CHAPTER FOUR [BTME2223 APPLIED FLUID MECHANICS]

Chapter Four: Compressible Flow

Motivation

Flow that is compressible can be found in various natural and technological processes. Compressible
flow is important in selected application, however, including high speed flow of gases in pipes,
through nozzles, in turbines, combustion chambers and especially in relief valves. These are found
in internal flows processes. Apart from internal flows, compressible flow also includes flow around
the bodies like wings of aeroplane, aircraft and jet engines where this is considered an external flow.
The designers of these applications must appreciate the consequences of compressibility in gas flow,
predict the occurrence of shocks and understand the property changes across a shock wave in order
to achieve the objectives.

4.1 Introduction
4.2 Sound of Speed and Classification of Mach Number (Ma)
4.3 Stagnation Properties and the Effect of Area Variation
4.4 Shock Waves
4.5 Isentropic Flow

4.1 Introduction
The behaviour of fluids that experience significant changes in density under the application of internal
or external pressure is called compressible flow. For the flows in which the density is not varying
significantly under certain conditions, the assumption of constant density remains valid. Thus, this is
termed as incompressible flow. The incompressible flow leads to the concept of idealisation in
various theories. However, in many cases dealing with gases, especially at higher velocities and those
cases dealing with liquids with large pressure changes, significant variations in density can occur,
and the flow should be analysed as a compressible flow if accurate results are to be obtained. The
consequences of compressible flow will affect the drag coefficient of the bodies by the formation of
shock wave, stagnation pressure, and flows in converging-diverging section, discharge coefficient of
measuring devices such as an orifice meters, venturi meters and pitot tubes.

Compressibility is a property of fluids and measured by compressibility factor, 𝐾. For example, liquid
have very low value of compressibility factor, 𝐾water = 5 × 10−10 m2 /N while gases have very high
compressibility factor, 𝐾air = 10−5 m2 /N at 1 atmospheric pressure (1.01325 bar) under isothermal
condition. Generally, the compressibility factor is defined as

1 𝜕∀ 1 𝜕𝜌
𝐾=− ∙ (4.1a) 𝐾= ∙ (4.1b)
∀ 𝜕𝑃 𝜌 𝜕𝑃
where ∀ is the fluid volume, 𝜌 is the density of fluid and 𝑃 is the pressure exerted on the element.
Consider an example to illustrate just how incompressible water is, by using the above equation to
calculate the water density at the bottom of a well 500 m deep. Assume the density of water is 1000
kg/m3 and zero atmospheric pressure at the top of the well, and that the water temperature is 10°C.
At the bottom of the well, the pressure, 𝑃 is calculated as

𝑃 = 1000 × 9.81 × 500 = 4.905 × 106 Pa

Since the pressure at the top of the well is zero, then the change in pressure from top to bottom is
d𝑃 = 4.905 × 106 Pa.

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d𝜌 = 𝜌𝐾water 𝑑𝑃

d𝜌 = 1000 × 5 × 10−10 × 4.905 × 106 = 2.45 kg/m3

The water density at the bottom of the well is therefore 1002.45 kg/m3.

So, a compressible fluid, such as air, can be considered as incompressible with constant density if

a) Changes in elevation are small,

b) Acceleration is small, and/or
c) Changes in temperature are negligible.

However, the above example had shown the compressibility based on elevation. But, the properties
involve at the flow field are velocity, pressure, density and temperature. For compressible flow, the
density of a gas is related to both pressure and temperature where density changes the temperature.
However, the temperature changes in the flow due to the kinetic energy, associated with the velocity
changes. Thus, the change of density is essential to influence the flow. So, these three terms can be
linked to ideal or perfect gas law where

𝑃∀= 𝑚𝑅𝑇
𝑃 = 𝜌𝑅𝑇 (4.2)
Thus, the following assumptions will be made in the treatment given for the compressible flow:
a) Perfect gas assumption (Ideal gas law) where it is assumed to be thermally (isothermal) when
the 𝑅 is a constant and the internal energy and enthalpy are functions of temperature alone,
and calorically (adiabatic) when the specific heats are constant and are independent of
temperature.
b) The one-dimensional flow approximation is to be assumed that the flow direction along any
cross section in the passage remains constant. Under the consideration of flow properties
change appreciably only in the flow direction when it flow in a passage of a constant cross
section or in a passage with gradually change cross section.
c) Gravitational, magnetic and electrical, and the viscosity effects are all negligible. The mass
of a flowing fluid particularly is a gas contained in a very small control volume is
comparatively small and tentatively has no gravitational effect. Thus, it is reasonably to be
neglected and the approximation makes only insignificant deviation from reality.
The following fundamental equations, in addition to equation of state are required to solve the
problems of compressible flow. These are
a) Continuity equation
𝑚̇ = 𝜌𝐴𝑈 = constant (4.3)
Differentiating the equation,
𝐴𝑈d𝜌 + 𝜌𝐴d𝑈 + 𝜌𝑈d𝐴 = 0
d𝜌 d𝑈 d𝐴
+ + =0
𝜌 𝑈 𝐴 (4.4)

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b) Momentum equation for the uniform, compressible flow takes the form

𝜕
∑ 𝐹𝑥 = ⃗ ∙ 𝑛⃗d𝐴
∭ 𝑢𝜌d𝑉 + ∬ 𝑢𝜌𝑉
𝜕𝑡 (4.5)
CV CS
c) Energy equation for steady flow of compressible flow between two points along a streamline
as
𝑃2 − 𝑃1 𝑈22 − 𝑈12
+ + 𝑔(𝑍2 − 𝑍1 ) + (𝐼2 − 𝐼1 ) = 𝑤 + 𝑞 (4.6a)
𝜌 2
where 𝐼 is the internal energy, 𝑤 is the mechanical work done and 𝑞 is the head energy added.
All the forms of energy are expressed for unit mass of compressible flow. Knowing that the
enthalpy,
𝑃
𝐻 = +𝐼
𝜌
and thus,
𝑈22 − 𝑈12
𝐻2 − 𝐻1 + + 𝑔(𝑍2 − 𝑍1 ) = 𝑤 + 𝑞 (4.6b)
2
d) Bernoulli and Euler equation, for inviscid flows, the steady form of the momentum equation
is the Euler equation,
d𝑃 𝑈2
+ d( ) = 0 (4.7)
𝜌 2

4.2 Sound of Speed and Classification of Mach Number

4.2.1 The Speed of Sound
Seeing lightning flash and accompanying hearing the thunder is just happened within a second or
few. Obviously, the sound was produced by the lightning, so the sound wave must have travelled at
a finite speed. If we cause a very small pressure disturbance, for example, the pressure disturbance
we introduce in the air when we speak, this pressure disturbance will travel at a velocity called the
sonic velocity, or speed of sound.

Figure 4.1 Section view of sound wave Figure 4.2 Flow relative to the sound wave

Consider a small section of a pressure wave as it propagates at velocity 𝑐 through a medium, as

depicted in Figure 4.1. As the wave travels through the gas at pressure 𝑃 and density 𝜌, it produces
infinitesimal changes of ∆𝑃 , ∆𝜌 and ∆𝑈 . These changes must be related through the laws of
conservation of mass and momentum. Select a control surface around the wave and let the control
volume travel with the wave. The velocities, pressures, and densities relative to the control volume
(which is assumed to be very thin) are shown in Figure 4.2. Conservation of mass in steady flow
requires that the net mass flux across the control surface be zero. Thus,

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−𝜌𝑐𝐴 + (𝜌 + ∆𝜌)(𝑐 − ∆𝑈)𝐴 = 0 (4.8a)

where 𝐴 is the cross-sectional area of the control volume. Neglecting products of higher order term
(∆𝜌∆𝑈) and dividing the area reduces the conservation of mass equation to
−𝜌∆𝑈 + 𝑐∆𝜌 = 0 (4.8b)
The momentum equation for a non-accelerating steady flow,

⃗ 𝜌𝑉
∑ 𝐹𝑥 = ∬ 𝑉 ⃗ ∙ d𝐴 (4.9)
CS

applied to the control volume containing the pressure wave gives

𝑃𝐴 − (𝑃 + ∆𝑃)𝐴 = 𝑐𝜌(−𝑐)𝐴 + 𝑐𝜌(𝑐 − ∆𝑈)𝐴 (4.10a)
where the direction to the right is defined as positive. The moment equation reduces to
∆𝑃 = 𝜌𝑐∆𝑈 (4.10b)
Substituting the expression for ∆𝑈 obtained from Eq. 4.8b into Eq. 4.10b gives
∆𝑃
𝑐2 = (4.11a)
∆𝜌
which shows how the speed of propagation is related to the pressure and density change across the
wave. It is immediately obvious from this equation that if the flow wave ideally incompressible,
∆𝜌 = 0, the propagation speed would be infinite, which confirms the argument that thunder would
be heard before the lightning was seen. However, no medium can be completely incompressible and
propagate disturbances exceeding the speed of light.

