Unit 4

Turning Effect of Forces

STUDENT’S LEARNING OUTCOMES
After studying this unit, the students will be able to:

 define like and unlike parallel forces.

 state head to tail rule of vector addition of
forces/vectors.
 describe how a force is resolved into its
perpendicular components.
 determine the magnitude and direction of a
force from its perpendicular components.
 define moment of force or torque as moment =
force x perpendicular distance from pivot to the
line of action of force.
 explain the turning effect of force by relating it to
everyday life.

 state the principle of moments.

Conceptual linkage.  define the centre of mass and centre of gravity

of a body.
This unit is built on
Lever - Science-V  define couple as a pair of forces tending to
Machines - Science-VI produce rotation.
Kinematics - Physics-IX
 prove that the couple has the same moments
Trigonometry - Maths-IX
about all points.
This unit leads to:  define equilibrium and classify its types by
Rotational Motion, Vectors
and Equilibrium quoting examples from everyday life.
- Physics-XI
 state the two conditions for equilibrium of a
body.
 Physics IX 85 Unit 4: Turning Effect of Forces

 solve problems on simple balanced systems Major Concepts

when bodies are supported by one pivot only. 4.1 Forces on bodies
 describe the states of equilibrium and classify
4.2 Addition of Forces
them with common examples.
4.3 Resolution of Forces
 explain effect of the position of the centre of mass
4.4 Moment of a Force
on the stability of simple objects.
4.5 Principle of moments
INVESTIGATION SKILLS
4.6 Centre of mass
The students will be able to:
4.7 Couple
 determine the position of centre of mass/gravity of
4.8 Equilibrium
regularly and irregularly shaped objects.
4.9 Stability
SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY AND SOCIETY
CONNECTION
The students will be able to:
 illustrate by describing a practical application of
moment of force in the working of bottle opener,
spanner, door/windows handles, etc.
 describe the working principle of see-saw.
 demonstrate the role of couple in the steering
wheels and bicycle pedals.
 demonstrate through a balancing toy, racing car, Force
etc. that the stability of an object can be improved
by lowering the centre of mass and increasing the
base area of the objects. Figure 4.1: We can loose a
nut with a spanner.
Can the nut of the axle of a bike be loosened with
hand? Normally we use a spanner as shown in figure 4.1.
A spanner increases the turning effect of the force.
Look at the picture on the previous page. What is
the joker doing? He is trying to balance himself on a
wooden plank which is placed over a cylindrical pipe. Can
we do the same? A baby gradually learns to stand by
balancing herself. Women and children in the villages
often carry pitchers with water on their heads such as
shown in figure 4.2. With a little effort we can learn to
balance a stick vertically up on our finger tip. Balanced
objects are said to be in equilibrium. In this unit, we will
learn many interesting concepts such as torque, Figure 4.2: Children carrying
equilibrium, etc. and their applications in daily life. pitchers on their heads.
Physics IX 86 Unit 4: Turning Effect of Forces

4.1 LIKE AND UNLIKE PARALLEL FORCES

We often come across objects on which many forces
are acting. In many cases, we find all or some of the
forces acting on a body in the same direction. For
example, many people push a bus to start it. Why all of
them push it in the same direction? All these forces are
applied in the same direction so these are all parallel to
each other. Such forces which are parallel to each other
are called parallel forces.
Figure 4.3 shows a bag with apples in it. The
Weight of each apple
weight of each apple weight of the bag is due to the
weight of all the apples in it. Since the weight of every
Figure 4.3: Like parallel forces.
apple in the bag is the force of gravity acting on it
vertically downwards, therefore, weights of apples are
the parallel forces. All these forces are acting in the same
direction. Such forces are called like parallel forces.
Like parallel forces are the forces that are
parallel to each other and have the same
Tension
direction.
In figure 4.4(a), an apple is suspended by a string.
The string is stretched due to weight of the apple. The
forces acting on it are; weight of the apple acting vertically
Weight downwards and tension in the string pulling it vertically
upwards. The two forces are parallel but opposite to each
(a) other. These forces are called unlike parallel forces. In
F1 figure 4.4(b), forces F1 and F2 are also unlike parallel
forces, because they are parallel and opposite to each
other. But F1 and F2 are not acting along the same line and
hence they are capable to rotate the body.
(b) Unlike parallel forces are the forces that are parallel
F2
but have directions opposite to each other.
Figure 4.4: Unlike parallel forces
(a) along the same line 4.2 ADDITION OF FORCES
(b) can turn the object if not in Force is a vector quantity. It has both magnitude
line.
and direction; therefore, forces are not added by ordinary
arithmetical rules. When forces are added, we get a
resultant force.

