The plant kingdom

LIFE

LAND PLANTS

NON-FLOWERING PLANTS FLOWERING PLANTS

LIVERWORTS MOSSES HORNWORTS LYCOPODS FERNS GYMNOSPERMS ANGIOSPERMS

The plant world

From tiny mosses to stately trees, plants are a diverse group
of organisms found in almost every corner of our planet. The
ability to make their own food using green chlorophyll and
the process of photosynthesis sets them apart from all other
living organisms. Plants are classified according to whether
they flower and the type of seed – if any – that they create. MAGNOLIIDS MONOCOTS EUDICOTS

Parts of a plant Plant types Long-lasting Plant attaches to

woody objects for support
Angiosperms, ferns, and Botanists and gardeners divide
branches
gymnosperms are known plants into a range of informal
as “vascular plants”. They groups. These may be based on
contain special tissue that features such as the life cycle;
transports water and food growth habits, and whether the Multistemmed
needed for growth along stem is woody; a characteristic growth habit

stems and branches to such as a bulb; the plant’s wider TREES SHRUBS CLIMBERS
roots, leaves, and flowers. botanical family, or the habitat
conditions it needs to thrive. WOODY
Flowers hold the
reproductive organs, and
are often brightly coloured
Plant leaves Photosynthesis
Leaves come in all shapes and sizes. Their variety reveals Inside leaves, mesophyll cells with
how plants balance the dual functions of photosynthesis light-absorbing chloroplasts make
Leaf captures sunlight to make and transpiration in different habitats: a big leaf may trap glucose by combining light, carbon
energy for growth, and releases more light, but will lose more water through evaporation. dioxide, and water. This is turned
excess water via transpiration
into sucrose, a sugar plants use as
Needles shrug
off snow food to provide energy for growth.
Petiole, or leaf stalk, may be
long, short, or absent altogether Tiny scales Oxygen
minimize Carbon dioxide Light from released as
water loss from the air the Sun a by-product
Branch places leaves away
from the stem, which allows SCALES NEEDLES
them to capture more sunlight Leaves are shed Plant always has Layer of Sugars
each year some green leaves mesophyll fuel new
cells growth
Stem supports the plant, DECIDUOUS
and carries nutrients up BROADLEAVES
from the roots
Fleshy leaves Water from Chloroplasts contain the
Roots anchor the plant to the store water the soil green pigment chlorophyll
ground, and draw water and EVERGREEN
nutrients from the soil SUCCULENT LEAVES BROADLEAVES TOP LAYER OF LEAF

◀ see also Prehistoric plants pp.88–89 Non-flowering plants pp.98–99 ▶ Flowering plants pp.100–103 ▶
 Scientists have identified around
391,000 species of vascular plants

PLANTS AND FUNGI

How plants grow
Gibberellin works ❺ Stem thickens
All seed-producing plants follow with auxin to
the same growth pattern. A seed make stem grow
Stronger stems can hold
more leaves. Layers of this
begins to germinate when it is Gibberellin
triggers leaf lateral, secondary growth
exposed to conditions that break may form a woody trunk.
growth Apical
its dormancy, triggering the release bud
of hormones that regulate every
Transport Woody
aspect of growth. vessels tissue
❶ Seed germinates ❷ Main stem and Bark
Gibberellin released by roots lengthen
the embryo kick-starts Auxin produced ❸ Stem grows taller ❹ Sideshoots develop ❻ Flowers appear
growth. Roots appear in the shoot tip Auxin from the apical Cytokinin from the roots Chemicals in plant leaves react
first, then a single shoot. makes cells enlarge bud suppresses lateral encourages sideshoots, with light to produce florigen,
Seed Shoot and elongate. growth and branching. branches, and bushiness. which induces buds to flower.