Eq. 4.11a provides an expression for the speed of a general pressure wave. The sound wave is a
special type of pressure wave. By definition, a sound wave produces only infinitesimal changes in
pressure and density, so it can be regarded as a reversible process. There is also negligible small heat
transfer, so one can assume the process is adiabatic. A reversible, adiabatic process is an isentropic
process, thus the resulting expression for the speed of sound is

∆𝑃
𝑐2 = | (4.11b)
∆𝜌 𝑠
This equation is valid for the speed of sound in any substance. For an isentropic process in an ideal
gas law, the following relationship exists between pressure and density
𝑃
𝑃𝑣 𝛾 = constant → = constant (4.12a)
𝜌𝛾
where 𝛾 is the ratio of specific heats; that is, the ratio of specific heat at constant pressure to that at
constant volume.
𝐶𝑝
𝛾= (4.12b)
𝐶v
Taking the derivative of Eq. 4.12a to obtain 𝜕𝑃⁄𝜕𝜌|𝑠 results in
∆𝑃 𝛾𝑃
| = (4.12c)
∆𝜌 𝑠 𝜌
However, rearrange the ideal gas law in Eq. 4.2,
𝑃 (4.2)
= 𝑅𝑇
𝜌

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so, the speed of sound is given by

𝑐 = √𝛾𝑅𝑇 (4.13)

Thus the speed of sound in an ideal gas law varies with the square root of the temperature. Using this
equation to predict sound speeds in real gases at standard conditions gives results very near to
measured values. It is important to note that the preceding expressions refer only to waves in which
the change of pressure is very small compared with the pressure itself. Waves in which a
comparatively large pressure change occurs will be considered as shock wave. The assumption of
constant entropy is not justified for those large waves, and the moves at velocities greater than that
sound.

4.2.2 Mach Number (Ma) and Mach Cone

Of the various parameters that have introduced so far, 𝛾 is the ration of specific heats, is
dimensionless. In fluid mechanics studies, dimensionless numbers like lift/drag coefficient, Froude
number, Prandtl number, Reynolds number and etc are the important parameters for both theoretical
and computational reasons. The important dimensionless flow property that appears in compressible
flows is the Mach number (Ma), name after Ernst Mach. It is defined as the ratio of the local low
speed to the local sonic velocity, or

𝑈 (4.14)
Ma =
𝑐
The Mach number is the most important parameter in compressible flow analysis. Aerodynamicists
make a distinction between different regions of Mach numbers in the following ways:

 Ma < 𝟎. 𝟑: incompressible flow; change in density is negligible.

 𝟎. 𝟑 < Ma < 𝟏: subsonic flow; density changes are significant but shock waves do not
appear. In subsonic flow at relatively low velocities, the various forces and hence Reynolds
number are of predominance. As the velocity of flow increases, simultaneously Mach number
also increases and its influence become more and more pronounced.
 Ma = 𝟏: sonic flow; Mach number becomes unity, the effects to Reynolds ceases to have any
significance and are replaced by the compressibility effects indicated by the value of Mach
number. At Ma = 1, speed of flow is equal to sound speed.
 𝟏 < Ma: supersonic flow; shockwaves are generated. They not only affect the boundary layer
but also skin friction and the separation, which controls the form drag, and hence produce an
abrupt change of flow properties.

To distinguish the difference in subsonic, and supersonic behaviour, consider a sound source
travelling in a straight line with a velocity 𝑈. Suppose that, starting at time zero and at every fixed
time interval ∆𝑡 after, this source emits a spherical sound wave that travels outward with a
speed 𝑐. Let’s consider three important cases: subsonic, sonic and supersonic.

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Mach line

Figure 4.3 Sound waves from a moving source. The filled-in-circle indicates the present position of the source.

Consider the first subsonic case. At the time 5∆𝑡 , for example, the situation is as shown in
Figure 4.3a. The spherical wave fronts are nested, with no intersection. An observer in front of the
source would notice a Doppler effect: that is, because the wave fronts are no longer all spaced a
constant distance apart, the apparent frequency would be higher as the source approached the
observer, and lower once the source passes the observer.

In the sonic case (Figure 4.3b), the wave fronts all touch at the source. An observer directly ahead of
the source would suddenly hear the entire source as an abrupt noise when the source arrived at the
observer, and then, because of the Doppler effect, as a lowered frequency once it passed the observer.

The phenomenon develops further as the velocity of the sender becomes supersonic (Figure 4.3c).
This single point of contact of all the spherical waves seen in the sonic case now develops instead
into a cone of angle sin−1(1⁄Ma) that contains the intersecting spherical waves. This angle is known
as Mach angle and no sound reaches the observer until the Mach cone passes.

3𝑐∆𝑡
2𝑐∆𝑡
𝑐∆𝑡

Figure 4.4 Waves fronts emitted from a point source in a still fluid when the source speed 𝑈 is greater than 𝑐.

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From the figure shown above, the half angle of the cone, 𝛼 is known as the Mach angle and is given
by
𝑐∆𝑡 1
sin 𝛼 = = (4.15)
𝑈∆𝑡 Ma
1
𝛼 = sin−1 (4.16)
Ma
Since the disturbance are confined to the cone, the area within the cone is know n as the zone of action
and the area outside the cone is the zone of silence. An observer does not feel the effects of the moving
source till the Mach cone covers his position.

Example 4.1

An airplane travels at 800 km/h at sea level where the temperature is 15℃. How fast the airplane
would be flying at the same Mach number at an altitude where the temperature is −40℃?

Solution:

The sonic velocity 𝑐 at the sea level is

𝑐 = √𝛾𝑅𝑇 = √1.4(287)(288) = 340.2 m/s

Velocity of the airplane,

𝑈 = 800 km/h = 222.22 m/s

So, the Mach number of the airplane,

222.22
Ma = = 0.653
340.2
The sonic velocity at an altitude where the temperature is −40℃,

𝑐 = √𝛾𝑅𝑇 = √1.4(287)(233) = 306 m/s

Velocity of the airplane for the same Mach number,

𝑈 = 0.653 × 306 = 199.8 m/s OR 719.3 kph

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Example 4.2
A needle nose projectile travelling at a speed with Ma = 3 passes 200 m above the observer of the
following figure. Calculate the projectile’s velocity and determine how far beyond the observer the
projectile will first be heard if the temperature of air is standard which is 15℃.

Solution:

At a Mach number of 3 the velocity is

𝑈
Ma =
√𝛾𝑅𝑇

𝑈 = Ma√𝛾𝑅𝑇 = 3√1.4 × 287 × 288 ≈ 1021 m/s

Using ℎ as the height and 𝐿 as the distance beyond the observer as shown in figure, we have

ℎ 1
sin 𝛼 = =
√𝐿2 + ℎ2 Ma

200 1
=
√𝐿2 + 2002 3

√𝐿2 + 2002 = 600

𝐿2 = 6002 − 2002

𝐿 ≈ 566 m

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4.3 Stagnation Properties and the Effect of Area Variation

4.3.1 Stagnation Properties under Incompressible Flow
For subsonic flow, the change in density is negligible where the flow is considered as incompressible
flow. Thus, the changes of properties are negligible. The static pressure at upstream is 𝑃1 which can
be measured by means of a static tube or by a gauge connected through a piezometer opening. Let
the velocity at this point be 𝑈1 . The stagnation pressure at the same level as upstream can be measure
by means of a stagnation tube. Applying Bernoulli’s theorem between these points,

𝑃1 𝑈12 𝑃𝑜 𝑈𝑠2
+ + 𝑍1 = + + 𝑍2 (4.17a)
𝜌𝑔 2𝑔 𝜌𝑔 2𝑔
At stagnation point, the velocity 𝑈𝑠 is zero and losses have been neglected. Therefore,
𝑃1 𝑈12 𝑃𝑠
+ =
𝜌𝑔 2𝑔 𝜌𝑔
1
𝑃𝑠 = 𝑃1 + 𝜌𝑈12 (4.17b)
2
Also, the manometric difference between two points
𝑃𝑜 − 𝑃1 = 𝜌𝑔∆𝑍 (4.18)

4.3.2 Stagnation Properties under Compressible Flow

A stagnation point is characterized by the existence of zero velocity isentropically (flow was brought
to rest without any heat transferring), where the flow is assumed and considered to be adiabatic, that
is no heat transfer. When a pitot static tube is placed in a fluid, the velocity becomes zero at the tip
of the pitot tube and the pressure at this point is known as stagnation pressure, 𝑃𝑜 . The stagnation
values are useful reference conditions in a compressible flow. Since the pressure, density and
temperature are inter-related in a compressible fluid, the change in pressure also affects the
temperature. The temperature at this point is referred to as stagnation temperature, 𝑇𝑜 . At the same
time, the density of the fluid also changes appreciable, in contrast to incompressible fluid (constant
density fluid) and it is known as stagnation density, 𝜌𝑜 . The stagnation values are denoted by a
subscript o. Thus, according to First Law of Thermodynamic, the energy at two sections is given by
2
1 2
𝑈2 2
−
1 1 𝑈22 𝑈12
∫ d𝑃 = − ∫ d ( ) → ∫ 𝑃 𝛾 𝐶 𝛾 𝑑𝑃 = − [ − ]
1 ρ 1 2 1 2 2
2
1 1 1 2
− +1
𝑃 𝛾 𝐶𝛾 𝑈12 𝑈22 𝛾 𝛾−1 𝑃 𝛾 𝑈12 𝑈22
| = − → [𝑃 𝛾 ∙ ] = −
1 2 2 𝛾−1 𝜌 2 2
−𝛾 +1
1 1

𝛾 𝑃2 𝑃1 𝑈12 𝑈22
[ − ]= − (4.19)
𝛾 − 1 𝜌2 𝜌1 2 2

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Figure 4.5 Stagnation pressure

Since 𝑍2 = 𝑍1 , then
𝑈22 𝑈12 𝛾 𝑃1 𝑃2
− = ( − )
2 2 𝛾 − 1 𝜌1 𝜌2
𝑈22 𝑈12 𝛾 𝑃1 𝜌1 𝑃2
− = ∙ (1 − × ) (4.20)
2 2 𝛾 − 1 𝜌1 𝑃1 𝜌2
But,
1
𝑃1 𝑃2 𝜌1 𝑃1 𝛾
𝛾 = 𝛾 → =( ) (4.21a)
𝜌1 𝜌2 𝜌2 𝑃2
1
𝑈22 𝑈12 𝛾 𝑃1 𝑃2 𝑃1 𝛾
− = ∙ [1 − × ( ) ]
2 2 𝛾 − 1 𝜌1 𝑃1 𝑃2

