The Tacoma Narrows Bridge twisted back and forth in
strong winds before collapsing in 1940. The failure is
now a case study for physics students.
The Tacoma Narrows Bridge twisted and bucked in the wind before collapsing in
1940. AP
Location: Tacoma, Washington
Cost: $11 million
Constructed: 1938-1940
Issue: Flexibility and unstable cables
Date of incident: 1940
Also known as "Galloping Gertie," the Tacoma Narrows Bridge in Washington
collapsed only four months after opening for public use. The bridge spanned the
nearly mile-wide Puget River, making it the third longest suspension bridge in
the world, behind the Golden Gate Bridge and the George Washington Bridge.
But its length was not what made the bridge so famous that it continues to
fascinate engineers and physics professors to this day. It was that under even
moderate wind speeds, the bridge would undulate like a sine wave. Construction
workers noticed problematic bucking even while building the bridge, leading to
its famous nickname.
While the original designer intended to create greater stability with a more
standard design, the cost was exorbitant, around $200 million in today's money.
Instead, a cheaper option using plate girders gained approval. The girders,
though, were only one-third the height of the originally proposed trusses, which
resulted in a disproportionate depth-to-width ratio. As a result, the bridge was
extremely flexible and vulnerable to high-speed winds.
When a 40 mph wind struck on November 7, 1940, the bridge started to twist and
buck wildly. The bridge finally gave way, snapping the support cables and
dropping into the river below.
A walkway at the Hyatt Regency in Kansas City
collapsed in 1981, killing 114 people.
AP Photo/Pete Leabo
Location: Kansas City, Missouri
Cost: $50 million
Constructed: 1978-1980
Issue: Weight distribution
Date of incident: 1981
While most structural failures are noticed in time, the Hyatt Regency in Kansas
City, Missouri, wasn't so fortunate. On July 17, 1981, 114 people were killed and
an additional 200 people injured when the fourth-floor elevated walkway
collapsed, falling onto another walkway two floors down, and eventually into the
lounge below.
When the hotel opened in 1980, it boasted a sleek and elegant design, which
included a multi-story atrium with three suspended walkways running through it.
The walkways were anchored by 1.5-inch steel rods, but the real issue lay in the
change from a single set of hanger rods threaded through the upper walkways to
a double-rod system that was anchored to the upper walkways themselves,
adding immense and undue stress. The design was incapable of meeting the
minimum safety requirements, but had gone unnoticed in the building process.
The collapse occurred during a Friday night "tea dance" in the lobby. Local police
chief Norman A. Caron said it was "the worst disaster" in his 25 years as a police
officer.
All 10,344 window panes of the John Hancock Tower
needed to be replaced because of poor glass integrity.
Boston's John Hancock Tower needed thousands of window panes replaced because
of poor glass integrity. AP Photo/J. Walter Green
Location: Boston, Massachusetts
Cost: $175 million
Constructed: 1968-1976
Issue: Flexibility and poor glass integrity
Date of incident: 1973
As the tallest building in Boston, the John Hancock Tower (now simply known as
200 Clarendon Street) was mired in controversy even before it was built.
Initial plans showed that it would cast a shadow over Trinity Church, leading to
public outcry and a quick redesign of the building. Despite this effort, the
building continued to trouble the public.
During construction, the blue reflective glass used for the building started to fall
off from various heights, forcing police to close off the area around the building.
Subsequent research in wind tunnels identified additional integrity issues, such
as twisting in high-power winds.
The real issue, though, was that the building expanded and contracted wildly due
to differences in temperature inside and outside of the building. The reflective
material caused the glass to be stiffer than expected, and instead of absorbing
motion, it transferred it and simply shook out of place.
All 10,344 window panes were replaced by single-paned, heat-treated panels,
helping inflate the cost of the project. During the time it took to identify and fix
the problem, sheets of plywood replaced many of the missing panes, earning the
nickname "Plywood Palace."
The roof of the Kemper Arena in Kansas City collapsed
during a rainstorm because of drainage issues.
Raymond Boyd / Getty Images
Location: Kansas City, Missouri
Cost: $23 million
Constructed: 1972-1974
Issue: Poor drainage
Date of incident: 1979
As the new home of the Kansas City Kings, the arena was hailed as an innovative
design that featured a seamless design. The architect even won an Honor Award
from the American Institute of Architects.
Only a few years later, the roof of the arena collapsed during a heavy rainstorm
due to a case of prizing form over function.
Ironically, architects from the AIA visited the building during its 1979
convention, only a day before the roof finally gave way.
The roof was flat, which raised some concerns as to how it would handle weather.