A resultant force is a single force that has the

same effect as the combined effect of all the
forces to be added.
Physics IX 87 Unit 4: Turning Effect of Forces

One of the methods for the addition of forces is a N

A
graphical method. In this method forces can be added by
head to tail rule of vector addition. W E B
HEAD TO TAIL RULE
Figure 4.5 shows a graphical method of vector S
addition. First select a suitable scale. Then draw the
vectors of all the forces according to the scale; such as R B
vectors A and B.
Take any one of the vectors as first vector e.g.,
A
vector A. Then draw next vector B such that its tail Figure 4.5: Adding vectors by
coincides with the head of the first vector A. Similarly head to tail rule.
draw the next vector for the third force (if any) with its tail
coinciding with the head of the previous vector and so on.
Now draw a vector R such that its tail is at the tail
of vector A, the first vector, while its head is at the head of
vector B, the last vector as shown in figure 4.5. Vector R It should be noted that
represents the resultant force completely in magnitude head to tail rule can be
and direction. used to add any number of
forces. The vector
EXAMPLE 4.1 representing resultant
force gives the magnitude
Find the resultant of three forces 12 N along
and direction of the
x-axis, 8 N making an angle of 45° with x-axis and 8 N
resultant force.
along y-axis.
SOLUTION
Here F = 12 N along x-axis
1
y
F = 8 N along 45° with x-axis
2
F1
x
F3 = 8
N along y-axis
Scale: 1 cm = 2 N
F3
(i) Represent the forces by vectors F1, F2 and F3 F2
according to the scale in the given direction.
(ii) Arrange these forces F1, F2 and F3. The tail of D
force F2 coincides with the head of force at
point B as shown in figure 4.6. similarly the tail of F3
force F3 coincides with the head of force F2 at F
point C. C

(iii) Join point A the tail of the force F1 and point D F2

o
the head of force F3. Let AD represents force F. 37
A B
According to head to tail rule, force F represents F1
the resultant force. Figure 4.6: Adding forces by Head
to tail rule.
Physics IX 88 Unit 4: Turning Effect of Forces

Some Trigonometric Ratios (iv) Measure AD and multiply it by 2 N cm1 , the scale
to find the magnitude of the resultant force F.
The ratios between any of its two
sides of a right angled triangle are (v) Measure the angle DAB using a protractor
given certain names such as sine, Which the force F makes with x-axis. This gives
cosine, etc. Consider a right angled the direction of the resultant force.
triangle AABC having angle 6 at A.
4.3 RESOLUTION OF FORCES
B
Perpendicular The process of splitting up vectors (forces) into their
component forces is called resolution of forces. If a force
se
te nu is formed from two mutually perpendicular components
po
Hy
then such components are called its perpendicular
A  C components.
Base
Splitting up of a force into two mutually
perpendicular components is called the resolution
of that force.
Consider a force F represented by line OA making an
angle  with x-axis as shown in figure 4.7.
Draw a perpendicular AB on x-axis from A. According
to head to tail rule, OA is the resultant of vectors
y represented by OB and BA.
A
Thus
F The components OB and BA are perpendicular to
Fy each other. They are called the perpendicular
components of OA representing force F. Hence OB
 x represents its x-component Fx and BA represents its
O
Fx B y-component Fy-. Therefor, equation 4.1 can be written as

The magnitudes Fx and Fy of forces Fx and Fy can be

found using the trigonometric ratios. In right angled
triangle OBA
Ratio/  0 30 45 60 90

Since
0.707

0.866
0.5
0

sin 
0.866

0.707

Similarly
0.5
1

cos 
0.577

1.732

Equations 4.3 and 4.4 give the perpendicular

0

tan 
components Fx and Fy respectively.
Physics IX 89 Unit 4: Turning Effect of Forces

EXAMPLE 4.2
A man is pulling a trolley on a horizontal road with In a right angled triangle
a force of 200 N making 30° with the road. Find the length of base is 4 cm and
horizontal and vertical components of its force. its perpendicular is 3 cm.
Find:
SOLUTION
(i) length of hypotenuse
(ii) sin
(iii) cos
(iv) tan
Since
or