𝛾−1
𝑈22 𝑈12 𝛾 𝑃1 𝑃2 𝛾
− = ∙ [1 − ( ) ] (4.21b)
2 2 𝛾 − 1 𝜌1 𝑃1

Substitute Eq. 4.13 into the above equation and it gives

𝛾−1
𝑈22 𝑈12 𝑐2 𝑃2 𝛾
− = [1 − ( ) ]
2 2 𝛾−1 𝑃1

𝛾−1
𝑃2 𝛾 𝛾 − 1 𝑈22 𝑈12
( ) = 1− ∙( − ) (4.22)
𝑃1 𝑐2 2 2
If the point 2 lies at the point of stagnation, then 𝑈2 = 0 and 𝑃2 = 𝑃𝑜 , the stagnation pressure.
1−𝛾
𝑃𝑜 𝛾 𝛾 − 1 𝑈12
( ) = 1+ 2 ∙
𝑃1 𝑐 2
1−𝛾
𝑃𝑜 𝛾 𝛾−1 2
( ) = 1+ Ma1
𝑃1 2
𝛾
𝑃𝑜 𝛾 − 1 2 𝛾−1
= (1 + Ma1 ) (4.23)
𝑃1 2

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The expression for density 𝜌2 can now be determined. From Eq. (4.21a)
1
𝛾 𝛾
𝜌𝑜 𝛾−1 2 𝛾−1
= [(1 + Ma1 ) ]
𝜌1 2

1
𝜌𝑜 𝛾 − 1 2 𝛾−1
= (1 + Ma1 ) (4.24)
𝜌1 2
The temperature 𝑇𝑜 at the stagnation point 2 is determine from the ideal gas law equation Eq. (4.2),
substitute the expression of 𝑃𝑠 and 𝜌𝑠 into the equation and leads to
𝛾
𝛾−1 𝛾−1
𝑃1 (1 + 2 Ma21 )
𝑅𝑇𝑜 = 1
𝛾 − 1 2 𝛾−1
𝜌1 (1 + Ma1 )
2

1 𝑃1 𝛾−1 2
𝑇𝑜 = ∙ (1 + Ma1 )
𝑅 𝜌1 2

𝑇𝑜 𝛾−1 2 (4.25)
=1+ Ma1
𝑇1 2
The static property values of a fluid element, the values we are using are defined to be those property
values that would be seen by an observer moving with the fluid element as denoted with subscript 1;
therefore, they are independent of the reference frame being used. The following shows the
relationship in isentropic process.
𝛾−1
𝑇2 𝑃2 𝛾
=( ) (4.26a)
𝑇1 𝑃1
1
𝜌2 𝑃2 𝛾 (4.26b)
=( )
𝜌1 𝑃1

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Example 4.3:
A Pitot-static tube is inserted into an airstream of velocity 𝑈1 , pressure 1.02 × 105 Pa and
temperature 28℃. It is connected differentially to a mercury U-tube manometer. Calculate the
difference of mercury levels in the two limbs of the manometer if the velocity 𝑈1 is
a) 50 m/s, and
b) 250 m/s.
Take the specific gravity of mercury as 13.6 and for air 𝛾 = 1.4 and 𝑅 = 287 J/kgK.

𝛾
a. First of all, the value of the Mach number must be 𝛾 − 1 2 𝛾−1
calculated in order to establish the type of flow taking place, 𝑃𝑜 = 𝑃1 (1 + Ma1 )
which will govern the choice of appropriate equations. 2
Given the local temperature is 28°C 1.4
5
1.4 − 1 1.4−1
50 𝑃𝑜 = 1.02 × 10 (1 + × 0.71892 )
Ma = = 0.1438 2
√1.4 × 287 × 301
𝑃𝑜 = 1.44 × 105 Pa
Therefore the flow is considered as incompressible flow and
Bernoulli equation in Section 4.3.1 may be used: Therefore,

1 𝑃𝑜 − 𝑃1 = 𝜌mercury 𝑔ℎ
𝑃𝑜 − 𝑃1 = 𝜌𝑈12
2
And the density of air (1.44 − 1.02) × 105
𝑃1 = 𝜌𝑅𝑇1 ℎ=
13600 × 9.81
𝑃1 1.02 × 105 ℎ = 0.3148 m
𝜌= = = 1.18 kg⁄m3
𝑅𝑇1 287 × 301
ℎ = 314.8 mm
1
𝑃𝑜 − 𝑃1 = × 1.18 × 502 = 1476 Pa
2

And
𝑃𝑜 − 𝑃1 = 𝜌mercury 𝑔ℎ

1476
ℎ= ≈ 0.011 m
13600 × 9.81

ℎ ≈ 11 mm

b. Calculate the Mach number to establish the type of flow

taking place,

250
Ma = = 0.7189
√1.4 × 287 × 301

Compressibility effects must be taken into account under

this subsonic flow. Therefore, Eq. 3.15 is used.
𝛾
𝑃𝑜 𝛾 − 1 2 𝛾−1
= (1 + Ma1 )
𝑃1 2

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 CHAPTER FOUR [BTME2223 APPLIED FLUID MECHANICS]

Example 4.4:
An object is immersed in an air flow with a static pressure of 200kPa (abs), a static temperature of
20°C, and velocity of 200 m/s. what is the pressure and temperature at the stagnation point?

Solution:

Velocity of sound at 20°C,

𝑐 = √𝛾𝑅𝑇 = √1.4 × 287 × (20 + 273)

𝑐 = 343 m/s

Then the corresponding Mach number,

200
Ma = = 0.583
343

The stagnation temperature,

𝑇𝑠 𝛾−1 2
=1+ Ma1
𝑇1 2

0.4
𝑇𝑠 = (293) [1 + × 0.5832 ]
2

𝑇𝑠 ≈ 313 K

𝑇𝑠 ≈ 40℃

The stagnation pressure,

𝛾
𝑃𝑠 𝛾 − 1 2 𝛾−1
= (1 + Ma1 )
𝑃1 2
1.4
0.4 0.4
𝑃𝑠 = (200 kPa) [1 + × 0.5832 ]
2

𝑃𝑠 = 251.8 kPa

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 CHAPTER FOUR [BTME2223 APPLIED FLUID MECHANICS]

4.3.3 Effect of Area Variation on Flow Properties in Isentropic Flow

Although isentropic flow is an ideal condition of flow which occurs under adiabatic process and is
frictionless. The condition of flow can never be fully realised in practice, even then the assumption
of isentropic flow conditions gives a satisfactory approximation for the analysis of flow through short
transitions, orifices, venturimeters and nozzles in which friction and heat transfer are minor effects
which can be neglected. In considering the effect of area variation on flow properties in isentropic
flow, the primary concern is the velocity and pressure. We shall determine the effect of change in
area 𝐴, on the velocity 𝑈, and the pressure 𝑃. From the Bernoulli and Euler equation,

d𝑃 𝑈2
+ d( ) = 0
𝜌 2
d𝑃 = −𝜌𝑈d𝑈
Dividing the above equation by 𝜌𝑈 2,
1 d𝑃 d𝑈
2
∙ =− (4.27)
𝑈 𝜌 𝑈
A convenient differential form of the continuity equation can be obtained from the fundamental
equation of compressible flow as
d𝜌 d𝐴 d𝑈
+ =−
𝜌 𝐴 𝑈
and substitute it into Eq. 4.18,
1 d𝑃 d𝜌 d𝐴
∙ = +
𝑈2 𝜌 𝜌 𝐴
d𝐴 1 d𝑃 d𝜌
= 2∙ −
𝐴 𝑈 𝜌 𝜌

d𝐴 d𝑃 𝑈2
= (1 − )
𝐴 𝜌𝑈 2 d𝑃⁄
d𝜌
Invoking the relation from Eq. 4.11b for isentropic process in the equation,
d𝐴 d𝑃 𝑈2 d𝑃
= 2
(1 − 2
) = 2
(1 − Ma2 ) (4.28)
𝐴 𝜌𝑈 𝑐 𝜌𝑈
From Eq. 4.28, we see that for Ma < 1 an area change causes a pressure change of same sign, for
example, positive d𝐴 means positive d𝑃 for Ma < 1. For Ma > 1, an area change causes a pressure
change of opposite sign. Again, substituting from Eq. 4.27 into Eq. 4.28, it leads to
d𝐴 d𝑈 (4.29)
=− (1 − Ma2 )
𝐴 𝑈

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 CHAPTER FOUR [BTME2223 APPLIED FLUID MECHANICS]

From Eq. 4.29, we see that Ma < 1 an area change causes a velocity change of opposite sign, for
example, positive d𝐴 means negative d𝑈 for Ma < 1. For Ma > 1, an area change causes a velocity
change of same sign. The results are summarized in the following figure and the relations in
Eq. 4.28 and Eq. 4.29 lead to the following important conclusions about compressible flows:

Figure 4.6 Shapes of nozzles and diffusers in subsonic and supersonic regimes

a) At subsonic speeds (Ma < 1), a decrease in area increases the speed of flow. A subsonic
nozzle should have a convergent profile and a subsonic diffuser should possess a divergent
profile. The flow behaviour in the regime of Ma < 1 is therefore qualitatively the same as in
incompressible flows.
b) In supersonic flows (Ma > 1), the effect of area changes a different. According to Eq. 4.29,
a supersonic nozzle must be built a converging channel. Divergent nozzles are used to produce
supersonic flow in missiles and launch vehicles.