Auxin encourages
Gibberellin root growth
stimulates REGULATORS OF GROWTH
germination
Water Florigen
Root
Cytokinin Cytokinin Auxin
Seed absorbs extends lateral
water from soil Gibberellin
Embryo (side) roots

Entire life cycle Flowers appear in Top growth Bulb Flowers held on Segmented stems Spines help to Leaves absorb
completed in 1 year the 2nd year of dies back and stores spikes of bracts conserve water water from the air
2-year life cycle regrows for food
several years

ANNUAL BIENNIAL PERENNIAL BULBOUS GRASS BAMBOO CACTUS AIR PLANT

HERBACEOUS

Parts of a flower Pollination and fertilization Fertilization Pollen from Pollen from
Pollen grains produce a long tube which flower B flower A
Flowers have male and/or female Pollination occurs when the male
parts. The sepals and petals that sperm cells (pollen) produced by passes the male sperm cells into a flower’s
ovary, where they fuse with female ovules.
surround them can offer protection the anthers are transferred to the
as well as attracting pollinators. female stigma. Pollen is carried Stigma Pollen tube
Style
from one flower to another by A B
Stigma (f)
KEY insects, birds, animals, or wind. Pollen
(f) Female Style (f) Ovule Cross-pollination
Plants with multiple flowers can grain
(m) Male Anther (m) Cross pollination – when pollen is from a
“self-pollinate” if pollen from one separate plant of the same species – helps
Filament (m) bloom is transferred to another. Stamen to maintain the species’ genetic diversity.
Petal

Sepal Seeds held Wings formed Each fruitlet Hard-walled

Seeds and fruit on upper by flower (drupe) holds fruit encloses
Gymnosperm and angiosperm seeds sides of scales carpel a single seed seed
are either “naked” (unprotected), or
Receptacle (f)
enclosed in fruits that develop from
“Complete” or flower ovaries. Fruits have different
“perfect” flowers
have male and
roles: some encourage distribution,
female parts Ovary (f) while others protect seeds until the
conditions for germination are met. SEED CONE DRY FRUIT FLESHY FRUIT NUT

see also Classification pp.158–59 ▶ Types of living things pp.216–17 ▶ 97

 Non-flowering plants
LIFE

Once primitive plants emerged from water onto dry land, some 500 million years Main stem
ago, they needed new biology to survive. Initially, tiny green plants were forced or stipe

to live in damp places. Over time, new forms evolved with adaptations to reduce
their reliance on water. These were able to grow and reproduce in more hostile
environments. Examples of most of these evolutionary plant stages are still alive.

Liverworts Female
cells under
Most liverworts are flat green plants. star-like
They have no system to conduct water structure
or nutrients, so these can only move
from cell to cell. To reproduce, the male
sperm swims in surface water to the Female plant COMMON LIVERWORT Young leaf
female cell, as in mosses (see below). (Marchantia polymorpha) or pinna

Tiny hairs protect

developing leaves
Hornworts Spore-bearing from insects
structure
These relatives of liverworts form a
rosette-shaped plant. Male and female
organs grow within the flat plant. The
spore-bearing stage grows as a long Gametophyte

horn-like structure, which splits open HORNWORT

Ferns and relatives
Young fern leaves
from the top to release spores. (Anthoceros sp.) Ferns and their relatives
unfurl from a
are large, spore-bearing tight spiral
plants that can survive called a crosier
Lycopods Spore Leaves arranged drier conditions than
capsules spirally on stem
Lycopods and clubmosses form larger mosses and liverworts.
develop on
plants than mosses or liverworts as upright They have true roots
they have vascular cells to move water shoots and vascular cells MALE FERN
and nutrients. The green plant is the to move water and (Dryopteris filix-mas)
spore-bearing stage. Ancient, tree-like STAGHORN CLUBMOSS
nutrients within
lycopods formed most coal deposits. (Lycopodium clavatum) the plant.

Mosses Life cycle of moss Spore

Female plant capsule
Most mosses are small, clump- This complex life cycle is called alternation of
grows new
forming plants without true roots. generation. Spores grow into separate male or shoot (spore
female plants. Male cells swim to the female cells, capsule)
Their spores are shed into the wind
then a new spore-bearing capsule develops.
from capsules on tall stems, but they
Spore- Male plant
still rely on surface water for their
bearing
male sperm to reach a female shoot. CAPILLARY THREAD Female
structure MOSS
The green, leaf-like parts of the (Bryum capillare)
❶ SCATTERING SPORES
moss is called the gametophyte.
It produces food using solar energy,
but mosses do not contain veins Water on the
to transport water and nutrients. surface allows male
sperm cells to swim
Instead, these are absorbed into over to the eggs
the cells directly.
❹ SPORE CAPSULE ❷ SEX ORGANS DEVELOP
GROWS

Mosses have grown

in damp places
Gametophyte

as early as 300 Male sex organs Sex organs

million years ago

produce sperm cells and eggs at
❸ FERTILIZATION the shoot’s tip

98 ◀ see also Prehistoric plants pp.88–89

 Whorls of green

There are over 10,500 known species of fern alive today

shoots on
sterile stem

PLANTS AND FUNGI

Young sporophyte Spore-bearing Spore capsules Horsetails
grows from sporophyte stage on underside These relatives of ferns
plantlet of leaf
typically grow in damp
soils. Their spores are
produced on special
short shoots in spring,
followed by separate
green shoots for HORSETAIL
photosynthesis. (Equisetum sp.)