Similarly
or

Thus, horizontal and vertical components of the

pulling force are 173.2 N and 100 N respectively.
y
DETERMINATION OF A FORCE FROM ITS
Q R
PERPENDICULAR COMPONENTS
Since a force can be resolved into two perpendicular Fy F
components. Its reverse is to determine the force Fy
knowing its perpendicular components.
Consider Fx and Fy as the perpendicular components O
 x
Fx P
of a force F. These perpendicular components Fx and Fy
are represented by lines OP and PR respectively as Figure 4.8: Determination of a force
by its perpendicular components.
shown in figure 4.8.
According to head to tail rule:

Thus OR will completely represent the force F

whose x and y-components are Fx and Fy respectively.
That is

The magnitude of the force F can be

determined using the right angled triangle OPR

Hence
The direction of force F with x-axis is given by
Physics IX 90 Unit 4: Turning Effect of Forces

4.4 TORQUE OR MOMENT OF A FORCE

We open or close a door (Fig 4.9) by pushing or
pulling it. Here push or pull turn the door about its hinge or
axis of rotation. The door is opened or closed due to the
turning effect of the force acting on it.
RIGID BODY

A body is composed of large number of small particles. If

the distances between all pairs of particles of the body do
not change by applying a force then it is called a rigid
body. In other words, a rigid body is the one that is not
deformed by force or forces acting on it.
Figure 4.9: It is easy to open and
close the door by pulling or
AXIS OF ROTATION
pushing it at its handle.
Consider a rigid body rotating about a line. The
particles of the body move in circles with their centres all
lying on this line. This line is called the axis of rotation of
the body.
Forces that produce turning effect are very
common. Turning pencil in a sharpener, turning stopcock
of a water tap, turning doorknob and so on are some of
the examples where a force produces turning effect.
QUICK QUIZ
Name some more objects that work by the
turning effects of forces.

The turning effect of a force is called torque or

moment of the force.

Figure 4.10: Turning effect of Why the handle of a door is fixed near the outer
forces. edge of a door? We can open or close a door more easily
by applying a force at the outer edge of a door rather than
near the hinge. Thus, the location where the force is
applied to turn a body is very important.
Physics IX 91 Unit 4: Turning Effect of Forces

Let us study the factors on which torque or

moment of a force depends. You might have seen that a
mechanic uses a spanner as shown in figure 4.11 to
loosen or tighten a nut or a bolt. A spanner having long
arm helps him to do it with greater ease than the one

Moment arm

Moment arm Force

Force

Figure 4.11: It is easy to tighten a nut using a spanner of

longer arm than a spanner of shorter arm.

having short arm. It is because the turning effect of the

force is different in the two cases. The moment produced
by a force using a spanner of longer arm is greater than
the torque produced by the same force but using a
spanner of shorter arm. C
rotation
Axis of

A
LINE OF ACTION OF A FORCE F
The line along which a force acts is called the line Moment Arm

Line of action
of action of the force. In figure 4.12, line BC is the line of
action of force F.
L of force
MOMENT ARM
A B
The perpendicular distance between the axis of
rotation and the line of action of the force is called the Figure 4.12: Factors affecting
the moment of a force.
moment arm of the force. It is represented by the
distance L in figure 4.12.
The torque or moment of a force depends upon
the force F and the moment arm L of the force. Greater is
a force, greater is the moment of the force. Similarly,
longer is the moment arm greater is the moment of the
force. Thus the moment of the force or torque is
determined by the product of force F and its moment arm
L. Mathematically,
Torque
Physics IX 92 Unit 4: Turning Effect of Forces

SI unit of torque is newton-metre (Nm). A torque

Mini Exercise of 1 N m is caused by a force of 1 N acting perpendicular
A force of 150 N can loosen a to the moment arm 1 m long.
nut when applied at the end of
a spanner 10 cm long.
EXAMPLE 4.3
1. What should be the length
A mechanic tightens the nut of a bicycle using a
of the spanner to loosen 15 cm long spanner by exerting a force of 200 N. Find the
the same nut with a 60 N torque that has tightened it.
force?
SOLUTION
2. How much force would be
sufficient to loosen it with a
6 cm long spanner? Using

Thus, a torque of 30 N m is used to tighten the nut.