Suppose a nozzle is used to obtain a supersonic stream starting from low speeds at the inlet. Then the
Mach number should increase from Ma = 0 near the inlet to Ma > 1 at the exit. It is clear that the
nozzle must converge in the subsonic portion and diverge in the supersonic portion. Such a nozzle is
called a convergent-divergent nozzle or also called a de Laval nozzle. This will be further discussed
in upcoming section.

4.4 Shock Waves

Whenever the flow changes abruptly from supersonic to subsonic it is accompanied by a rise in
pressure and density and reduction in velocity of flow. Thus, a shock wave is generated. In case of
one dimensional stationary shock wave, the supersonic flow at upstream is converted into subsonic
flow in a very short reach. And it is accompanied by a sudden change in pressure. Thus, shock wave
is a fixed strong pressure wave or disturbance wave. At the same time, the velocity and hence the
Mach number of the flow is reduced across a shock wave. The thickness of the shock front across the
discontinuity may be of the order of 10−3 cm to 10−5 cm. The first successful analyses of these
normal shock relations are credited to W.J.M. Rankine (1870) and A.Hugoniot (1887), hence the
modern term Rankine – Hugoniot relations.

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 CHAPTER FOUR [BTME2223 APPLIED FLUID MECHANICS]

The shock wave may occur in the divergent section of a nozzle, in the diffuser throat of a supersonic
wind tunnel, in front of blunt bodies as well as in pipes. Shock waves in a gas are analogues to
hydraulic jump that can be found in open channel flow. The flow changes from supercritical (Fr > 1)
to subcritical (Fr < 1), accompanied by the increase in depth and decrease in velocity. Similarly in
shock wave, the change of supersonic flow to subsonic flow causes the wave to “stand”. The shock
wave may be weak or strong: in the former the supersonic flow upstream remains supersonic in the
downstream region, but in the latter the effect is much greater and the supersonic flow is reduced to
subsonic flow.

The shock waves may be either normal or oblique with respect to direction of flow.

Ma > 1 Ma < 1

(a) (b)

(c)
Figure 4.7 (a) normal shock waves, (b) and (c) oblique shock waves

However, only normal shock waves have been discussed here. The elements of shock waves can be
obtained by the application of continuity equation, momentum equation, energy equation and perfect
gas law. Let 𝜌1 , 𝑈1 and 𝑃1 be the density, velocity and pressure upstream of shock front respectively.
The corresponding values of density, velocity and pressure downstream of shock front are 𝜌2 , 𝑈2 and
𝑃2 respectively. From continuity equation [Eq. (4.3)],
𝑚̇ = 𝜌1 𝐴1 𝑈1 = 𝜌2 𝐴2 𝑈2 (4.3)
If the cross section area is constant, then
𝑚̇
= 𝜌1 𝑈1 = 𝜌2 𝑈2 (4.30)
𝐴
From the momentum equation [Eq. (4.5)],
(𝑃1 − 𝑃2 )𝐴 = 𝜌1 𝐴𝑈1 (𝑈2 − 𝑈1 )
𝑃1 − 𝑃2 = 𝜌1 𝑈1 𝑈2 − 𝜌1 𝑈12
𝑃1 − 𝑃2 = 𝜌2 𝑈22 − 𝜌1 𝑈12 (4.31)

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 CHAPTER FOUR [BTME2223 APPLIED FLUID MECHANICS]

Applying Eqs 4.13 and 4.14, Eq. 4.31 may be written

𝑃2 𝛾 𝑃1 𝛾
𝑃1 − 𝑃2 = 2 𝑈22 − 2 𝑈12
𝑐 𝑐
𝑃1 − 𝑃2 = 𝑃2 𝛾Ma22 − 𝑃1 𝛾Ma21
𝑃2 1 + 𝛾Ma21
= (4.32)
𝑃1 1 + 𝛾Ma22
If there is no net heat transfer and work done to or from the stream tube considered, the adiabatic
energy equation may be used. Hence
𝑈22 − 𝑈12
𝐻2 − 𝐻1 + =0
2
𝑈22 − 𝑈12
𝐶𝑝 (𝑇2 − 𝑇1 ) + =0
2
1 1
𝐶𝑝 𝑇1 + 𝑈12 = 𝐶𝑝 𝑇2 + 𝑈22 (4.33)
2 2
Thus the stagnation temperature does not change across the shock if 𝐶𝑝 remains constant. Putting
𝑈 = Ma√𝛾𝑅𝑇 for a perfect gas we obtain
1 1
𝐶𝑝 𝑇1 + 𝛾𝑅𝑇1 Ma12 = 𝐶𝑝 𝑇2 + 𝛾𝑅𝑇2 Ma22
2 2
1 2 𝛾−1 2
𝑇2 𝐶𝑝 + 2 𝛾𝑅Ma1 1 + 2 Ma1
= = (4.34)
𝑇1 𝐶 + 1 𝛾𝑅Ma2 1 + 𝛾 − 1 Ma2
𝑝 2 2 2 2

From the equation of state and continuity equation [Eq. (4.30)],

𝑃1 𝑃2
=
𝜌1 𝑇1 𝜌2 𝑇2
𝑇2 𝑃2 𝜌1 𝑃2 𝑈2
= =
𝑇1 𝜌2 𝑃1 𝑃1 𝑈1
𝑇2 𝑃2 Ma2 √𝛾𝑅𝑇2 𝑃2 Ma2 2 (4.35)
= =( )
𝑇1 𝑃1 Ma1 √𝛾𝑅𝑇1 𝑃1 Ma1

Substituting Eq.s 4.32 and 4.35 now gives

𝛾−1 2
1 + 2 Ma21 1 + 𝛾Ma21 Ma22
=( 2)
𝛾−1 2 1 + 𝛾Ma Ma21
1 + 2 Ma2 2

An obvious and trivial solution of this equation is Ma21 = Ma22 ; that is conditions upstream and
downstream are identical and no shock exist. Simplification in which Ma21 − Ma22 is factored out,
however, gives
2
Ma21 + 𝛾 − 1
Ma22 = (4.36)
2𝛾
Ma21 − 1
(𝛾 − 1)
From this result the downstream Mach number may be calculated and the ratios of pressure,
temperature, density and velocity then obtained from the equations (4.32, 4.34 and 4.35). Eq. 4.26

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 CHAPTER FOUR [BTME2223 APPLIED FLUID MECHANICS]

shows that if Ma1 = 1 then Ma2 = 1, and that if Ma1 > 1, Ma2 < 1. Also, the equations obtained
𝜌 𝑃
above 2⁄𝜌1 may be expressed in terms of 2⁄𝑃 .
1
𝑃2
𝜌2 (𝛾 − 1) + (𝛾 + 1) 𝑃1
= (4.37)
𝜌1 (𝛾 + 1) − (𝛾 − 1) 𝑃2
𝑃1
However, Eq.s 4.32, 4.34 and 4.37 can be expressed into other forms by eliminating Ma2 term,
𝑃2 2𝛾 𝛾−1
= Ma21 −
𝑃1 𝛾 + 1 𝛾+1 (4.38a)

𝜌2 𝛾 + 1 Ma21
= ∙ (4.38b)
𝜌1 2 𝛾−1
1 + ( 2 ) Ma21

𝑇2 [(𝛾 − 1)Ma21 + 2][2𝛾Ma21 − (𝛾 − 1)] (4.38c)

=
𝑇1 (𝛾 + 1)2 Ma21

Example 4.5:
A Pitot-static tube is inserted into an airstream of velocity 𝑈1 , pressure 1.02 × 105 Pa and
temperature 28℃. It is connected differentially to a mercury U-tube manometer. Calculate the
difference of mercury levels in the two limbs of the manometer if the velocity 𝑈1 is 420m/s. Take the
specific gravity of mercury as 13.6 and for air 𝛾 = 1.4 and 𝑅 = 287 J/kgK.
Similar steps are applied here as in Example 3.3. At first, Mach 2 2
Ma21 + 1.2082 +
number must be calculated in order to establish the type of flow 𝛾−1 1.4 − 1
Ma22 = =
taking place. 2𝛾 2 × 1.4
Ma2 − 1 × 1.2082 − 1
(𝛾 − 1) 1 (1.4 − 1)
420
Ma = = 1.208
√1.4 × 287 × 301 Ma22 = 0.700
Hence,
𝛾
The flow is supersonic and, therefore, a shockwave will be formed 𝑃𝑜 𝛾 − 1 2 𝛾−1
owing to the disturbance created by the Pitot-tube. As the nose of = (1 + Ma 2 )
the tube is rounded, it is reasonable to assume that the shockwave 𝑃2 2
𝛾
will be detached and a section of it just upstream of the pitot-tube 𝛾 − 1 2 𝛾−1
will be normal to it. Thus, the pressure downstream of the shock 𝑃𝑜 = 𝑃2 (1 + Ma 2 )
2
and upstream of the tube will be given by Eq. 3.29. 1.4
5
1.4 − 1 1.4−1
𝑃𝑜 = 1.567 × 10 (1 + × 0.700)
𝑃2 2𝛾 𝛾−1 2
= Ma21 −
𝑃1 𝛾 + 1 𝛾+1
𝑃𝑜 = 2.479 × 105 Pa
2𝛾 𝛾−1
𝑃2 = 𝑃1 ( Ma21 − ) 𝑃𝑜 − 𝑃2 = 𝜌mercury 𝑔ℎ
𝛾+1 𝛾+1

2 × 1.4 1.4 − 1 𝑃𝑜 − 𝑃2
𝑃2 = 1.02 × 105 ( × 1.2082 − ) ℎ=
1.4 + 1 1.4 + 1 𝜌mercury 𝑔

𝑃2 = 1.567 × 105 Pa (2.479 − 1.567) × 105

ℎ=
13600 × 9.81
Now, in order to calculate the stagnation pressure there, using Eq.
3.15, it is necessary first to determine the Mach number in the ℎ = 0.684 m
action zone between the shockwave and the Pitot-tube. This may be
obtained from Eq. 3.27: ℎ = 684 mm

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 CHAPTER FOUR [BTME2223 APPLIED FLUID MECHANICS]

Example 4.6
The air is flowing through a duct and a normal shockwave is formed at a cross section at which the
Mach number is 2.0. The upstream pressure and temperature are 105 bar and 15°C respectively. Find
the Mach number, pressure, and temperature immediately downstream of the shockwave. Take 𝛾 =
1.4.