Sporangia
Zygote forms from Capsules are on fertile
fertilized egg and develops Adder’s-tongue ferns blade
called sporangia
into a sporophyte Whisk ferns and
Barren
adder’s-tongue ferns blade
are primitive relatives
of ferns. Their sexual
Life cycle of ferns stage is usually
Sexual plantlet Spores from mature adult ferns are underground, while
(called a released to the air and germinate to the spore-bearing
prothallus) ADDER’S-TONGUE FERN
form new plantlets, which produce plant is small. (Ophioglossum sp.)
male and female sex cells. Ferns rely Sporangia open
Sperm on rainwater to transport in dry conditions
sperm to the egg.
NATURAL CLONES Tiny green
crosier develops
Some ferns can
reproduce by forming First leaves
A tiny flat green are undefined
plantlet grows Spores are clones. They produce
from a spore released into small plantlets (bulbils)
the wind directly on their fronds.
Bulbils develop along the
leaf vein and as this ages
and arches to the ground,
Female sex
they grow independently
organ
as new plants without
Male sex Spores germinate any sexual stage. DIPLAZIUM PROLIFERUM
organ on damp soil (Diplazium proliferum)

Gymnosperms Ginkgo Gnetophytes

These flowerless plants have woody stems, Separate trees Unlike other gymnosperms, the plants in this
tough leaves, and seeds. They can grow in much produce male pollen group have advanced water conducting vessels
harsher environments than other non-flowering cones or female ovules. (like those found in the flowering plants).
plants as most gymnosperms do not need The ovules develop
into an unpleasant Two evergreen
surface water at any stage to reproduce. leaves
smelling fruit-like
Compound structure after male
leaves with MAIDENHAIR TREE WELWITSCHIA
leaflets on either
(Ginkgo biloba) pollen reaches them. (Welwitschia mirabilis)
side of the stem
Conifers
Conifers dominate cold-climate woodland. Their Seed within
narrow leaves resist cold and drought. Seeds are fruit-like aril
Seeds between
formed in cones that may take three years to mature.
cone scales
Cycads Dense,
Crown of These woody plants woody
Distinctive
leaves grow cone
directly
have tough leaves. bracts
from trunk Large male and
female cones are
on separate plants,
with male cells
SAGO CYCAD carried in pollen DOUGLAS FIR GIANT REDWOOD ATLAS CEDAR COULTER PINE YELLOW-BERRIED YEW
(Cycas revoluta) to reach females. (Pseudotsuga menziesii) (Sequoiadendron giganteum) (Cedrus atlantica) (Pinus coulteri) (Taxus baccata ‘Lutea’)

◀ see also The plant kingdom pp.96–97 Flowering plants pp.100–103 ▶ 99

 Flowering plants
LIFE

Flowers evolved to use insects as pollinators, Seeds Cotyledon Endosperm Epicotyl Hypocotyl
although some flowering plants rely on wind A seed contains an (seed leaf)
Epicotyl
pollination. There are three main groups of embryo and its food (forms
stores in endosperm Coleoptile upper stem Seed
flowering plants: magnoliids, monocotyledons, and leaves) coat
or cotyledons. A
and eudicotyledons. The most advanced have protective coat ensures
Radicle Hypocotyl
developed complex flowers and specialized the embryo survives
(forms roots) (forms lower
methods of growth to ensure their survival and until conditions allow stem) Radicle Cotyledons
seed production for future generations. it to grow. SWEETCORN KERNEL (MONOCOT) BEAN SEED (EUDICOT)

Roots Leaves Monocotyledon Eudicotyledon

Roots anchor the plant. They Leaves are the leaf leaf
absorb water and nutrients energy factories for Parallel Dividing veins
from soil to allow growth. the plant. As their veins in network
Some roots, such as carrots, veins do not branch,
also store nutrients for later use. monocot leaves are Narrow Broad leaf
usually narrow, but leaf blade blade
Nitrogen from eudicotyledon leaves (lamina) (lamina)
soil makes
are often broad. PALM GRASS (MONOCOT) PRIMROSE LEAF (EUDICOT)
healthy leaves

