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Junction Design
Traffic Signals

A. Vajeeran

Introduction
• The objective is to control the
process of sharing the right-
of-way by separating
conflicting movements.
• Available intersection capacity can be
assigned is a reasonable manner to
minimize accidents between
conflicting movements and to
reduce mean delay per vehicle
• Delay to particular movements
could be increased & in some
cases mean delay at the
intersection could also be
increased.

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Types of Intersections

Intersection Control Strategies

Time sharing solutions
- Right-of way rule, sign control, signals
Space sharing solutions
- Roundabouts, Traffic circles
Space separation solutions
- Interchanges

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Traffic Control Measures

• Right-of-way rule (U)
• Sign Control (Y)
• Yield sign control
• Stop sign control
• Manual control (M)
• Roundabouts / Traffic circles (R)
• Traffic signals (S)
• Street closure (C)
• Grade separation (G, G*) [G-with access ramps,
G*-no ramps]

Traffic Control Measures

• Right-of-way rule (U)

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Traffic Control Measures

Traffic Signals

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Warrants of Traffic Signals

• The need for signalizing an intersection is considered
only when the traffic and safety features at such a place
warrants such an improvement.
• A number of warrants have been developed for
this purpose.
• Different highway authorities follow different
warrants.

Warrant 1 - Minimum Vehicular Volume

• This warrant is satisfied when, for each of any eight (08) hours of an average
day, the traffic volumes on the major street and on the higher volume minor
street approach to the intersection, reaches specified values.

Number of Lanes for Moving Vehicles per Hour on Major Vehicles per Hour
on Higher - Approach (One
Traffic on EachApproach Street (Total of Both
Direction Only)
Approaches)
Major Minor
Street Street
1 1 500 150

2 or more 1 600 150

2 or more 2 or more 600 200

1 2 or more 500 200

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Warrant 2 - Interruption of Continuous Traffic

• The warrant is satisfied when, for each eight (08) hours of an average day, the
specified traffic volumes exist on the major street and the higher volume
minor street.

Warrant 3 - Minimum Pedestrian Volume

• The minimum pedestrian volume is satisfied when, for each of any eight (08)
hours of an average day, the following traffic volumes exist:
• On the major street, 600 or more vehicles per hours enter the intersection
(both approaches) or 1,000 vph or more enter the intersection when a raised
median of width greater than 4 feet exist.
• During which eight (08) hours as above, there are 150 or more pedestrians per
hour on the highest volume crosswalk.

Warrant 4 - School Crossings

• A traffic control signal (pedestrian) maybe warranted at an established school crossing
when the number of adequate gaps in the traffic stream during the period the children
are using the crossing is less than the number of minutes in the same period.

Warrant 5 - Progressive Movement

• Traffic signals are installed at carefully designed spacing to permit the relationship of
normal vehicle speed and signal timing to fit into a planned progressive movement of
traffic (platoon) along a route.

• On a one-way street or a street that has pre-dominantly unidirectional traffic, the

adjacent signals are so far apart that they do not provide the necessary degree of
vehicle platooning and speed control.

• On a two way street, adjacent signals do not provide the necessary degree of
platooning and speed control and the proposed and adjacent signals could constitute
a progressive signal system.

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Warrant 6 - Accident Experience

• The accident experience warrant is satisfied when:

• An adequate trial of less restrictive remedies with satisfactory observance and

enforcement has failed to reduce the accident frequency &

• Five or more reported accidents of types susceptible to correction by traffic signal

control have occurred within a twelve-month period, each accident involving personal
injury or property damage to an apparent extent of US$100.00 or more.

• There exists a volume of vehicular traffic not less than 80 percent of the
requirements specified in the minimum vehicular volume warrant; the interruption
of continuous traffic warrant; or the minimum pedestrian volume warrant &

• The signal installation will not seriously disrupt progressive traffic

flow.

Warrant 7 - Systems
• A warrant is created in order to provide a concentration and organization of
traffic in a major or important route. A major route as defined in the above
warrant is required to have one or more of the following characteristics:
• It is part of the street or highway system that serves as the principal network for through
traffic flow.
• It connects areas of principal traffic generation.
• It includes rural or suburban highways outside of, entering, or traversing a city.
• It has surface street freeway or expressway ramp terminals.
• It appears as a major route on an official plan such as a major street plan in an
urban area traffic transportation study.

Warrant 8- Combination of Warrants

• In exceptional cases, signals may occasionally be justified when no single
warrant is satisfied but when any combination of warrants 1, 2 and 3 is
satisfied to the extent of 80 percent or more of the stated values.