Sol:
The downstream Mach number can be determined using Eq. 3.27,

2
Ma21 + 𝛾 − 1
Ma22 =
2𝛾
Ma2 − 1
(𝛾 − 1) 1

2
2.02 + 1.4 − 1
Ma2 = √ = 0.5774
2 × 1.4 2
× 2.0 − 1
(1.4 − 1)

Apply Eq. 3.29 to determine the downstream pressure and temperature after the shockwave formed,

𝑃2 2𝛾 𝛾−1
= Ma21 −
𝑃1 𝛾 + 1 𝛾+1

2𝛾 𝛾−1
𝑃2 = 𝑃1 ( Ma21 − )
𝛾+1 𝛾+1

2 × 1.4 1.4 − 1
𝑃2 = (105 bar) ( × 2.02 − )
1.4 + 1 1.4 + 1

𝑃2 = 472.5 bar OR 472.5 × 105 Pa

𝑇2 [(𝛾 − 1)Ma21 + 2][2𝛾Ma21 − (𝛾 − 1)]

=
𝑇1 (𝛾 + 1)2 Ma21

[(𝛾 − 1)Ma21 + 2][2𝛾Ma21 − (𝛾 − 1)]

𝑇2 = 𝑇1 { }
(𝛾 + 1)2 Ma21

[(1.4 − 1) × 2.02 + 2][2 × 1.4 × 2.02 − (1.4 − 1)]

𝑇2 = (15 + 273) { }
(1.4 + 1)2 × 2.02

𝑇2 = 288 × 1.6875

𝑇2 = 486 K

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 CHAPTER FOUR [BTME2223 APPLIED FLUID MECHANICS]

4.5 Isentropic Flow

In Section 4.3.3 had discussed the effect of area variation on flow properties in isentropic flow.
However, a further discussion will be introduced where the flow is adiabatically flowing in a
converging nozzle as well as in converging-diverging nozzle (also known as de Laval nozzle).

4.5.1 Isentropic Flow in a Converging Nozzle

The flow of a compressible fluid through a nozzle or an orifice may be regarded as frictionless
adiabatic or isentropic process if the pressure is appreciable. On the other hand, if the pressure drop
is small, the process can be considered to be isothermal (constant in temperature). Let’s us consider
a convergent passage or nozzle through which compressible fluid is flowing out. Let the flow take
isentropically, then we can write
𝑚̇ = 𝜌𝐴𝑈
𝑚̇ 𝑃
= ∙ 𝑐Ma
𝐴 𝑅𝑇
𝑚̇ 𝑃 𝑚̇ 𝑃 𝛾
= ∙ √𝛾𝑅𝑇 ∙ Ma → = ∙ √ ∙ Ma
𝐴 𝑅𝑇 𝐴 √𝑇 𝑅
𝑚̇ 𝑃 𝑇𝑜 1 𝛾
= ∙ 𝑃𝑜 ∙ √ ∙ √ ∙ √ ∙ Ma
𝐴 𝑃𝑜 𝑇 𝑇𝑜 𝑅

𝐴2
𝑚̇
𝐴1

𝑃, 𝜌, 𝑇, 𝑈2

𝑈𝑜 = 0

𝑃
( 2⁄𝑃 )
1 cr
Figure 4.8 (a) Flow through a convergent nozzle, (b) variation of mass flow rate with pressure ratio

−𝛾 1
𝑚̇ 𝑇𝑜 𝛾−1 𝑇𝑜 2 𝑃𝑜 𝛾
=( ) ∙( ) ∙ ∙ √ ∙ Ma
𝐴 𝑇 𝑇 √𝑇𝑜 𝑅
𝛾+1
𝑚̇ 𝑇𝑜 −2(𝛾−1) 𝑃𝑜 𝛾
=( ) ∙ ∙ √ ∙ Ma
𝐴 𝑇 √𝑇𝑜 𝑅

𝑚̇ 𝑃𝑜 𝛾 1
= ∙ √ ∙ Ma ∙ 𝛾+1 (4.39)
𝐴 √𝑇𝑜 𝑅
𝛾−1 2(𝛾−1)
(1 + 2 Ma2 )

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 CHAPTER FOUR [BTME2223 APPLIED FLUID MECHANICS]

In Eq. (4.39), 𝑃1 , 𝑇1 , 𝛾, and 𝑅 are constant. The discharge per unit area 𝑚̇⁄𝐴 is a function of Ma only.
There exists a particular value of Ma for which 𝑚̇⁄𝐴 is maximum (as shown in Figure 4.8).
Differentiating with respect to Ma and equating it to zero, we shall get

d 𝑚̇ Ma2 (𝛾 + 1)
( )=0 → 1− =0
d(Ma) 𝐴 𝛾−1 2
2 (1 + 2 Ma )

Ma2 (𝛾 + 1) = 2 + (𝛾 − 1)Ma2 → Ma = 1
Properties of compressible flow through a nozzle that is attached to a large vessel (could be
pressurised vessel) or reservoir of stagnant gas are to be studied. The pipe on the end of the nozzle is
connected to a tank and vacuum pump or discharge to atmosphere. The properties can be determined
through the First Law of Thermodynamic, where the energy at two sections is given by
2
1 2
𝑈2 2
−
1 1 𝑈22 𝑈12
∫ d𝑃 = − ∫ d ( ) → ∫ 𝑃 𝛾𝐶𝛾 𝑑𝑃 = − [ − ]
1 ρ 1 2 1 2 2
2
1 1 1 2
− +1
𝑃 𝛾 𝐶𝛾 𝑈12 𝑈22 𝛾 𝛾−1 𝑃 𝛾 𝑈12 𝑈22
| = − → [𝑃 𝛾 ∙ ] = −
1 2 2 𝛾−1 𝜌 2 2
−𝛾 + 1
1 1

𝛾 𝑃2 𝑃1 𝑈12 𝑈22
[ − ]= −
𝛾 − 1 𝜌2 𝜌1 2 2
Since 𝑍2 = 𝑍1 , then
𝑈22 𝑈12 𝛾 𝑃1 𝑃2 𝑈22 𝑈12 𝛾 𝑃2 𝑃1 𝜌2
− = ( − ) → − = ∙ ( − 1)
2 2 𝛾 − 1 𝜌1 𝜌2 2 2 𝛾 − 1 𝜌2 𝜌1 𝑃2
Substitute Eq. (4.13) into the above equation and it gives
𝛾−1
𝑈22 𝑈12 𝑐22 𝑃1 𝛾
− = ∙ [( ) − 1]
2 2 𝛾−1 𝑃2
set 𝑈1 = 0 as the velocity is stagnant in an enclosed tank. Hence,
𝛾−1
𝑃1 𝛾 𝛾 − 1 𝑈22 (4.22)
( ) =1− 2 ∙( )
𝑃2 𝑐2 2
𝛾
𝑃𝑜1 𝛾 − 1 2 𝛾−1
= (1 + Ma2 )
𝑃2 2
So, discharge is maximum when Ma = 1. At Mach number of 1, these sonic or critical properties are
moving stream and denoted by 𝑃cr , 𝜌cr , 𝑇cr and 𝑐cr . Thus, Eqs (4.23), (4.24) and (4.25) can be
expressed into the following form, if 𝛾 = 1.4

𝑇𝑜 1 + 𝛾 𝑇cr
= → = 0.8333 (4.40a)
𝑇 2 𝑇𝑜
𝛾
𝑃𝑜 1 + 𝛾 𝛾−1 𝑃cr (4.40b)
=( ) → = 0.5283
𝑃 2 𝑃𝑜
1
𝜌𝑜 1 + 𝛾 𝛾−1 𝜌cr (4.40c)
=( ) → = 0.6339
𝜌 2 𝜌𝑜

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 CHAPTER FOUR [BTME2223 APPLIED FLUID MECHANICS]

where 𝑇, 𝑃 and 𝜌 are the local temperature, pressure and density at the cross section areal. Also, by
substituting Ma = 1 into Eq. (4.39),
𝛾+1
𝑚̇max 𝑃1 𝛾 2 2(𝛾−1)
= ∙√ ∙( ) (4.41)
𝐴cr √𝑇1 𝑅 1 + 𝛾

Dividing the equation above by Eq. (4.32), we obtain,

𝛾+1
𝐴 1 2 𝛾 − 1 2 2(𝛾−1) (4.42)
= [( ) (1 + Ma )]
𝐴cr Ma 1 + 𝛾 2

From Eq. 4.42 we see that a choice of Ma gives a unique value

of 𝐴⁄𝐴cr . The variation of 𝐴⁄𝐴cr with Ma is show in Figure
4.9. Noted that the curve in Figure 4.9 is doubled valued: that
is, for a given value of 𝐴⁄𝐴cr (other than unity), there are two Figure 3.9 Variation of 𝐴⁄𝐴cr with Ma in
possible values of Mach number. This signifies the fact that isentropic flow for 𝛾 = 1.4
the supersonic nozzle is diverging.