Stem carries Stamen Stamen

nutrients Stigma Filament Stigma
from roots
Flowers Anther Style Anther
Lateral Flowers contain the Filament
feeding plant’s reproductive
root parts. The stamens Flower
are male and carry parts in
Primary Multiple the pollen, while the multiples
tap root lateral roots ovary, style, and of three Flower parts in Petal
grows stigma are female. The multiples of five
Tepal Ovary
down flower’s appearance is (petal-like Sepal
vertically Pedicel Pedicel
linked to its method structure)
DANDELION (EUDICOT) MAIZE (MONOCOT) of pollination. LILY (MONOCOT) Pistil ROSE (EUDICOT)

Magnoliids Stigmas and ovaries Multiple large

These are amongst the most in cone-like structure tepals ANCIENT ANGIOSPERMS
Early in the evolution of flowering
primitive of flowering plants.
plants, the group known as ancient
Their flowers are often simple, angiosperms diverged from the rest
may lack petals, and do not of the angiosperms. This group has
produce nectar. Many magnoliids flowers with multiple petals and
are trees or shrubs and are other flower parts. While some are
shrubs, many are aquatic plants
sources of essential oils and
where their flowers are thrust out
spices, such as cinnamon, of the water for pollinators to reach.
nutmeg, and black pepper. These ancient angiosperms include
star anise and water lilies.
Single large Tepals
seed within attract
fleshy fruit beetles

Leathery
evergreen
leaves

WATER LILY
(Nymphaea sp.)
AVOCADO SOUTHERN MAGNOLIA
(Persea americana) (Magnolia grandiflora)

100 ◀ see also The plant kingdom pp.96–97

 Flowering plants first started appearing
with the dinosaurs 125 million years ago

Monocotyledons Strong woody Palms

This group of flowering plants are distinguished by their stems These are the only tree-like monocots.
seeds having only a single seed leaf (cotyledon). They They often have only one tall, but thin,
stem, which cannot thicken or branch
include many economically important plants, such as
like those of real trees.
wheat, barley, rice, maize, and millet, as well as grasses,
palms, irises, lilies, and orchids.
Protective spathe
Lateral shoots
Male flowers above appear at nodes
females on spadix

Arum Bamboo
These plants have Bamboos are large,
flowers on a spadix. woody grasses. The
Tiny separate male largest grows to 25 m
and female flowers (82 ft) tall, and they
grow in a dense spike, can grow 90 cm (36 in)
often enclosed by in 24 hours. Many
a protective bract PSEUDODRACONTIUM bamboos die after BAMBOO
called a spathe. (Pseudodracontium lacourii) producing seeds. (Phyllostachys sp.)
Divided
Silks (styles) Arched stem (pinnate) leaf
catch pollen (rachis)

Grasses and grains

These plants have
flowers without petals,
as they are wind Flowers
pollinated. Their leaves protected
grow from the base Husk protects by glumes
not the tip, allowing ovaries (bracts)
them to survive CORN SPANGLE GRASS
grazing by animals. (Zea mays) (Chasmanthium latifolium) COCONUT
(Cocos nucifera)
Young
developing fruit
Lilies Flower spike Orchids
These are mostly There are more species of Leaflets
separated Old leaf bases
herbaceous plants, only orchid than any other plant. by rachis protect the stem
a few develop woody They are the most advanced
stems. Many have monocots. Many orchids
bulbs, allowing them to have very specialized
survive cold or drought. systems of pollination, Some orchids may
live for over 100 years
Their three sepals and leading to bizarre
three petals are appearances.
indistinguishable,
and termed tepals.