As such, the design included a temporary reservoir to reduce stormwater runoff,
but it only had eight drains, despite local code requiring at least eight times as
many. As a result, the reservoir could only contain 2 inches of rain before
overflowing. On the night the roof collapsed, a storm dumped more than double
that much rain. The collapse was so violent that pressure from the falling roof
blew out some of the walls.
A poorly designed tower in London reflected and
magnified sunlight until it was melting cars and frying
eggs.
Getty Images/Peter Macdiarmid
Location: London, England
Cost: More than $250 million
Constructed: 2009-2014
Issue: Heat amplification and wind tunnel
Date of incident: 2013
A common issue in design and construction results from the way light can reflect
and even amplify off glass and metal.
The curved design of the Vdara Hotel in Las Vegas, designed by Rafael Viñoly,
basically turned the building into a giant magnifying glass, intensifying light so
much that it harmed hotel guests and earned it the nickname "Death Ray Hotel."
However, it is Viñoly's building in London, 20 Fenchurch Street, that really
stands out, not only for its death ray effect, but an additional wind tunnel effect,
turning the neo-futurist building into a total menace.
Constructed between 2009 and 2014, the building earned the nickname "Walkie
Talkie Centre" due to its appearance. The concave shape of building meant that
when sunlight shone directly on it, it acted as a mirror and focused the light onto
the street below. Temperatures reached over 160 degrees Fahrenheit, famously
melting a man's Jaguar, and getting so hot that journalists were able to fry an egg
on the sidewalk.
The building eventually had to install screens at certain points to prevent the
reflection of direct sunlight. Additionally, the building caused increased wind
activity at the street level. The winds were so strong they were blamed for blowing
over street signs, trolleys, and pedestrians.
The largest stadium disaster ever occurred in ancient
Rome and resulted in the deaths of over 20,000 people.
Charles Phelps Cushing/ClassicStock/Getty Images
Location: Fidenae, near modern-day Rome
Cost: N/A
Constructed: around 27 AD
Issue: Rushed construction, untested integrity
Date of incident: 27 AD
Ancient Rome was famous for its bloody gladiator fights — but one of the most
horrific disasters in history had nothing to do with the combatants on the ground.
One notable venue for gladiator games was an amphitheater erected in Fidenae at
the bidding of an entrepreneur named Atilius. Despite his wealth, he aimed for a
quick construction over a sturdy one — according to some sources, he urged the
builders to use cheap materials (mainly wood) to build the stadium, and it was
erected on unstable foundations.
Most of the information about the disaster comes from ancient texts, such as
ones by Tacitus and by Tiberius, but they tell a singular story: When 50,000
people flocked to Atilius' stadium to watch a gladiator fight, 20,000 of the
audience members fell to their death as the seating collapsed. Many of the
remaining patrons were severely injured.
Following the incident, the senate banned anyone from building a stadium unless
their wealth exceeded 400,000 sesterces, and the stadium had to pass a safety
inspection.
A wedding in Israel ended in tragedy when the venue's
floor collapsed, killing 23 people and injuring 380.
Uriel Sinai/ Associated Press
Location: Jerusalem, Israel
Cost: N/A
Constructed: N/A
Issue: Inferior materials, design alterations
Date of incident: May 24, 2001
In what is Israel's deadliest civilian disaster, the floor of the Versailles wedding
hall in Jerusalem collapsed during the wedding of Keren and Asaf Dror in
2001, dropping 23 attendees to their deaths and injuring hundreds more. The
event was captured on camera and broadcast internationally, spreading images of
the horrific scene around the globe.
Initially, people suspected terrorism, as noted by police at the scene, but an
investigation quickly dispelled that concern. Witnesses described the floor
sagging before the collapse. According to Haaretz News, the main issue was the
Pal-Kal building method, a cheap method of constructing light-weight
concrete that was banned shortly after the incident.
Additionally, the building was originally designed in two halves, with one side
only two stories and the other side three stories. Half of the third floor, then was
only meant to be a roof and lacked structural strength. Partitions in the lower
floors helped handle the difference in load-bearing, but the owners decided to
remove the partitions shortly before the wedding. The floor sagged immediately,
although the owners deemed it a cosmetic issue rather than a structural one.
Following the disaster, the creator of the Pal-Kal method, Eli Ron, was arrested
and convicted of 23 negligent deaths as well as negligent assault on the remaining
victims.
The tallest cathedral in the world is technically still
unfinished because its height created structural issues.
Bernard Annebicque / Getty Images
Location: Beauvais, France
Cost: N/A
Constructed: 1225-1272 (technically unfinished)
Issue: Wind resonance and poor reinforcement
Date of incident: 1284
The Beauvais Cathedral claims to be the tallest cathedral in the world, but that
fame came at a strange price. To achieve the height, the builders and planners
had to push their resources to the limit, and the building suffered as a result — in
fact, the cathedral is technically unfinished, even if it is functional.