However, for a stagnation conditions, the maximum possible mass flow passes through a duct when
its throat is at the critical or sonic condition. The duct is then said to be chocked and can carry no
additional mass flow unless the throat is widened. If the throat is constricted further, the mass flow
through the duct must decrease. Or, if the pressure ratio in Eq. (4.40) is below the critical value
(< 0.5283), the duct or nozzle is said to be choked where the mass flowrate is the maximum for the
flow area. Further reduction in pressure ratio below the critical value will not increase the mass
flowrate.

Operation of Converging Nozzle: Consider the converging nozzle sketched in Fig. 4.10a.
There is an upstream reservoir at stagnation pressure 𝑃𝑜 . The flow is induced by lowering the
downstream outside, or back, pressure 𝑃𝑏 below 𝑃𝑜 , in the sequence of states a to e shown in
Fig. 4.10b and 4.10c. For a moderate drop in 𝑃𝑏 to states a and b, the throat pressure is higher than
the critical value 𝑃cr which would make the throat sonic. The flow in the nozzle is subsonic
throughout, and the jet exit pressure 𝑃𝑒 equals the back pressure 𝑃𝑏 . The mass flow is predicted by
subsonic isentropic theory and is less than the critical value 𝑚̇max , as shown in Fig. 4.10c.

For condition c, the back pressure exactly equals the critical pressure 𝑃cr of the throat. The throat
becomes sonic, the jet exit flow is sonic, 𝑃𝑒 = 𝑃𝑏 , and the mass flow equals its maximum value from
Eq. (4.41). The flow upstream of the throat is subsonic everywhere and predicted by isentropic theory
based on the local area ratio 𝐴/𝐴cr and Table 4A.1 in Appendix 4A.

Finally, if 𝑃𝑏 is lowered further to conditions d or e below 𝑃cr , the nozzle cannot respond further
because it is choked at its maximum throat mass flow. The throat remains sonic with 𝑃𝑒 = 𝑃cr , and
the nozzle-pressure distribution is the same as in state c, as sketched in Fig. 4.10b. The exit jet
expands supersonically so that the jet pressure can be reduced from 𝑃cr down to 𝑃𝑏 . The jet structure
is complex and multidimensional and is not shown here. Being supersonic, the jet cannot send any
signal upstream to influence the choked flow conditions in the nozzle.

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 CHAPTER FOUR [BTME2223 APPLIED FLUID MECHANICS]

Fig. 4.10: Operation of a converging nozzle: (a) nozzle geometry showing characteristic pressures; (b) pressure
distribution caused by various back pressures; (c) mass flow versus back pressure.

Example 4.7
A supersonic wind tunnel consists of a large reservoir containing gas under high pressure which is
discharged through a convergent-divergent nozzle to a test section of constant cross sectional area.
The cross sectional area at the throat of the nozzle is 300 mm2 and the Mach number in the test section
is 5. Calculate the cross sectional area of the test section assuming 𝛾 = 1.4.

Given Mach number at the throat (test) section is 5 and the ratio
of specific gas constant is 1.4, then these can be substituted into
Eq. (3.42)
𝛾+1
𝐴 1 2 𝛾 − 1 2 2(𝛾−1)
= [( ) (1 + Ma )]
𝐴cr Ma 1 + 𝛾 2
2.4
𝐴 1 2 1 0.8
= [( ) (1 + × 52 )] = 25
𝐴cr 5 2.4 5

Thus, the cross sectional area of the test section is,

𝐴 = 25𝐴cr

𝐴 = 7500 mm2

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 CHAPTER FOUR [BTME2223 APPLIED FLUID MECHANICS]

Extra Example #1
A converging duct passes air steadily from standard atmospheric conditions (𝑃atm = 101.325 kPa
and T = 15℃) to a receiver pipe as illustrated in figure below. The throat flow cross-sectional area of
the converging duct is 1 × 10−4 m2. Determine the mass flowrate through the duct if the receiver
pressure is: (a) 80 kPa (abs); (b) 40 kPa (abs).

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 CHAPTER FOUR [BTME2223 APPLIED FLUID MECHANICS]

4.5.2 Isentropic Flow in a Converging-Diverging Nozzle (The Laval Nozzle)

This type of nozzle was first introduced by a Swedish Engineer and is named after its inventor de
Laval (1885 – 1913). It is a convergent divergent nozzle with subsonic flow occurring in the
convergent section, critical or transonic conditions in the throat and supersonic flow in the divergent
section. Thus, the main purpose of this type of nozzle is to produce supersonic flow in a nozzle.

𝐴𝑜 𝑃𝑏 = back pressure
𝐴cr 𝐴𝑒
𝑃𝑜 𝑃
𝑃cr 𝑃𝑒 = exit pressure

𝑃cr
𝑃𝑜

𝑚̇
𝑚̇max

𝑃𝑏
𝑃𝑜
𝑃cr
𝑃𝑜
Figure 4.10 Operation of a converging-diverging nozzle: (a) nozzle geometry with possible flow configurations;
(b) pressure distribution caused by various back pressures; (c) mass flow versus back pressure

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 CHAPTER FOUR [BTME2223 APPLIED FLUID MECHANICS]

Let’s consider the possible situations might be happened in the converging-diverging nozzle. If the
back pressure, 𝑃𝑒 is low enough, there will be supersonic flow in diverging portion and variety of
shock wave conditions may occur, which are sketched in Figure 4.10b. Let’s consider several
situations where the back pressure is gradually decreased and at the same time, compare the pressure
ratio as in Appendix 4A:

a) For curves A and B in Figure 4.10b the back pressure is not low enough to induce sonic flow
in the throat, and the flow in the nozzle is subsonic throughout. Refer Table A.1.

b) For curve C the area ratio 𝐴𝑒 ⁄𝐴𝑡 exactly equals to the critical ratio 𝐴𝑒 ⁄𝐴cr for a subsonic
Mach number at exit. The throat becomes sonic, and the mass flux reaches a maximum in
Figure 4.10c. Refer Table A.1.

c) For curve H the back pressure 𝑃𝑏 is such that 𝑃𝑏 ⁄𝑃𝑜 exactly corresponds to the critical area
ratio 𝐴𝑒 ⁄𝐴cr for a supersonic Mach number. The diverging flow is entirely supersonic,
including the jet now where the exit pressure, 𝑃𝑒 is maintained in such low level (𝑃𝑏 ). This
is called design pressure ratio of the nozzle and is the back pressure suitable for operating
supersonic wind tunnel or an efficient rocket exhaust. Refer Table A.1.

d) For the curves lie between C and H, the throat remains choked at the sonic value, and we can
match the back pressure by placing a normal shock at just the right place in the diverging
section to cause a subsonic diffuser flow back to the back pressure condition. The mass flow
remains at maximum in Figure 4.10c. For curve F, the back pressure required normal shock
wave stands in the duct exit. However, the back pressure at curve G no single normal shock
where the flow compresses outside the exit in a complex series of oblique shocks until it
matched back pressure.

e) For the curve I, the back pressure is lower than the deign pressure H, but the nozzle is choked
and cannot respond. The exit flow expands in a complex series of supersonic wave motions
until it matches the low back pressure.

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 CHAPTER FOUR [BTME2223 APPLIED FLUID MECHANICS]

4.5.3 The Stagnation Pressure Ratio

Figure 4.11 Principle of stagnation pressure ratio

The stagnation pressure ratio across a normal shock is an indication of irreversibility caused due to
the discontinuity. It can be obtained from the isentropic stagnation pressure ratio and the pressure
ratio across the shock. The flow conditions immediately in front of and at the back of normal
shockwave are isentropic, in view of the assumption presented in the beginning of this chapter. For
entrance and exit conditions of the shockwave,
𝛾
𝑃0 𝛾 − 1 2 𝛾−1 (4.23)
= (1 + Ma )
𝑃 2
Also, for the shockwave the equation for pressure ratio is derived in last section. Combining the
equations, the relation for stagnation pressure ratio across the shock can be obtained.

𝑃𝑂2 𝑃𝑂2 𝑃2 𝑃1
= × ×
𝑃𝑂1 𝑃2 𝑃1 𝑃𝑂1
𝛾 𝛾
𝑃𝑂2 𝛾 − 1 2 𝛾−1 2𝛾 2
𝛾−1 𝛾 − 1 2 − 𝛾−1
= (1 + Ma2 ) ∙( Ma − ) ∙ (1 + Ma1 )
𝑃𝑂1 2 𝛾+1 1 𝛾+1 2
The equation contains the downstream Mach number Ma2. This can be eliminating by introducing
Eq. (4.36) which lead the equation further simplified into the following form:
𝛾
𝛾+1 2 𝛾−1 𝛾
𝑃𝑂2 2 Ma1 2𝛾 2
𝛾 − 1 − 𝛾−1 (4.39)
=( ) ∙( Ma1 − )
𝑃𝑂1 𝛾−1 2 𝛾 + 1 𝛾 + 1
1 + 2 Ma1

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 CHAPTER FOUR [BTME2223 APPLIED FLUID MECHANICS]

4.5.4 Stagnation to Static Pressure Ratio

Figure 4.12 Principle of Pitot tube measurement1

The ratio of the downstream stagnation pressure to upstream static pressure (free stream pressure)
across a normal shockwave is of much importance in the measurement of flow parameters in
supersonic flow. The ratio can be obtained as,

𝑃𝑂2 𝑃𝑂2 𝑃2
= ×
𝑃1 𝑃2 𝑃1
𝛾
𝑃𝑂2 𝛾 − 1 2 𝛾−1 2𝛾 𝛾−1
= (1 + Ma2 ) ∙( Ma21 − )
𝑃1 2 𝛾+1 𝛾+1

However, the equation can be further simplified by eliminating the downstream term of Mach
number.
𝛾 𝛾
𝑃𝑂2 𝛾 + 1 2 𝛾−1 2𝛾 2
𝛾 − 1 − 𝛾−1
=( Ma1 ) ∙( Ma − )
𝑃1 2 𝛾+1 1 𝛾+1

The equation is highly useful in the Pitot tube measurements of supersonic flow. The following figure
shows the principle of the Pitot tube measurement for subsonic and supersonic flows. In subsonic
flow, when the fluid flows toward the Pitot tube, the fluid may be assumed to decelerate isentropically
to the corresponding stagnation pressure 𝑃𝑂1 at the mouth of the instrument.