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Manual on Uniform Traffic Control

Devices (MUTCD), Page 4C-1
• Warrant 1, Eight-Hour Vehicular Volume.
• Case A – Minimum Vehicular Volume.
• Case B – Interruption of Continuous Traffic.
• Warrant 2, Four-Hour Vehicular Volume.
• Warrant 3, Peak Hour.
• Warrant 4, Pedestrian Volume.
• Warrant 5, School Crossing.
• Warrant 6, Coordinated Signal System.
• Warrant 7, Crash Experience.
• Warrant 8, Roadway Network

Types of Signals
1. Intersection Control 3. Special Signals
• Fixed type • Lane control signals
• Vehicle actuated • Flashing beacons
• Semi-vehicle actuated • At road work sites
• Signalized roundabouts • Emergency vehicle access
• Externally • Bus priority signals
• Internally
2. Pedestrian Control
• Fixed time
• Pedestrian actuated

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Intersection
Control

Pedestrian Control

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Special Signals
Lane Control Flashing beacons

Bus Priority

At road work sites

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Lane Geometry & Phasing Schemes

Signal timing scheme is dependent on the lane geometry at the intersection and the phasing
(stage) system selected.
Lane Geometry
Separate Right Turn Lane
• Intersection configuration
• Traffic Lanes -number of lanes, width,
gradient
Separate Left Turn
• Median islands- divided roads, undivided Lane
roads
• Painted medians & islands
• Left turn lanes
• Right turn lanes
• Parking
• Bus halts/bays
• Service roads

Lane Geometry & Phasing Schemes

Signal timing scheme is dependent on the lane geometry at the intersection and the phasing
(stage) system selected.

Signal phase
• A part of a signal cycle that is allocated to
selected traffic movement receiving the
right of way simultaneously

Signal interval
• A period of the signal cycle during which
all the indications remain unchanged.

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Two Phase Scheme

1
2
3
4
5

Three Phase Scheme : (Type A)

(only if separate right turn lane available for main road)

φ1 φ2 φ3

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Three Phase Scheme (Type B)

(If no separate right turn lane is available)

φ1 φ2 φ3

Four Phase Scheme

φ1 φ2 φ3 φ4

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Four Phase Scheme

(if all approached have separate RT lanes)

φ1 φ2 φ3 φ4

Leading (Advance) green

φ1 φ2 φ3

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Lagging green

φ1 φ2 φ3

T-Junctions Two-Phase

φ1 φ2

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T-Junction Three-Phase

φ1 φ2 φ3

Pedestrian only Phase

Mid block

Vehicle Phase Pedestrian Phase

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At an intersection

Selection of a Phasing Scheme

• The objective is to provide a simple and safe scheme of phases that will
accommodate the traffic and pedestrian demand efficiently.
• The selection of phasing scheme is dependent on the intersection
geometry, the traffic demand and the turning movements.
• Select a phasing scheme with minimum number of phases as possible to
maximize the intersection capacity and minimize vehicle delays
• When the number of phases in a signal cycle increases, the fraction of
time available for movement of traffic decreases

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Step 1 - Identify Lane Geometry

• Identify existing number of lanes, their arrangement and widths. Also
identify land availability for possible widening.
• Identify different traffic movements, their behavior.

Step 2 - Identify Hourly Volumes

• Study relative magnitudes of different turning movements
• Select a suitable sampling procedure
• Identify resource requirement (No. of enumerators)
• Carryout a turning movement count (total & classified)
• Convert all classified turning movements (preferably 15 minute counts) to
hourly flows

Step 3 - Through plus right turn check

• Maximum number of right turns plus total through volume that can pass
through an intersection during one hour green period is 1200 vehicles
(empirical)
• Check whether the basic two phase system is satisfactory
• If a separate right turn lane is available assume an average 2 right turns will
clear the intersection at the end of amber period
• The total through plus right turn for each phase is calculated by adding the
opposing right turn volume R to the relevant total through volume, W.
• The total through volume usually includes the left turns unless there is a
separate left turn filter lane.

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a) Separate right turn lane available

Approach A
WA = UA1 + UA2
WB = UB1 + UB2
ULi = maxm[UA1 + RB, UA2 + RB ,
RA UB1 + RA , UB2 + RA]
UA1 UA2
UB2 UB1 RB  RA, RB - not including amber right

turns when separate right turn lane

is available
 A, B - two approaches
Approach B  UA1, UB1 - inner lane through
vehicle flow
 UA2, UB2 - include left turns unless
there is a separate left turn filter
lane

b) No separate right turn lane -

Single lane approach
Approach A WA = UA WB = UB

RA
UL= Umax+ Rmax+½ Umin
UA
UB RB
Umax = maxm [UA, UB]
Rmax = maxm [ RA, RB]
Approach B Umin = minm [UA, UB]

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c) No separate right turn lane –

Two lane approach

Approach A
WA = UA1 + UA2,
WB = UB1 + UB2

RA
ULi =maxm (UA2+ RB + ½ UB1,
UA1 UA2 Umax1 + Rmax + ½ Umin1,
UB2 UB1 RB UB2 + RA + ½ UA1)

Umax1 = maxm [UA1, UB1]

Umin1 = minm [UA1, UB1]
Approach B
Rmax = maxm [RA, RB]

The two phase scheme is satisfactory, if for all i

Where
WLi = maxm [WA + RB , WB + RA]

• If above is unsatisfactory, increase the number of phases, check for

through plus right turns only if there are any conflicts.
• If there are no conflicts the above check is not required.
• Repeat until the check is satisfactory or there are no right turn conflicts
for all phases.