Colourful Flowers open Large colourful Colourful,

tepals in sequence sepal attracts upright sepal
pollinators
Petal Narrow,
unbranched
trunk

Flowerhead Highly
stem (peduncle) modified petal
Flower Flower mimics Scars where the
Lip or slipper stem insects to attract leaves grew
(pedicel) pollinators remain visible
STARGAZER LILY TORCH LILY VENUS SLIPPER ORCHID WOODCOCK ORCHID
(Lilium orientalis ‘Stargazer’) (Kniphofia uvaria) (Paphiopedilum sp.) (Ophrys scolopax)

◀ see also Non-flowering plants pp.98–99 Flowering plants continued pp.102–103 ▶ Classification pp.158–59 ▶
 Style tipped by Tiny flowers make up
pollen presenter the inflorescence
Flowering plants continued
LIFE

Eudicots Proteas
Most of the trees, ornamental flowers, fruit, and vegetables The Proteales are some of the
are eudicots. Unlike other angiosperms, eudicot pollen least advanced (or basal)
eudicots. Most are from the
grains have three or more pores, from which the pollen tube
Southern Hemisphere and have
grows. They are highly varied and complex organisms and complex flowers pollinated by
only a selection of eudicot orders are represented here. birds or small mammals. RED PINCUSHION PROTEA KING PROTEA FLOWER
(Leucospermum cordifolium) (Protea cynaroides)

Flower buds Large head Colourful bracts

protected by holding tiny surround white
Cacti and relatives
spines and hairs flowers flowers
This varied group contains
all cacti and many succulent
plants, which have developed
water storage systems to survive
prolonged drought. The Brightly
coloured flowers
Caryophyllales also includes
clustered
climbers and annuals, such together
as quinoa. OWL-EYE CACTUS COCKSCOMB BOUGAINVILLEA AIRPLANE PLANT
(Mammillaria perbella) (Celosia cristata) (Bougainvillea glabra) (Crassula perfoliata var. minor)

Large tree with Two nuts within Male flowers grow Large deciduous
Oaks, birches, and beeches spreading habit spiny cupule in hanging catkins leaves
This botanical group (Fagales) is
distinguished by usually having
separate male and female
flowers, the males growing in
long dense catkins. They are
generally wind pollinated,
flowering before the leaves
grow in spring. LARGE ENGLISH OAK SWEET CHESTNUT CHINESE RED-BARKED BIRCH STRANDZHA OAK
(Quercus robur) (Castanea sativa) (Betula albosinensis) (Quercus hartwissiana)

Cabbages Densely packed leaves Bright petals Scented flowers

Although cabbages and broccoli attract long- attract pollinators
are distinguished by four-petalled tongued
pollinators
flowers, other members of the
Brassicales are more varied. Black seeds
Many plants in this group are within the
edible and contain glucosinolate, berry
or mustard oil.

WILD CABBAGE COMMON NASTURTIUM HOARY STOCK PAPAYA TREE

(Brassica oleracea) (Tropaeolum majus) (Matthiola incana) (Carica papaya)

Heathers Flowers grow in Leaves trap

Heathers are usually long-lived small clusters and digest flies
woody plants. Tea plants are also
members of this order (Ericales).
Their other relatives, however, Small flowers
include herbs like primrose and, held above the
bizarrely, the carnivorous leaves Strawberry-like
fruit take a year
American pitcher plants.
to develop

COMMON HEATHER STRAWBERRY TREE ALBRECHT’S AZALEA PITCHER PLANT

(Calluna vulgaris) (Arbutus unedo) (Rhododendron albrechtii) (Sarracenia sp.)

Small flowers
Parsley and carrots above bracts
Carrots and most of their
relatives are distinguished by
their small flowers being borne Flowerhead
in large flat inflorescences called Tiny flowers curls inwards
Small flowers in packed into after flowering
umbels. This group, the Apiales,
a flat umbel conical head
also includes ivy and ginseng.
WILD CARROT SEA HOLLY GREAT MASTERWORT QUEEN ANNE’S LACE
(Daucus carota ‘Dara’) (Eryngium maritimum) (Astrantia major ‘Rubra’) (Daucus carota)

102 ◀ see also The plant kingdom pp.96–97 ◀ Non-flowering plants pp.98–99 ◀ Flowering plants pp.100–101
 Over 50 per cent of plant species are eudicots

PLANTS AND FUNGI

Large bright
Buttercups
flowers attract
The Ranunculales are a relatively bees Flowers last
primitive group amongst the only one day
eudicots with large, symmetrical,
Many-petalled
open flowers pollinated by bees. Flowers in
double flowers
Most are herbs, although there large spike
are some woody species. CREEPING BUTTERCUP RANUNCULUS ‘PAULINE CHOCOLATE’ RED FIELD POPPY
(Ranunculus repens) (Ranunculus ‘Pauline Chocolate’) (Papaver rhoeas)

Bicoloured Peas within Large colourful

Legumes flowers pod petals
The Fabales are distinguished by
their pods opening along two
lines and distinctive flower
structure. Many food crops
belong to this group, such as
peas, beans, and peanuts. Leathery fruit
(pod)
CROWN VETCH GARDEN PEA SWEET PEA LUPIN
(Coronilla varia) (Pisum sativum) (Lathyrus odoratus) (Lupinus sp.)