1
Noted that this instrument is used in open environment and hence the static pressure (𝑃𝑂1 ) is equal to the pressure in
front of the normal shock (𝑃1 ) that give the pressure ratio of 𝑃1 ⁄𝑃𝑂1 term to be 1.

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 CHAPTER FOUR [BTME2223 APPLIED FLUID MECHANICS]

Example 4.8
A Pitot tube is inserted into a supersonic air stream, and records a pressure of 0.7 bar. The static
pressure upstream (𝑃𝑂1 ) of the tube is 0.15 bar, and the static temperature is 350 K (𝑇𝑂1 ). Calculate
the flow Mach number upstream of the tube; and the static pressure and temperature downstream of
the shock.

A Pitot tube is a small tube open at the end, facing the and substitute this into the pressure ratio equation, hence,
upstream direction. The tube then measures the stagnation
3.5
pressure (𝑃𝑂2 ) as the fluid comes to rest inside the tube. 0.7 1 Ma21 + 5 7Ma21 − 1
= (1 + × ) ∙( )
When the approaching stream (𝑃1 ) is supersonic a shock 0.15 5 7Ma21 − 1 6
wave is formed ahead of the tube (as shown in the
3.5
following figure), usually detached from the tube nose. 0.7 36Ma21 1 3.5 7Ma21 − 1
Although the wave is curved it is normally accurate, to a =( ) ( ) ∙( )
0.15 7Ma21 − 1 5 6
reasonable degree, to take it as a normal plane shock in
front of the nose. The equations given relate to a normal Ma71
plane shock. 0.028 =
(7Ma21 − 1)2.5

Solving, by trial-and-error, gives Ma1 ≈ 1.8 and then Ma 2 ≈ 0.616.

𝑃2 7Ma21 − 1
=
𝑃𝑂1 𝑃1 𝑃2 𝑃𝑂2 𝑃1 6

7Ma21 − 1
𝑃2 = 𝑃1 ( )
6

7 × 1.82 − 1
𝑃2 = (0.15 bar) ( ) = 0.54 bar
6

Similarly at the ratio of temperature,

𝑇𝑂2 𝑇𝑂2 𝑇2 𝑇1
𝛾 = × ×
𝑃𝑂2 𝑃𝑜 𝑃2 𝑃1 𝛾−1 2 𝛾−1 𝑃2 𝑇𝑂1 𝑇2 𝑇1 𝑇𝑂1
= × × = (1 + Ma2 ) ∙
𝑃𝑂1 𝑃2 𝑃1 𝑃𝑂1 2 𝑃1 𝑇𝑂2 𝛾 − 1 2 [(𝛾 − 1)Ma21 + 2][2𝛾Ma21 − (𝛾 − 1)]
= (1 + Ma 2 ) ( )
𝑇𝑂1 2 (𝛾 + 1)2 Ma21
Substituting the values given,
1.4 𝑇𝑂2 = 𝑇1 × 1.076 × 1.5316
0.7 1.4 − 1 2 1.4−1 2 × 1.4 2 1.4 − 1
= (1 + Ma 2 ) ∙( Ma − )
0.15 2 1.4 + 1 1 1.4 + 1 𝑇𝑂2 = 576.8 K
3.5
0.7 1 7Ma21 − 1 Then,
= (1 + Ma22 ) ∙ ( ) 𝑇𝑂2 𝛾−1 2
0.15 5 6 = (1 + Ma 2 ) = 1.076
𝑇2 2

From Eq. (3.36), 𝑇2 = 536.06 K

2
Ma21 + 𝛾 − 1 OR
Ma22 =
2𝛾
Ma2 − 1 𝑇2 [(𝛾 − 1)Ma21 + 2][2𝛾Ma21 − (𝛾 − 1)]
(𝛾 − 1) 1 =
𝑇𝑂1 (𝛾 + 1)2 Ma21
0.4Ma21 + 2
Ma22 = 𝑇2 = 𝑇1 × 1.5316
2.8Ma21 − 0.4
𝑇2 = 536.06 K
Ma21 + 5
Ma22 =
7Ma21 − 1

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 CHAPTER FOUR [BTME2223 APPLIED FLUID MECHANICS]

Example 4.9
A converging–diverging nozzle has a throat diameter of 5 cm and an exit diameter of 10 cm. The
reservoir is the laboratory, maintained at atmospheric conditions of 20°C and 90 kPa absolute. Air is
constantly pumped from a receiver so that a normal shockwave stands across the exit plane of the
nozzle. Determine the receiver pressure and the mass flux.

Isentropic flow occurs from the reservoir, to the throat, to To find the mass flux through the nozzle, we need only
the exit plane in front of the normal shock wave at state 1. consider the throat as shown in the Figure 3.8b. The mass
Supersonic flow occurs downstream of the throat making flux is maximal at the throat with Mach number of 1. Thus,
the throat the critical area. Hence, take the ratio of area as
shown in Eq. (3.42) and determine the downstream Mach 𝑚̇ = 𝜌cr 𝐴cr 𝑈cr
number using the Table 3A.1 in Appendix 3A.
𝑃cr
2 𝑚̇ = 𝐴 [𝑀𝑎𝑐𝑟 √𝛾𝑅𝑇𝑐𝑟 ]
𝐴1 10 𝑅𝑇cr cr
= 2 =4
𝐴cr 5
𝛾
𝑚̇ = 𝑃cr 𝐴cr √
𝑅𝑇cr

Interpolate in the isentropic flow table gives From Eq. (3.40b), or as shown in Table 3A.1 where
Ma = 1,
2.95 − 2.9 Ma1 − 2.9
= 𝑃cr
4.0376 − 3.8498 4 − 3.8498 = 0.5283
𝑃𝑂1
Ma1 ≈ 2.94
𝑃cr = 90 kPa × 0.5283 = 47.55 kPa
Also, interpolate to give the pressure ratio,
𝑇cr
𝑃1 = 0.8333
𝑇𝑂1
0.0293 − 0.0317 𝑃𝑂1 − 0.0317
=
2.95 − 2.9 2.94 − 2.9 𝑇cr = 293 K × 0.8333 = 244.16 K
𝑃1 Therefore,
= 0.02964
𝑃𝑂1

Hence, the pressure in front of the normal shock is 𝜋 1.4

𝑚̇ = (47.55 kPa) ( × 0.052 ) √
4 287 × 244.16 K
𝑃1 = (90 kPa) × 0.02964 = 2.67 kPa
𝑚̇ = 0.4174 kg/s
Therefore, the pressure after the shockwave is

𝑃2 2𝛾 𝛾−1
= Ma21 −
𝑃1 𝛾 + 1 𝛾+1

2 × 1.4 1.4 − 1 𝑃𝑂1 𝑃1 𝑃2

𝑃2 = (2.67 kPa) ( × 2.942 − )
1.4 + 1 1.4 + 1

𝑃2 = 26.48 kPa Throat Exit

𝑃cr 𝑇cr 𝜌cr Normal
This is the receiver pressure needed to orient the shock
across the exit plane or frankly speaking this is the required 𝐴cr Shock
pressure where the normal shockwave is located in the exit
plane of the nozzle.