Force
4.5 PRINCIPLE OF MOMENTS
A force that turns a spanner in the clockwise
direction is generally used to tighten a nut as shown in
(a) figure 4.13(a). The torque or moment of the force so
produced is called clockwise moment. On the other
hand, to loosen a nut, the force is applied such that it
turns the nut in the anticlockwise direction as shown in
(b) figure 4.13(b). The torque or moment of the force so
Force
produced is called anticlockwise moment.
Figure 4.13: (a) to tighten, nut is
turned clockwise (b) to loosen, nut is A body initially at rest does not rotate if sum of all the
turned anticlockwise.
clockwise moments acting on it is balanced by the sum of
all the anticlockwise moments acting on it. This is known
Small Large as the principle of moments. According to the principle of
distance distance
moments:
Large Small
weight weight A body is balanced if the sum of clockwise
moments acting on the body is equal to the sum of
anticlockwise moments acting on it.

QUICK QUIZ
1. Can a small child play with a fat child on the
seesaw? Explain how?
Figure 4.14: Children on
2. Two children are sitting on the see-saw, such
see-saw. that they can not swing. What is the net torque
in this situation?
Physics IX 93 Unit 4: Turning Effect of Forces

EXAMPLE 4.4
A metre rod is supported at its middle point O as
shown in figure 4.15. The block of weight 10 N is
suspended at point B, 40 cm from O. Find the weight of
the block that balances it at point A, 25 cm from O.
A O B

W1 W2

Figure 4.15: Balancing a metre rod on a wedge

SOLUTION

Moment arm of w1= OA = 25 cm = 0.25 m

Moment arm of w2 = OB = 40 cm = 0.40 m
Applying principle of moments;
Clockwise moments = Anticlockwise moments
moment of w2 = moment of w1
or w1 x moment arm of w2 = w1 x moment arm of w1
Thus
or

Thus, weight of the block suspended at point A is 16 N.

4.6 CENTRE OF MASS

It is observed that the centre of mass of a system
moves as if its entire mass is confined at that point. A A B
O
force applied at such a point in the body does not produce
any torque in it i.e. the body moves in the direction of net
force F without rotation. Figure 4.16: Centre of mass of two
unequal masses.
Consider a system of two particles A and B
connected by a light rigid rod as shown in figure 4.16.
Physics IX 94 Unit 4: Turning Effect of Forces

Let O is a point anywhere between A and B such that the

F F F force F is applied at point O as shown in figure 4.17. If the
O O O
system moves in the direction of force F without rotation,
then point O is the centre of mass of the system.
Figure 4.17: A force applied at COM
moves the system without rotation. Does the system still move without rotation if
the force acts elsewhere on it?
F F F (i) Let the force be applied near the lighter particle
O O O as shown in figure 4.18. The system moves as
well as rotates.

Figure 4.18: The system moves as (ii) Let the force be applied near the heavier particle
well as rotates when a force is applied as shown in figure 4.19. In this case, also the
away from COM.
system moves as well as rotates.
Centre of mass of a system is such a point
where an applied force causes the system to
O F O F O F move without rotation.

4.6 CENTRE OF GRAVITY

Figure 4.19: The system moves as
well as rotates when a force is applied A body is made up of a large number of particles as
away from COM.
illustrated in figure 4.20. Earth attracts each of these
CENTRE OF GRAVITY
particles vertically downward towards its centre. The pull
of the Earth acting on a particle is equal to its weight.
These forces acting on the particles of a body are almost
parallel. The resultant of all these parallel forces is a
single force equal to the weight of the body. A point where
ENTIRE
WEIGHT this resultant force acts vertically towards the centre of
the Earth is called the centre of gravity G of the body.
A point where the whole weight of the body
appears to act vertically downward is called
centre of gravity of a body.
It is useful to know the location of the centre of
gravity of a body in problems dealing with equilibrium.
Physics IX 95 Unit 4: Turning Effect of Forces

CENTRE OF GRAVITY OF SOME SYMMETRICAL OBJECTS

The centre of gravity of objects which have symmetrical shapes can be found from their
geometry. For example, the centre of gravity of a uniform rod lies at a point where it is
balanced. This balance point is its middle point G as shown in figure 4.21.
G Centre of gravity

w w

Figure 4.21: Centre of gravity is at the middle of a uniform rod.

The centre of a gravity of a uniform square or a rectangular sheet is the point of
intersection of its diagonals as shown in figure 4.22 (a) and (c). The centre of gravity of a
uniform circular disc is its centre as shown in figure 4.22(b). Similarly, the centre of gravity
of a solid sphere or hollow sphere is the centre of the spheres as shown in figure 4.22(b).
The centre of gravity of a uniform triangular sheet is the point of intersection of its
medians as shown in figure 4.22 (d). The centre of gravity of a uniform circular ring is the
centre of the ring as shown in figure 4.22(e). The centre of gravity of a uniform solid or
hollow cylinder is the middle point on its axis as shown in figure 4.22(f).