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Ex 01. Phase design

N

100
200 420 340 100
250
270
100 14 m
60 250

320 370 180 240

40
50

7m 5.5 m 7m

Ex. Signal design

N

100

300 420 380 120

270
60 100 7.2 m
250
260
50 400 450 60

7m 5.5 m 7m

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Step 4 Develop passenger car volumes

Table 1: PCU values

Vehicle Type Roundabouts Signals

Cart 3.8 3.9

Bicycle 1.0 0.9

Motor Cycle 0.7 0.6

3 Wheel 0.9 0.8 (1.5)

Car 1.0 1.0

Van 1.2 1.1
Mini Bus 1.6 1.5
Bus 2.2 2.3
Light Trucks 1.5 1.7
Medium Trucks 2.0 2.1
Large Truck 4.4 5.2

Container n/a n/a

Land Vehicle n/a n/a

n/a - not available

Source: Estimation of PCU values of Sri Lankan Highways, Kumarage 1993

Step 5 adjustment factors

Table 2: Right Turn Equivalencies (Reference: TRB (1980))

Opposing Volume / hour 0-299 300-599 600-999 >1000

Right turn lane available 1.05 1.05 1.05 1.05
No right turn No separate turn-phase 1.2 2.0 4.0 6.0
lane and Separate turn-phase 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.2

Table 3: Right & Left Turning Movement Multiplicative Factors for pedestrian (Reference: TRB (1980))
Pedestrian Flow per hour Multiplicative Factor
Low 0 – 99 1.00
Moderate 100 – 599 1.25
Heavy 600 – 1199 1.50
Very Heavy > 1200 2.00
Table 4: Lane Width Adjustment Factors (Reference: TRB (1980))
Lane Width Multiplicative Factor
2.45 – 3.00 m 1.10
3.05 – 3.95 m 1.00
3.97 – 4.85 m 0.90
4.88 – 5.76 m 0.80

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Critical lane volume

The critical bus volume CLi governs the fraction of time that will be allocated
to phase i.
CLi  Maxm Vij for all j

Where Vij represent the through volume of each lane j (phase i) plus
corresponding opposing right turn volume if any. For unopposed through
right turn or left turn lanes take lane volumes as Vij.

The total critical lane volume for the intersection is

TCL   CL
all i i

Step 6 - Check level of service

Table 5: Level of Service (Reference:TRB (1980))
Maximum Sum of Critical Lane Volumes
Level of Four or more
Service Two Phase Three Phase Phase

A 1000 0950 0900

B 1200 1140 1080

C 1400 1340 1270

D 1600 1530 1460

E 1800 1720 1650

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Definitions
• Cycle Time - The amount of time required to complete the phasing sequence

• Lost Time - The time that cannot be effectivity used for vehicle movements.

• Waiting time - The time vehicle that stop wait for green indication

• Amber Time - Time allocated for drivers to stop safely or to proceed safely depending on
the location of the vehicle with respect to the stop line.

• All red Time - The time required for a vehicle that enters the intersection at the end of
amber period to clear the intersection.

• Red / Amber - The indication that green will follow.

• Inter-Green Period - The time period between the end of green indication to a phase
and the beginning of the green period of the following phase

Inter-green Period = Amber + All red + Red Amber Table 7: Minimum Amber Times
Speed Limit Minimum Amber
V Where Km/h Period Sec.
Amber    - reaction time VL  50 3
2f(v) V - speed of a vehicle
50 < VL  60 4
f(v) - deceleration rate
60 < VL  70 5
or Table 7 whichever is more 70 < VL  80 6

W l Where
Allred  W-Total width of intersection
V l - Lenght of vehicle

Inter-green period should be calculated for speed limit, Vt, 85th percentile velocity, V85, and optimum speed, V0, and
select the maximum.
If a particular turning movement is the critical lane movement for a given phase, inter-green period should be
calculated for that turning movement.

Total lost time in critical lanes = Starting delay for each phase + all red & red/amber for each Phase

If the same critical lane continue for two phases then there will not be a starting delay & all red, red amber loss for that
phase.

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Optimum Cycle Time Webster & Cobbe (1966) have proposed

the following empirical relationship for
cycle time based on stochastic delay
analysis
Time lost per unit

Waiting Delay 1 .5 L  5
C  n
 CLi
time

i 1
1 -
S
Lost time
L - total lost time per cycle
qi - critical lane flows
Cycle time
S - saturation flow
N - number of phases

Effective green period for phase i = gi

CLi
g i  (C  L)
TCL
Gi  g i  l  A
where Gi – Actual Green, l – Starting Delay, A - Amber period

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Signal Timing for Pedestrians

Signal Timing for Pedestrians

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Signal Timing for Pedestrians

Signal - Reliability

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Signal - Reliability

Signal - Reliability

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40
120 140 310 240 60

100
25 14 m
20
80
260 300 160
70 100
20

20 m

Figure Q3

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