Multi-petalled Many tiny Fruit consists of separate Broadly

Roses and mulberries flower flowers inside fruitlets (drupes) spreading habit
inflorescence
Rosales contains a wide variety
of plants, from strawberries and
roses to figs, mulberries, and
hemp. This group include many
edible fruits and are mostly
pollinated by insects.

ROSE ‘FRAGRANT CLOUD’ FIG RASPBERRY APPLE TREE

(Rosa ‘Fragrant Cloud’) (Ficus carica) (Rubus idaeus) (Malus domestica)

Maples Two winged seeds derived Red fruit within Fiery autumn
Mostly trees and shrubs, the from flower with two carpels enlarged calyx colour
Sapindales often have tiny
flowers that are pollinated by
bees and flies, like maples and
Pendulous
lychee, but also includes citrus flowers
(oranges, lemons, and relatives).

CORREA ‘MARIAN’S MARVEL’ AMUR MAPLE WINTER CHERRY NORWAY MAPLE

(Correa ‘Marian’s Marvel’) (Acer tataricum subsp. ginnala) (Withania somnifera) (Acer platanoides)

Foxgloves
Most of this group (Lamiales) Leaf hairs Disc florets
have tubular flowers with a retain moisture
Tubular
flat lip, ideally suited to bee
flowers in
pollination. The flowers of spike Bracts attract
the plants in this group all have pollinators
only a single line of symmetry.

COMMON FOXGLOVE LAVENDER PURPLE SAGE

(Digitalis purpurea) (Lavandula sp.) (Salvia officinalis ‘Purpurascens’)

Colourful ring of Fertile florets

Daisies outer ray florets surrounded by Spiny bracts
The Asterales are the most sterile ones
advanced of the eudicots. Their
flowers are complex, each head
appearing as a single bloom, but Darker disc
actually consisting of numerous florets in centre
tiny flowers (florets), each with
petals, stamens, and carpels. CAPE DAISY DAHLIA ‘IVANETTI’ CORNFLOWER CARDOON
(Osteospermum ‘Stardust’) (Dahlia ‘Ivanetti’) (Centaurea cyanus) (Cynara cardunculus)

see also Classification pp.158–59 ▶

 Fungi
LIFE

What are fungi? Mushrooms and toadstools

LICHEN
Once grouped with plants, fungi are classified in Both mushrooms and toadstools are
A lichen is actually two to three living
their own kingdom. They can be simple, single- the fruiting bodies of fungi, and for
things – a fungus and an alga and/or a
celled organisms such as yeasts, flat moulds that cyanobacterium – that function as a single many people, they are the most familiar
form visible colonies, or more sophisticated entity for mutual benefit. Fungi cannot manifestation of what a fungus is. Although
multicellular forms such as mushrooms. Fungi are photosynthesize or fix nitrogen (see p.212), there is no scientific distinction between
widespread and found in most habitats on Earth. but algae and cyanobacteria can, offering the two terms, “toadstool” is often used to
the fungi extra nutrients in return for its
refer to poisonous mushroom species.
protective structure, which includes
Chains of pigments that absorb harmful UV light.
conidia (spores) Mushroom anatomy
With its familiar stem and cap, a mushroom
Dish-like lobes may Pale, foliate is the visible fruiting, or spore-producing,
be green-grey or lobes may be very
yellow-orange flat or bumpy
part of what is actually a vast fungus. Apart
Stem-like Ripe, black from when it reproduces, the fungus remains
branches spores and hidden underground, where it absorbs
white hyphae water and nutrients through a network of
thin, thread-like, branching structures called
Penicillium Mould
hyphae. The entire network is known as a
Some species of the Like all fungi, moulds mycelium, which remains dormant until
Penicillium genus of fungi obtain their nutrition from conditions, such as ground temperature
produce the medicinal dead and decaying organic and sufficient rainfall, are favourable for
antibiotic penicillin; others matter, or from living it to reproduce.
LOBED LICHEN FOLIOSE LICHEN
are used to make cheese. plants or animals.
Mushrooms
Life cycle of a mushroom Mature mushroom
are nearly
One mushroom may release a
billion spores (reproductive cells)
filled with spores
90 per cent water
FRUITING
a day, but only a few will germinate. Young mushroom BODIES
forms stem
In the presence of enough moisture and cap
Ripe spores HYPHAE
and food, spores send out fine, falling from
Hyphae are the basis of any fungus. They have
tubes carried
thread-like hyphae underground, away on breeze tubular cells with rigid walls that are usually
which spread, forming a mycelium. made of chitin, a glucose derivative. In some
Fruiting body hyphae, cells are separated by porous “cross-
Hyphae from two spore mating- pushed above Hyphae connect with walls” called septa. As well as absorbing
types fuse, as the mycelium grows. ground tree roots, forming
nutrients, hypha cells contain genetic material.
Environmental conditions trigger mycorrhizae
YOUNG
it to send fruiting bodies above FRUITING Vacuole Mitochondrion Nucleus
ground, which mature into BODY stores converts food contains
SPORES nutrients to energy DNA
mushrooms that release spores. (not to scale)
Cell wall
Beneficial relationship Hyphae from two
Mycorrhizal fungal hyphae penetrate different spores fuse Hyphal thread
plant roots, which helps the plant to grows from spore
absorb water and mineral nutrients from MYCELIUM
the soil. In return, the fungus has access STRUCTURE OF A HYPHA
to carbohydrates produced by the plant. LIFE CYCLE OF A MYCORRHIZAL FUNGUS