G G G

(a) (b) (c)

G G
G
G

(d) (e) (f)

Figure 4.22: Centre of gravity of some symmetrical objects.

CENTRE OF GRAVITY OF AN IRREGULAR SHAPED

THIN LAMINA
A simple method to find the centre of gravity of a
body is by the use of a plumbline. A plumbline consists of
a small metal bob (lead or brass) supported by a string.
When the bob is suspended freely by the string, it rests
along the vertical direction due to its weight acting
vertically downward as shown in figure 4.23 (a). In this
state, centre of gravity of the bob is exactly below its point
of suspension.
Physics IX 96 Unit 4: Turning Effect of Forces

EXPERIMENT
A Take an irregular piece of cardboard. Make holes
A, B and C as shown in figure 4.23(b) near its edge. Fix a
C
B nail on a wall. Support the cardboard on the nail through
one of the holes (let it be A), so that the cardboard can
Plumbline

G
Centre of swing freely about A. The cardboard will come to rest with
Gravity its centre of gravity just vertically below the nail. Vertical
line from A can be located using a plumbline hung from
Checking
line the nail. Mark the line on the cardboard behind the
plumbline. Repeat it by supporting the cardboard from
(a) (b) hole B. The line from B will intersect at a point G.
Similarly, draw another line from the hole C. Note that this
Figure 4.23: (a) Plumbline (b) Locating
line also passes through G. It will be found that all the
the centre of gravity of a piece of vertical lines from holes A B and C have a common point
cardboard by using plumbline. G. This Common point G is the centre of gravity of the
cardboard.
4.7 COUPLE
When a driver turns a vehicle, he applies forces that
PUSH

produce a torque. This torque turns the steering wheel.

These forces act on opposite sides of the steering
wheel as shown in figure 4.24 and are equal in
PULL

magnitude but opposite in direction. These two forces

form a couple.
A couple is formed by two unlike parallel forces
Figure 4.24: It is easy to turn a of the same magnitude but not along the same
steering wheel by applying a
couple. line.
A double arm spanner is used to open a nut.
Equal forces each of magnitude Fare applied on ends A
F and B of a spanner in opposite direction as shown in
figure 4.25. These forces form a couple that turns the
A spanner about point O. The torques produced by both
B
the forces of a couple have the same direction. Thus, the
O
total torque produced by the couple will be
F
Total torque of the couple
Figure 4.25: A double arm spanner.

Torque of the couple

Equation 4.8 gives the torque produced by a
couple of forces F and F separated by distance AB. The
torque of a couple is given by the product of one of
Physics IX 97 Unit 4: Turning Effect of Forces

the two forces and the perpendicular distance between

them.
4.8 EQUILIBRIUM
DO YOU KNOW?
Newton's first law of motion tells us that a body
continues its state of rest or of uniform motion in a straight
F
line if no resultant or net force acts on it. For example, a
book lying on a table or a picture hanging on a wall, are at
rest. The weight of the book acting downward is balanced
by the upward reaction of the table. Consider a log of F
wood of weight w supported by ropes as shown in
figure 4.26. Here the weight w is balanced by the forces F1 A cyclist pushes the pedals of a
and F2 pulling the log upward. In case of objects moving with bicycle. This forms a couple
uniform velocity, the resultant force acting on them is zero. A that acts on the pedals. The
pedals cause the toothed
car moving with uniform velocity on a levelled road and an
wheel to turn making the rear
aeroplane flying in the air with uniform velocity are the wheel of the bicycle to rotate.
examples of bodies in equilibrium.
A body is said to be in equilibrium if no net
force acts on it.
A body in equilibrium thus remains at rest or
moves with uniform velocity. F1 F2
Pull Pull

CONDITIONS FOR EQUILIBRIUM

In the above examples, we see that a body at rest
or in uniform motion is in equilibrium if the resultant force
Weight
acting on it is zero. For a body in equilibrium, it must w
satisfy certain conditions. There are two conditions for a
body to be in equilibrium. Figure 4.26: The forces acting on
the log are; upward forces F1, F2 and
its weight w in the downward
FIRST CONDITION FOR EQUILIBRIUM direction.