The current cathedral is merely part of the original plan. Started in 1225, the
foundations indicate that the cathedral was meant to be truly immense, but the
only part that was finished for use was the choir vault and the central nave. The
main body of work was finished in 1272, and services started immediately. In
1284, part of the choir vault collapsed due to the strain and, possibly, vibrations
from high speed winds. Additionally, some of the other parts of the cathedral that
were not completed might have added necessary support and reinforcement.
Repairs were made, as were additional attempts to build other parts of the
cathedral, but the height proved too troublesome. Work finally ceased in the
1600s, but additional reinforcements have been added as needed over the
centuries to the current structure.
The Banqiao Dam failed to handle a 'once-in-2,000-
years flood,' but additional construction could have
spared thousands of lives.
Keith Getter/ Getty Images
Location: Zhumadian City, China
Cost: N/A
Constructed: 1951-1952, further work in 1954
Issue: Record flooding, lack of overflow options
Date of incident: August, 1975
The deadliest structural failure in history occurred in China when the supposedly
unbreakable "Iron Dam" in Zhumadian city burst in 1975.
Built in the early 1950s, the dam was built under supervision by Soviet engineers.
A flood in 1954 forced the government to extend their existing dams, including a
3-meter addition to the Banqiao Dam walls.
When cracks started to appear in the dam, they were repaired with advice from
the Soviets again, and additional reinforcements were added. The engineers
claimed that the dam could withstand a "once-in-1,000-years flood."
The chief designer of the dam, Chen Xing, was vocal that the design was flawed,
though. He recommended 12 gates to handle the overflow, but he was ignored,
and only five gates were built. Other dams in the same system had similar
reductions.
As a result, in 1975, record rainfall of nearly 7.5 inches of rain per hour (almost 42
inches a day) strained the dam to its limit. Requests to open the dam and relieve
pressure were rejected due to flooding elsewhere. After another two days of rain,
the dam broke.
Thousands died in the initial flooding. The government intentionally destroyed
several other dams with air strikes to divert the water and reduce damage, but it
was too late: Thousands more died, and those who survived suffered from famine
and disease without food or shelter. A total of more than 200,000 people died as
a result of the catastrophe.
A tank exploded in Boston, flooding a neighborhood
with molasses and killing two dozen people.
Associated Press
Location: Boston, Massachusetts
Cost: N/A
Constructed: 1915
Issue: Temperature variance, untested integrity
Date of incident: January 15, 1919
In the North End neighborhood of Boston, the Purity Distilling Company stored
molasses for transfer to a facility dedicated to fermenting molasses to produce
ethanol. On January 15, 1919, a tank containing 2.3 million gallons of molasses
burst and flooded the neighborhood.
The molasses had been warmed to reduce viscosity during transfer, but the
warmer material, in addition to the rapidly warming air temperature, must have
strained the tank itself. Around noon that day, the tank burst open.
The millions of gallons rushed out of the tank at 35 mph, reaching heights of 25
feet at their peak. The molasses was dense enough to push over buildings. When
the molasses settled, it was waist-deep and dragged people down. Twenty-one
people died, and around 150 were injured by the wave.
Residents brought a lawsuit against the US Industrial Alcohol Company, which
owned Purity Distilling at the time. The company claimed the tank was blown up
by anarchist because ethanol is an active ingredient in munitions, but an auditor
nevertheless found the company responsible.
According to engineer Ronald Mayville, the tank was constructed poorly, with
thin metal that proved brittle under certain circumstances. Additionally, the tank
itself was never properly tested. According to The Guardian, the company ended
up paying $628,000 in damages — the equivalent of over $9 million today.
And lastly, perhaps the most famous structural
mishap: The Tower of Pisa famously leans because of
an architectural blunder.
Athanasios Gioumpasis/Getty Images
Location: Pisa, Italy
Cost: N/A
Constructed: 1173-1372
Issue: Poor foundation
Date of issue: 1378
The most famous of structural failures has to be the Leaning Tower of Pisa.
Situated behind the Pisa Cathedral, and known simply as the Tower of Pisa, the
tower was originally built to house the bell of the Pisa Cathedral complex.
The tower was built on an entirely unstable foundation. An altogether too-
small limestone base of only 3 meters deep was built into a dense clay bed, which
meant the tower was never going to last. Only three levels of the planned eight
were completed by the time a war broke out between city-states, which gave the
foundation time to settle, possibly preventing a collapse while the building
continued.
Only five years after completion, the tower started to achieve its now famous
lean, slanting at nearly 10 degrees. Only in the '90s did the authorities deem
action necessary, adding 600 tons of counterweights to the base. Of course, the
Tower's lean has made it a beloved tourist attraction, so maybe it wasn't such a
failure after all.
