency) must be regulated so
that the product has sufficient yield strength to maintain its shape during
handling and drying. One of the commonest Hydroplastic forming method is
extrusion, a process where a stiff plastic mass of the clay-water mixture is forced
through a die orifice having the desired cross-sectional geometry (this is similar
to the extrusion of metals). Products fabricated by extrusion include brick, pipe,
ceramic blocks, and tiles.

Slip casting
A slip is a suspension of clay and/or other non-plastic materials in water. When
the slip is poured into a porous mould (usually from plaster of Paris), water is
absorbed into the mould and a solid layer is formed on the wall of the mould.
The thickness of the material deposited is dependent on time.
After forming, the body is dried and later fired at a high temperature to reduce
porosity and enhance strength.

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 (iii) Powder pressing and sintering
Other than the forming techniques briefly examined above, powder pressing is
another important and common forming method. This technique is analogous to
powder metallurgy, and it can be used for forming both clay and nonclay
compositions, including electronic and magnetic ceramics as well as some
refractory brick products.
In powder pressing, a powder mass (with some water or other additives or
binder) is compacted into a desired shape by applying pressure. The three
fundamental powder-pressing techniques are uniaxial, isostatic (or hydrostatic),
and hot pressing.
Except for hot pressing, uniaxial and isostatic powder pressing require a sintering
operation. During sintering, the powder particles of the formed piece coalesce to
form a denser mass. This is accompanied by shrinkage, reduction in porosity, and
enhancement in mechanical properties. The driving force for sintering is the
reduction in total particle surface area. Sintering is usually carried out below the
melting temperature, although some variants may involve the formation of a
liquid phase (e.g. liquid-phase sintering).

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 POLYMERS
Structures and properties

Plastics are used synonymously to polymers. Polymers have very large molecules. A polymer
can be defined as “a macromolecule with high molecular mass resulting from the joining of a
large number of simple /smaller molecules called monomers”. Many consumer and industrial
products are derived from polymers, such as food and beverage containers, packaging,
signs, housewares, housings for computers and monitors, textiles (clothing), medical
devices, foams, paints, safety shields, toys, appliances, lenses, gears, electronic and
electrical products, and automobile bodies and components. Due to properties such as
lightweight, transparency, low cost, corrosion resistance, high strength-to-weight ratio, ease
of manufacturing and shaping, and availability in many colours, polymers are increasingly
replacing metals in many applications.

Classification of polymers
Polymers can be classified into different groups based on:
1. Source
(i) Natural polymers (from animal and vegetable products) e.g. cellulose, chitin,
etc.
(ii) Synthetic polymer (usually from coal and petroleum) e.g. polyethylene,
phenol formaldehyde, Bakelite, etc.

2. Functionality/degree of polymerization (number of reactive bonds or groups that

are available for coupling or polymerization)
(i) Monofunctional
(ii) Bifunctional
(iii) Trifunctional
(iv) Polyfunctional
3. Response to heat (ability to be re-formed upon heating)
(i) Thermosets
(ii) Thermoplastic
4. Physical structure (arrangement of the monomer units)
(i) Linear polymers

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 (ii) Branched-chain polymers
(iii) Network or gel polymers
5. Chemical reactions/preparation methods (loss or retention of small molecules
during reaction).
(i) Condensation polymers
(ii) Addition polymers
(iii) Cross-linked polymers

Forming Techniques for Polymers

Fabrication of polymeric materials normally occurs at elevated temperatures and often by

the application of pressure. Moulding is the most common method for forming plastic
polymers. There are several moulding techniques, such as compression, transfer, blow,
injection, and extrusion moulding.

General properties and applications

Table 2: Trade names, characteristics, and typical applications of polymeric materials [3]

Material Type Trade Names Major Application Typical Applications

Characteristics
Thermoplastic Polymers
Acrylonitrile- Abson Outstanding strength and Refrigerator linings,
butadiene-styrene Cycolac toughness, resistant to lawn and garden
(ABS) Kralastic heat distortion; good equipment, toys,
Lustran electrical properties; highway safety
Novodur flammable and soluble in devices
Tybrene some organic solvents
Acrylics Acrylite Outstanding light Lenses, transparent
[poly(methyl Diakon transmission and aircraft enclosures,
methacrylate)] Lucite resistance to weathering; drafting equipment,
Plexiglas only fair mechanical outdoor signs
properties
Polyamides Nylon Good mechanical strength, Bearings, gears, cams,
(nylons) Baylon abrasion resistance, and bushings, handles,
Durethan toughness; low coefficient and jacketing for
Herox of friction; absorbs water wires and cables
Nomex and some other liquids
Ultramid

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 Zytel
Polycarbonates Calibre Dimensionally stable; low Safety helmets,
Iupilon water absorption; lenses, light globes,
Lexan transparent; very good base for photographic
Makrolon impact resistance and film
Merlon ductility; chemical
resistance not outstanding
Polyethylene Alathon Chemically resistant and Flexible bottles, toys,
Alkathene electrically insulating; tumblers, battery
Fortiflex tough and relatively low parts, ice trays, film
Hi-fax coefficient of friction; low wrapping materials
Petrothene strength and poor
Rigidex resistance to weathering
Rotothene
Zendel
Polypropylene Herculon Resistant to heat Sterilizable bottles,
Meraklon distortion; excellent packaging film, TV
Moplen electrical properties and cabinets, luggage
Poly-pro fatigue strength;
Pro-fax chemically inert; relatively
Propak inexpensive; poor
Propathene resistance to UV light
Polyester Celanar One of the toughest of Magnetic recording
(polyethylene Dacron plastic films; excellent tapes, clothing,
therephthalate, Eastapak fatigue and tear strength, automotive tire
PET Hylar and resistance to humidity, cords, beverage
or PETE) Melinex acids, greases, oils, and containers
Mylar solvents
Petra
Thermosetting Polymers
Epoxies Araldite Excellent combination of Electrical mouldings,
Epikote mechanical properties and sinks, adhesives,
Epon corrosion resistance; protective coatings,
Epi-rez dimensionally stable; good used with fiberglass
Lekutherm adhesion; relatively laminates
Lytex inexpensive; good
electrical properties
Phenolics Bakelite Excellent thermal stability Motor housings,
Amberol to over 150 °C; may be telephones, auto
Arofene compounded with a large distributors, electrical
Durite number of resins, fillers, fixtures
Resinox etc.; inexpensive
Polyesters Aropol Excellent electrical Helmets, fiberglass
Baygal properties and low cost; boats, auto body
Derakane can be formulated for components, chairs,
Laminac room- or high-temperature fans
Selectron use; often fibre reinforced

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