A body is said to satisfy first condition for

equilibrium if the resultant of all the forces acting on it
is zero. Let n number of forces F1, F2, F3, ...........,Fn are
acting on a body such that

The symbol is a Greek letter called sigma used for

summation. Equation 4.9 is called the first condition for
Figure 4.27: A wall hanging is
equilibrium. in equilibrium
Physics IX 98 Unit 4: Turning Effect of Forces

The first condition for equilibrium can also be

stated in terms of x and y-components of the forces
acting on the body as:

and

A book lying on a table or a picture hanging on a wall, are

at rest and thus satisfy first condition for equilibrium. A
paratrooper coming down with terminal velocity
(constant velocity) also satisfies first condition for
Figure 4.28: A paratrooper
equilibrium and is thus in equilibrium.
coming down with terminal
velocity is in equilibrium.
EXAMPLE 4.5
A block of weight 10 N is hanging through a cord
as shown in figure 4.29. Find the tension in the cord.
T
SOLUTION
Weight of the block w = 10 N
10 N Tension in the cord T = ?
Applying first condition for equilibrium

w There is no force acting along x-axis.

Figure 4.29

F2 F1

(a) Thus, the tension in the cord is 10 N.

F1 SECOND CONDITION FOR EQUILIBRIUM

F2
First condition for equilibrium does not ensure
(b) that a body is in equilibrium. This is clear from the
following example. Consider a body pulled by the
Figure 4.30: (a) Two equal forces F1 and F2 as shown in figure 4.30(a). The two
and opposite forces acting
along the same lines (b) Two forces are equal but opposite to each other. Both are
equal and opposite forces acting along the same line, hence their resultant will be
acting along different lines zero. According to the first condition, the body will be in
Physics IX 99 Unit 4: Turning Effect of Forces

equilibrium. Now shift the location of the forces as shown

in figure 4.30(b). In this situation, the body is not in
equilibrium although the first condition for equilibrium is
still satisfied. It is because the body has the tendency to
rotate. This situation demands another condition for
equilibrium in addition to the first condition for
equilibrium. This is called second condition for
equilibrium. According to this, a body satisfies second
condition for equilibrium when the resultant torque acting
on it is zero. Mathematically,

QUICK QUIZ
1. A ladder leaning at a wall as shown in figure 4.31
is in equilibrium. How?
2. The weight of the ladder in figure 4.31 produces
an anticlockwise torque. The wall pushes the
ladder at its top end thus produces a clockwise
torque. Does the ladder satisfy second condition
for equilibrium?
3. Does the speed of a ceiling fan go on increasing
all the time?
4. Does the fan satisfy second condition for
equilibrium when rotating with uniform speed?

EXAMPLE 4.6
A uniform rod of length 1.5 m is placed over a wedge at
0.5 m from its one end. A force of 100 N is applied at one
of its ends near the wedge to keep it horizontal. Find the
weight of the rod and the reaction of the wedge.
R
A O G B
0.5 m 0.25 m 0.75 m
F w

SOLUTION A rod balanced over a wedge

Physics IX 100 Unit 4: Turning Effect of Forces

Applying second condition for equilibrium,

taking torques about O.

or

Applying first condition for equilibrium

Thus, weight of the rod is 200 N and reaction of

the wedge is 300 N.
STATES OF EQUILIBRIUM
There are three states of equilibrium; stable
equilibrium, unstable equilibrium and neutral equilibrium.
A body may be in one of these three states of equilibrium.

STABLE EQUILIBRIUM

G
G
(a) (b)
Figure 4.33: Stable equilibrium (a) A book is lying on a table
(b) The book returns to its previous position when let free after a
slight tilt.

Consider a book lying on the table. Tilt the book

slightly about its one edge by lifting it from the opposite
side as shown in figure 4.33. It returns to its previous
Physics IX 101 Unit 4: Turning Effect of Forces

position when sets free. Such a state of the body is called

stable equilibrium. Thus
A body is said to be in stable equilibrium if after a
slight tilt it returns to its previous position.

When a body is in stable equilibrium, its centre of

gravity is at the lowest position. When it is tilted, its centre of
gravity rises. It returns to its stable state by lowering its centre of
gravity. A body remains in stable equilibrium as long as the
centre of gravity acts through the base of the body.