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 CHAPTER FOUR [BTME2223 APPLIED FLUID MECHANICS]

Appendix 4A

Compressible Flow Table

Ma P/Po T/To r/r o A/A* Ma P/Po T/To r/r o A/A*

0.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 #DIV/0! 2.5000 0.0585 0.4444 0.1317 2.6367
0.1000 0.9930 0.9980 0.9950 5.8218 2.5500 0.0542 0.4347 0.1246 2.7630
0.1500 0.9844 0.9955 0.9888 3.9103 2.6000 0.0501 0.4252 0.1179 2.8960
0.2000 0.9725 0.9921 0.9803 2.9635 2.6500 0.0464 0.4159 0.1115 3.0359
0.2500 0.9575 0.9877 0.9694 2.4027 2.7000 0.0430 0.4068 0.1056 3.1830
0.3000 0.9395 0.9823 0.9564 2.0351 2.7500 0.0398 0.3980 0.0999 3.3377
0.3500 0.9188 0.9761 0.9413 1.7780 2.8000 0.0368 0.3894 0.0946 3.5001
0.4000 0.8956 0.9690 0.9243 1.5901 2.8500 0.0341 0.3810 0.0896 3.6707
0.4500 0.8703 0.9611 0.9055 1.4487 2.9000 0.0317 0.3729 0.0849 3.8498
0.5000 0.8430 0.9524 0.8852 1.3398 2.9500 0.0293 0.3649 0.0804 4.0376
0.5500 0.8142 0.9430 0.8634 1.2549 3.0000 0.0272 0.3571 0.0762 4.2346
0.6000 0.7840 0.9328 0.8405 1.1882 3.0500 0.0253 0.3496 0.0723 4.4410
0.6500 0.7528 0.9221 0.8164 1.1356 3.1000 0.0234 0.3422 0.0685 4.6573
0.7000 0.7209 0.9107 0.7916 1.0944 3.1500 0.0218 0.3351 0.0650 4.8838
0.7500 0.6886 0.8989 0.7660 1.0624 3.2000 0.0202 0.3281 0.0617 5.1210
0.8000 0.6560 0.8865 0.7400 1.0382 3.2500 0.0188 0.3213 0.0585 5.3691
0.8500 0.6235 0.8737 0.7136 1.0207 3.3000 0.0175 0.3147 0.0555 5.6286
0.9000 0.5913 0.8606 0.6870 1.0089 3.3500 0.0163 0.3082 0.0527 5.9000
0.9500 0.5595 0.8471 0.6604 1.0021 3.4000 0.0151 0.3019 0.0501 6.1837
1.0000 0.5283 0.8333 0.6339 1.0000 3.4500 0.0141 0.2958 0.0476 6.4801
1.0500 0.4979 0.8193 0.6077 1.0020 3.5000 0.0131 0.2899 0.0452 6.7896
1.1000 0.4684 0.8052 0.5817 1.0079 3.5500 0.0122 0.2841 0.0430 7.1128
1.1500 0.4398 0.7908 0.5562 1.0175 3.6000 0.0114 0.2784 0.0409 7.4501
1.2000 0.4124 0.7764 0.5311 1.0304 3.6500 0.0106 0.2729 0.0389 7.8020
1.2500 0.3861 0.7619 0.5067 1.0468 3.7000 0.0099 0.2675 0.0370 8.1691
1.3000 0.3609 0.7474 0.4829 1.0663 3.7500 0.0092 0.2623 0.0352 8.5517
1.3500 0.3370 0.7329 0.4598 1.0890 3.8000 0.0086 0.2572 0.0335 8.9506
1.4000 0.3142 0.7184 0.4374 1.1149 3.8500 0.0081 0.2522 0.0320 9.3661
1.4500 0.2927 0.7040 0.4158 1.1440 3.9000 0.0075 0.2474 0.0304 9.7990
1.5000 0.2724 0.6897 0.3950 1.1762 3.9500 0.0070 0.2427 0.0290 10.2496
1.5500 0.2533 0.6754 0.3750 1.2116 4.0000 0.0066 0.2381 0.0277 10.7188
1.6000 0.2353 0.6614 0.3557 1.2502 4.0500 0.0062 0.2336 0.0264 11.2069
1.6500 0.2184 0.6475 0.3373 1.2922 4.1000 0.0058 0.2293 0.0252 11.7147
1.7000 0.2026 0.6337 0.3197 1.3376 4.1500 0.0054 0.2250 0.0240 12.2427
1.7500 0.1878 0.6202 0.3029 1.3865 4.2000 0.0051 0.2208 0.0229 12.7916
1.8000 0.1740 0.6068 0.2868 1.4390 4.2500 0.0047 0.2168 0.0219 13.3622
1.8500 0.1612 0.5936 0.2715 1.4952 4.3000 0.0044 0.2129 0.0209 13.9549
1.9000 0.1492 0.5807 0.2570 1.5553 4.3500 0.0042 0.2090 0.0200 14.5706
1.9500 0.1381 0.5680 0.2432 1.6193 4.4000 0.0039 0.2053 0.0191 15.2099
2.0000 0.1278 0.5556 0.2300 1.6875 4.4500 0.0037 0.2016 0.0182 15.8735
2.0500 0.1182 0.5433 0.2176 1.7600 4.5000 0.0035 0.1980 0.0174 16.5622
2.1000 0.1094 0.5313 0.2058 1.8369 4.5500 0.0032 0.1945 0.0167 17.2767
2.1500 0.1011 0.5196 0.1946 1.9185 4.6000 0.0031 0.1911 0.0160 18.0178
2.2000 0.0935 0.5081 0.1841 2.0050 4.6500 0.0029 0.1878 0.0153 18.7862
2.2500 0.0865 0.4969 0.1740 2.0964 4.7000 0.0027 0.1846 0.0146 19.5828
2.3000 0.0800 0.4859 0.1646 2.1931 4.7500 0.0025 0.1814 0.0140 20.4084
2.3500 0.0740 0.4752 0.1556 2.2953 4.8000 0.0024 0.1783 0.0134 21.2637
2.4000 0.0684 0.4647 0.1472 2.4031 4.8500 0.0023 0.1753 0.0129 22.1497
2.4500 0.0633 0.4544 0.1392 2.5168 4.9000 0.0021 0.1724 0.0123 23.0671
Table 4A.1 Isentropic flow of a perfect gas, 𝛾 = 1.4

𝐴∗ - Area at throat section

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For NON-COMMERCIAL use only.
 CHAPTER FOUR [BTME2223 APPLIED FLUID MECHANICS]

Ma1 Ma2 P2/P1 T2/T1 r 2 /r 1 Po2/Po1 Po2/P1

1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.8929
1.0500 0.9531 1.1196 1.0328 1.0840 0.9999 2.0083
1.1000 0.9118 1.2450 1.0649 1.1691 0.9989 2.1328
1.1500 0.8750 1.3763 1.0966 1.2550 0.9967 2.2661
1.2000 0.8422 1.5133 1.1280 1.3416 0.9928 2.4075
1.2500 0.8126 1.6563 1.1594 1.4286 0.9871 2.5568
1.3000 0.7860 1.8050 1.1909 1.5157 0.9794 2.7136
1.3500 0.7618 1.9596 1.2226 1.6028 0.9697 2.8778
1.4000 0.7397 2.1200 1.2547 1.6897 0.9582 3.0492
1.4500 0.7196 2.2863 1.2872 1.7761 0.9448 3.2278
1.5000 0.7011 2.4583 1.3202 1.8621 0.9298 3.4133
1.5500 0.6841 2.6363 1.3538 1.9473 0.9132 3.6057
1.6000 0.6684 2.8200 1.3880 2.0317 0.8952 3.8050
1.6500 0.6540 3.0096 1.4228 2.1152 0.8760 4.0110
1.7000 0.6405 3.2050 1.4583 2.1977 0.8557 4.2238
1.7500 0.6281 3.4063 1.4946 2.2791 0.8346 4.4433
1.8000 0.6165 3.6133 1.5316 2.3592 0.8127 4.6695
1.8500 0.6057 3.8263 1.5693 2.4381 0.7902 4.9023
1.9000 0.5956 4.0450 1.6079 2.5157 0.7674 5.1418
1.9500 0.5862 4.2696 1.6473 2.5919 0.7442 5.3878
2.0000 0.5774 4.5000 1.6875 2.6667 0.7209 5.6404
2.0500 0.5691 4.7363 1.7285 2.7400 0.6975 5.8996
2.1000 0.5613 4.9783 1.7705 2.8119 0.6742 6.1654
2.1500 0.5540 5.2263 1.8132 2.8823 0.6511 6.4377
2.2000 0.5471 5.4800 1.8569 2.9512 0.6281 6.7165
2.2500 0.5406 5.7396 1.9014 3.0186 0.6055 7.0018
2.3000 0.5344 6.0050 1.9468 3.0845 0.5833 7.2937
2.3500 0.5286 6.2763 1.9931 3.1490 0.5615 7.5920
2.4000 0.5231 6.5533 2.0403 3.2119 0.5401 7.8969
2.4500 0.5179 6.8363 2.0885 3.2733 0.5193 8.2083
2.5000 0.5130 7.1250 2.1375 3.3333 0.4990 8.5261
2.5500 0.5083 7.4196 2.1875 3.3919 0.4793 8.8505
2.6000 0.5039 7.7200 2.2383 3.4490 0.4601 9.1813
2.6500 0.4996 8.0263 2.2902 3.5047 0.4416 9.5186
2.7000 0.4956 8.3383 2.3429 3.5590 0.4236 9.8624
2.7500 0.4918 8.6563 2.3966 3.6119 0.4062 10.2127
2.8000 0.4882 8.9800 2.4512 3.6636 0.3895 10.5694
2.8500 0.4847 9.3096 2.5067 3.7139 0.3733 10.9326
2.9000 0.4814 9.6450 2.5632 3.7629 0.3577 11.3022
2.9500 0.4782 9.9863 2.6206 3.8106 0.3428 11.6784
3.0000 0.4752 10.3333 2.6790 3.8571 0.3283 12.0610
3.0500 0.4723 10.6863 2.7383 3.9025 0.3145 12.4500
3.1000 0.4695 11.0450 2.7986 3.9466 0.3012 12.8455
3.1500 0.4669 11.4096 2.8598 3.9896 0.2885 13.2475
3.2000 0.4643 11.7800 2.9220 4.0315 0.2762 13.6559
3.2500 0.4619 12.1563 2.9851 4.0723 0.2645 14.0708
3.3000 0.4596 12.5383 3.0492 4.1120 0.2533 14.4921
3.3500 0.4573 12.9263 3.1142 4.1507 0.2425 14.9199
3.4000 0.4552 13.3200 3.1802 4.1884 0.2322 15.3542
3.4500 0.4531 13.7196 3.2472 4.2251 0.2224 15.7949
3.5000 0.4512 14.1250 3.3151 4.2609 0.2129 16.2420
Table 4A.2 One-dimensional normal shock functions for an ideal gas with γ=1.4.

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