Artificial intelligence 17CS562
Re Regulation – 2015 (CBCS Scheme)
Individual semantic networks and frame systems may have specialized links and inference procedures, but no hard and fast rules about what kinds
of objects and links are good in general
for knowledge representation.
specific notions of what types of objects and relations are permitted. They stand for
powerful theories of how AI programs can
represent and use knowledge about common situations.
It is the theory of how to represent the kind of knowledge about events that is usually contained in natural language sentences. The goal is to represent the
knowledge in a way that
Facilitates drawing inferences from the sentences.
Is independent of the language in which the sentences are originally stated.
CD provides a structure into which nodes representing information can be placed a specific set of primitives at a given level of granularity.
Representation of Conceptual Dependency:
In CD representation of actions are built from a set of primitive Acts
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Artificial intelligence 17CS562
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A second set of CD building blocks is the set of allowable dependencies among the conceptualizations described in a sentence. There are
4 primitive conceptual categories from which dependency structures can be built.
In addition, dependency structures are themselves conceptualizations and can serve as components of larger dependency structures.
The dependencies among conceptualizations correspond to semantic relations among the underlying concepts. The contains the
rules; the contains examples of their- use and the contains an English version of each example. The rules are interpreted as
follows:
describes the relationship between an actor and the event he or she causes. This is a two-way dependency since neither actor nor event can
be considered primary. The letter p above the dependency link indicates past tense.
describes the relationship between a PP and a PA that is being asserted to describe it. Many state descriptions, such as height, are
represented in CD as numeric scales.
describes the relationship between two PPs, one of which belongs to the set defined by the other.
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Artificial intelligence 17CS562
Re Regulation – 2015 (CBCS Scheme)
describes the relationship between a PP and an attribute that has already been predicated of it. The direction of the arrow is
toward the PP being described.
describes the relationship between two PPs, one of which provides a particular kind of information about the other. The three
most common types of information to be provided in this way are
possession (shown as POSS-BY),
o location (shown as LOC) and
o physical containment (shown as CONT).
The direction of the arrow is again toward the concept being described
Advantages of CD:
Using these primitives involves fewer inference rules.
Many inference rules are already represented in CD structure.
The holes in the initial structure help to focus on the points still to be established.
Knowledge must be decomposed into fairly low level primitives. Impossible or difficult to find correct set of primitives.
Representations can be complex even for relatively simple actions. Consider:
.
Complex representations require a lot of storage
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Artificial intelligence 17CS562
Re Regulation – 2015 (CBCS Scheme)
( -- )model natural language understanding.
( ) -- Scripts to understand stories. See next section.
( ) -- Scripts to understand stories.
We present a mechanism for representing knowledge about common sequences of events.
A is a structure that describes stereotyped sequence of events in a particular event. A script consists of a set of slots. Associated with each slot may be
some information about what kinds of values it may contain as well as a default value to be used if no other information is available.
A script is a structure that prescribes a set of circumstances which could be expected to follow on from one another. It is similar to a thought sequence
or a chain of situations which could be anticipated. It could be considered to consist of a number of slots or frames but with more specialized
roles.
Scripts provide an ability for default reasoning when information is not available that directly states that an action occurred. So we may assume,
unless otherwise stated, that a diner at a restaurant was served food, that the diner paid for the food, and that the dinner was served by a waiter/waitress.
Scripts are beneficial because:
• Events tend to occur in known runs or patterns.
• Causal relationships between events exist.
• Entry conditions exist which allow an event to take place
• Prerequisites exist upon events taking place. E.g. when a student progresses through a degree scheme or when a purchaser buys a house.
A script is a structure that prescribes a set of circumstances which could be expected to follow on from one another. It is similar to a thought sequence
or a chain of situations which could be anticipated.
It could be considered to consist of a number of slots or frames but with more specialized roles.
Scripts provide an ability for default reasoning when information is not available that directly states that an action occurred.
So we may assume, unless otherwise stated, that a diner at a restaurant was served food, that the diner paid for the food, and that the dinner was served
by a waiter/waitress.
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Artificial intelligence 17CS562
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Artificial intelligence 17CS562
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The script does not contain typical actions although there are options such as whether the customer was pleased or not. There are multiple paths
through the scenes to make for a robust script what would a “going to the movies” script look like? Would it have similar props, actors, scenes? How
about “going to class”?
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Artificial intelligence 17CS562
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• Less general than frames.
• May not be suitable to represent all kinds of knowledge.
CYC is a very large knowledge base project aimed at capturing human commonsense knowledge. The goal of CYC is to encode the large body of
knowledge that is so obvious that it is easy to forget to state it explicitly. Such a knowledge base could then be combined with specialized
knowledge bases to produce systems that are less brittle than most of the ones available today.
-- Specialized knowledge bases are . Hard to encode new situations and non-graceful degradation in performance.
Commonsense based knowledge bases should have a firmer foundation.
-- Knowledge representation may not be suitable for AI. Commonsense strategies could point out where difficulties in
content may affect the form.
-- Should allow greater communication among systems with common
bases and assumptions.
Building an immense knowledge base is a staggering task. There are two possibilities for acquiring this knowledge automatically:
1. In order for a system to learn a great deal, it must already know a great deal. In particular, systems with a lot of
knowledge will be able to employ powerful analogical reasoning.
2. Humans extend their own knowledge by reading
books and talking with other humans.
By hand.
Special CYCL language: LISP like.
Frame based
Multiple inheritance
Slots are fully fledged objects.
Generalized inheritance -- any link not just and .
We require special implicit knowledge or commonsense such as: We only die once.
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Artificial intelligence 17CS562
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Strong Slot and Filler Structures (Continued)
Conceptual Dependency Examples:
Consider the sentence, “Bill threatened John with a broken Nose”.
The CD representation of the information contained in the sentence is shown above. It says that Bill informed John that he (Bill) will do something to break
John’s nose. Bill did this so that John will believe that if he (John) does something (different from what Bill will do to break his nose),
then Bill will break John’s nose. In this representation, the word believe has been used to simplify the example. But the idea behind believe can be
represented in CD as MTRANS of a fact into John’s memory.
actions do1 and do2 are dummy placeholders that refer to some as yet unspecified actions
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Artificial intelligence 17CS562
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Artificial intelligence 17CS562
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CYCL
CYCs knowledge is encoded in a representation language called CYCL.
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Artificial intelligence 17CS562
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CYCL is a frame based system that incorporates most of the techniques.
Generalizes the notion of inheritance so that properties can be inherited along any link, not just isa and instance.
CYCL contains a constraint language that allows the expression of arbitrary first-order logical expressions
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