Consider a block as shown in figure 4.34. When the

block is tilted, its centre of gravity G rises. If the vertical line
through G passes through its base in the tilted position as Can you do this without falling?
shown in figure 4.34 (b), the block returns to its previous
position. If the vertical line through G gets out of its base as
shown in figure 4.34(c), the block does not return to its previous
position. It topples over its base and moves to new

G G G

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 4.34 (a) Block in stable equilibrium (b) Slightly tilted block is returning
to its previous position, (c) A more tilted block topples over its base and does
not return to its previous position.
Figure 4.35: A double decker bus
stable equilibrium position. That is why a vehicle is made heavy being under test for stability.
at its bottom to keep its centre of gravity as low as possible. A
lower centre of gravity keeps it stable. Moreover, the base of a
vehicle is made wide so that the vertical line passing through its Topple over

centre of gravity should not get out of its base during a turn.
G

UNSTABLE EQUILIBRIUM G

Take a pencil and try to keep it in the vertical

position on its tip as shown in figure 4.36. Whenever you
leave it, the pencil topples over about its tip and falls (a) (b)
down. This is called the unstable equilibrium. In Figure 4.36: Unstable equilibrium
(a) pencil just balanced at its tip with
unstable equilibrium, a body may be made to stay only centre of gravity G at the highest
position, (b) Pencil topples over
caused by the torque of its weight
acting at G.
Physics IX 102 Unit 4: Turning Effect of Forces

for a moment. Thus a body is unable to keep itself in the

state of unstable equilibrium. Thus
If a body does not return to its previous position
when sets free after a slightest tilt is said to be in
unstable equilibrium.

The centre of gravity of the body is at its highest

Vehicles are made heavy at the position in the state of unstable equilibrium. As the body
bottom. This lowers their centre of topples over about its base (tip), its centre of gravity moves
gravity and helps to increase their towards its lower position and does not return to its
stability.
previous position.

NEUTRAL EQUILIBRIUM
Take a ball and place it on a horizontal surface as
shown in figure 4.37. Roll the ball over the surface and
leave it after displacing from its previous position. It
(a) (b) remains in its new position and does not return to its
Figure 4.37: Neutral equilibrium previous position. This is called neutral equilibrium.
(a) a ball is placed on a horizontal
surface (b) the ball remains in its new If a body remains in its new position when
displaced position.
disturbed from its previous position, it is said
to be in a state of neutral equilibrium.
In neutral equilibrium, all the new states in which a body is
moved, are the stable states and the body, remains in its
new state. In neutral equilibrium, the centre of gravity of the
body remains at the same height, irrespective to its new
position. There are various objects which have neutral
equilibrium such as a ball, a sphere, a roller, a pencil lying
horizontally, an egg lying horizontally on a flat surface etc.

4.9 STABILITY AND POSITION OF CENTRE OF

MASS
Needle
As we have learnt that position of centre of mass of
Cork an object plays an important role in their stability. To make
Fork them stable, their centre of mass must be kept as low as
possible. It is due to this reason, racing cars are made
heavy at the bottom and their height is kept to be minimum.
Can Circus artists such as tight rope walkers use long poles to
lower their centre of mass. In this way they are prevented
from topple over. Here are few examples in which lowering
Figure 4.38: A needle is made of centre of mass make the objects stable. These
to balance at its tip.
 Physics IX 103 Unit 4: Turning Effect of Forces

objects return to their stable states when

disturbed. In each case centre of mass is vertically below
their point of support. This makes their equilibrium stable.
Figure 4.38 shows a sewing needle fixed in a Card
cork. The cork is balanced on the tip of the needle by
hanging forks. The forks lower the centre of mass of the
Spar
system. Figure 4.39(a) shows a perched parrot which is
made heavy at its tail. Figure 4.39(b) shows a toy that
keeps itself upright when tilted. It has a heavy semi-
spherical base. When it is tilted, its centre of mass rises. It Figure 4.39: (a) A perchd parrot
returns to its upright position at which itscentre of mass is (b) A self righting toy

at the lowest.

SUMMARY
 Parallel forces have their lines of action on a body in equilibrium is equal to the
parallel to each other. sum of anticlockwise moments acting
 If the direction of parallel forces is the on it.
same, they are called like parallel  Centre of mass of a body is such a point
forces. If two parallel forces are in where a net force causes it to move
opposite direction to each other, then without rotation.
they are called unlike parallel forces.  The centre of gravity of a body is a point
 The sum of two or more forces is called where the whole weight of a body acts
the resultant force. vertically downward.
 A graphical method used to find the  A couple is formed by two parallel
resultant of two or more forces is called forces of the same magnitude but
head to tail rule. acting in opposite direction along
 Splitting up a force into two different lines of action.
components perpendicular to each  A body is in equilibrium if net force
other is called resolution of that force.
acting on it is zero. A body in
These components are equilibrium either remains at rest or
moves with a uniform velocity.
 A body is said to satisfy second
 A force can be determined from its condition for equilibrium if the resultant
perpendicular components as torque acting on it is zero.
 A body is said to be in stable equilibrium
if after a slight tilt it returns to its
 Torque or moment of a force is the previous position.
turning effect of the force. Torque of a  If a body does not return to its previous
force is equal to the product of force position when sets free after slightly tilt
and moment arm of the force. is said to be in unstable equilibrium.
 According to the principle of moments,
the sum of clockwise moments acting
 Physics IX 104 Unit 4: Turning Effect of Forces

 A body that remains in its new position position is said to be in a state of

when disturbed from its previous neutral equilibrium.