Fruiting bodies Spherical Smooth, ear- or Bird’s-nest Grooves (asci) Concentric

shape cup-like shape fungi resemble release spores “rings” show
Although stem-and-cap
egg-filled nests years of growth
mushrooms are by far the most
familiar fungi, fruiting bodies
come in a wide variety of shapes.
They occur either singly or in
clusters, and range from sponge-
like morels or shelf-like bracket
fungi to puffballs, cups, stars –
even tentacle-like appendages. BALL CUP NEST LOBED BRACKET

104 ◀ see also The web of life pp.80–81 Classification p.158 ▶

 Entire forests are connected by mycorrhizal fungi
in a network nicknamed the wood wide web

PLANTS AND FUNGI

Caps Tapers to a Cap resembles Honeycomb-like shape Outer margin Raised,
central point half a sphere rolled downwards central
Many fungi produce fruiting bodies
“boss”
with caps on a raised stem. Cap
shapes range from the classic dome
to those with pleats or honeycomb-
like folds that resemble tiny sponges.
Although they help to identify many
fungi, cap shape can change as the
fruiting body matures. CONICAL CONVEX FOLDED FUNNEL-SHAPED UMBONATE

Flattened or Hole where wart

domed scarlet cap has broken off Gills and pores
Most, but not all, stemmed fungi have true
gills, or lamellae, beneath their caps. Spores
line the gills’ surface, ready for dispersal. Gill
thickness and spacing, and how they attach
to the stem help identify different species.

Stem free from Tightly packed, Widely spaced gills

cap and gills parallel gills attach to stem

Warts wash off as

mushroom ages

Raised white wart

Stems
Fungi stems offer identification clues to FLY AGARIC
(Amanita muscaria)
some species. They can be long or short,
CROWDED BROADLY SPACED
thick or thin, and some may have rings, Raised warts are remnants
bulbs, or other structures. of original white membrane
Gills attach Extent of gills Gills run length
to stem varies of cap to stem

Long,
slender
stem roots Stalk
Ring
directly Club-like
(annulus)
in soil base

ROOTING CLAVATE UNEQUAL LENGTH EQUAL LENGTH

Very wide, branching, Small holes

Bulb gill-like pores beneath cap
Ring
(annulus) (volva)

Stem girth
decreases
towards base

STEM AND RING TAPERED TO BASE CROSS-SECTION BRANCHING PORES

Branching outgrowths Stomach-shaped sac Funnel-shaped cap Yellow head

resemble coral contains spores releases
Stem spores
Narrow,
tapers
stem
towards
top
Pestle-shaped
fruiting body

Crust-like Gills on
growth underside
SKIN CORAL STAR TRUMPET PHALLIC CLUB PEAR

see also Environmental chemistry p.212 ▶ Types of living things p.216 ▶ The history of medicine pp.250–51 ▶ Modern medicine pp.252–53 ▶ 105