4.1 Encircle the correct answers from (d) acceleration is zero

the given choices: vii. A body is in neutral equilibrium
i. Two equal but unlike parallel when its centre of gravity:
forces having different line of (a) is at its highest position
action produce (b) is at the lowest position
(c) keeps its height if displaced
(a) a torque (d) is situated at its bottom
(b) a couple
(c) equilibrium viii. Racing cars are made stable by:
(d) neutral equilibrium (a) increasing their speed
(b) decreasing their mass
ii. The number of forces that can (c) lowering their centre of
be added by head to tail rule gravity
are: (d) decreasing their width
(a) 2 (b) 3
4.2 Define the following:
(c) 4 (d) any number (i) resultant vector
iii. The number of perpendicular (ii) torque
components of a force are: (iii) centre of mass
(a) 1 (b) 2 (iv) centre of gravity
(c) 3 (d) 4 4.3 Differentiate the following:
iv. A force of 10 N is making an (i) like and unlike forces
angle of 30° with the horizontal.
(ii) torque and couple
Its horizontal component will be :
(iii) stable and neutral
(a) 4 N (b) 5 N
equilibrium
(c) 7 N (d) 8.7 N
4.4 How head to tail rule helps to find
v. A couple is formed by the resultant of forces?
(a) two forces perpendicular to
4.5 How can a force be resolved into
each other
its perpendicular components?
(b) two like parallel forces
(c) two equal and opposite forces 4.6 When a body is said to be in
in the same line equilibrium?
(d) two equal and opposite forces
4.7 Explain the first condition for
not in the same line
equilibrium.
vi. A body is in equilibrium when its: 4.8 Why there is a need of second
(a) acceleration is uniform condition for equilibrium if a body
(b) speed is uniform satisfies first condition for
(c) speed and acceleration are equilibrium?
uniform
Physics IX 105 Unit 4: Turning Effect of Forces

4.9 What is second condition for 4.12 Why a body cannot be in

equilibrium? equilibrium due to single force
acting on it?
4.10 Give an example of a moving body
4.13 Why the height of vehicles is kept
which is in equilibrium. as low as possible?

4.11 Think of a body which is at rest but 4.14 Explain what is meant by stable,
unstable and neutral equilibrium.
not in equilibrium.
Give one example in each case.

4.1 Find the resultant of the following 4.7 A picture frame is hanging by two
forces: vertical strings. The tensions in
(i) 10 N along x-axis the strings are 3.8 N and 4.4 N.
(ii) 6 N along y-axis and Find the weight of the picture
(iii) 4 N along negative x-axis. frame. (8.2 N)
(8.5 N making 45° with x-axis)
4.8 Tw o b l o c k s o f
4.2 Find the perpendicular components masses 5 kg and 3
kg are suspended
of a force of 50 N making an angle of by the two strings
30° with x axis. (43.3 N, 25 N) as shown. Find the
tension in each
4.3 Find the magnitude and direction string. (80 N, 30 N)
of a force, if its x-component is 5 kg
4.9 A nut has been
12 N and y- component is 5 N. tightened by a force
(13 N making 22.6° with x-axis) of 200 N using 10 cm
4.4 A force of 100 N is applied long spanner. What
length of a spanner
perpendicularly on a spanner at a is required to loosen 3 kg
distance of 10 cm from a nut. Find the same nut with
the torque produced by the 150 N force? (13.3 cm)
force. (10 Nm)
4.5 A force is acting on a body making 4.10 A block of mass 10 kg is
an angle of 30° with the horizontal. suspended at a distance of 20 cm
The horizontal component of from the centre of a uniform bar
the force is 20 N. Find the 1 m long. What force is required to
force. (23.1 N) balance it at its centre of gravity
4.6 The steering of a car has a radius by applying the force at the other
16 cm. Find the torque produced end of the bar? (40 N)
by a couple of 50 N.
(16 Nm)