PRINCIPLES OF HYDRODYNAMICS

PATHLINE a path line is a line made by a single particle as moves during a particular period of
time.

STREAMLINE is a line which gives the velocity direction of the fluid at each point along the
line at a given instant.

STREAMTUBE when streamline are drawn through a closed curved they form boundaries
across which no fluid particle could pass. The space within such boundaries becomes a tube
called a stream tube.

LAMINAR FLOW when the velocity of movement is sufficiently low. The individual particle
will follow defined paths that do not cross or intersect one another.

PARALLEL SIDES

NON PARALLEL SIDE

Movement:
1. Converging > velocity
2. Diverging > velocity
Cause of Laminar Flow
1. Low velocity of movement
2. Small size of conduit

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TURBULENT FLOW when the particles of fluid in motion intersect the flow pattern is
turbulent.

The transition from laminar to turbulent flow starts when a certain velocity (critical
velocity), is attained and exceeded.

DISCHARGE OR RATE OF FLOW in a stream of flowing fluid, the velocity of fluid passing
a cross-section per unit time is called as the discharge or rate of fluid.

𝑸 = 𝑨𝑽

where:
3
𝑄 = 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒, 𝑚 ⁄𝑠
𝑉 = 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦, 𝑚⁄𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝐴 = 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛, 𝑚2

𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝒎𝟑
𝒐𝒓 𝑸 = ;
𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆 𝒔
For the laminar flow in circular pipe, the velocity distribution is a three dimensional paraboloid
of revolution where the maximum velocity is twice the mean velocity.

If 𝑣 = 𝑓(𝑦) represents the equation of velocity distribution at any section is a stream.

STEADY FLOW occurs if the discharge Q passing a given cross section of a stream is constant
with time, otherwise the flow is unsteady.

UNIFORM FLOW the flow is said to be uniform if, within a certain length or reach, of a
stream, the average velocity at every cross-section is the same. Uniform flow usually occurs to
incompressible fluid flowing in a stream of constant cross section.

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CONTINUOUS FLOW by the principle of mass, continuous flow occurs when at any time, the
discharge Q at every section of the stream is the same.

CONTINUOUS EQUATION

For incompressible fluids

𝑄 = 𝐴1 𝑉1 = 𝐴2 𝑉2 = 𝐴3 𝑉3 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡

For incompressible fluids

𝑀 = 𝜌1 𝐴1 𝑉1 = 𝜌2 𝐴2 𝑉2 = 𝜌3 𝐴3 𝑉3 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡

Or

𝑊 = 𝛾1 𝐴1 𝑉1 = 𝛾2 𝐴2 𝑉2 = 𝛾3 𝐴3 𝑉3 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡

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ENERGY AND HEAD

1. KINETIC ENERGY the ability of fluid mass to do work by virtue of its motion

𝒘𝒗𝟐
𝑲𝑬 =
𝟐𝒈

𝑲𝑬 𝒗𝟐
𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒕𝒊𝒄 𝒐𝒓 𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝒉𝒆𝒂𝒅 = =
𝒘 𝟐𝒈

2. ELEVATION ENERGY OR POTENTIAL ENERGY the energy possessed by the

fluid by virtue of its elevation or position.

𝐸𝑙𝑒𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 = 𝑊𝑧 = 𝑀𝑔𝑧

𝑬𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝑯𝒆𝒂𝒅 = 𝒛

3. PRESSURE ENERGY
𝑷
𝑷𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆 𝑯𝒆𝒂𝒅 = =𝒉
𝜸
𝒗𝟐 𝑷
𝑬𝑻 = 𝟐𝒈 + 𝜸 + 𝒛 → 𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒆𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚

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BERNOULLI’S ENERGY THEOREM

The Bernoulli’s energy theorem results from the application of the principle of
conservation of energy. This equation may be summarized as follows.

ENERGY EQUATION WITHOUT HEAD LOST

If the fluid experiences no head lost in moving from section 1 to 2, then the total energy
at section 1 must be equal to the total energy at section 2. Neglecting head lost in fluid flow, the
values that we get are called ideal or theoretical values. With reference to figure:

𝑬𝟏 = 𝑬𝟐

𝒗𝟏 𝟐 𝑷𝟏 𝒗𝟐 𝟐 𝑷𝟐
+ + 𝒛𝟏 = + + 𝒛𝟐
𝟐𝒈 𝜸 𝟐𝒈 𝜸

ENERGY EQUATION WITH HEAD LOST

Considering head lost, the values that we can attain are called actual values, with
reference to the figure:

𝐸1 − 𝐻𝐿1−2 = 𝐸2

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 𝒗𝟏 𝟐 𝑷𝟏 𝒗𝟐 𝟐 𝑷𝟐
+ + 𝒛𝟏 = + + 𝒛𝟐 + 𝑯𝑳𝟏−𝟐
𝟐𝒈 𝜸 𝟐𝒈 𝜸

ENERGY EQUATION WITH PUMP

Pump is used basically to increase the head. (Usually to raise water from a lower to a
higher elevation). The input power (𝑷𝒐𝒖𝒕𝒑𝒖𝒕 ) is the flow energy.

𝐸1 + 𝐻𝐴 − 𝐻𝐿1−2 = 𝐸2

𝒗𝟏 𝟐 𝑷𝟏 𝒗𝟐 𝟐 𝑷𝟐
+ + 𝒛𝟏 + 𝑯𝑨 = + + 𝒛𝟐 + 𝑯𝑳𝟏−𝟐
𝟐𝒈 𝜸 𝟐𝒈 𝜸

𝒐𝒖𝒕𝒑𝒖𝒕 𝒑𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒑𝒖𝒎𝒑 = 𝑸𝜸𝑯𝑨

ENERGY EQUATION WITH TURBINE OR MOTOR

Turbines or motors extract flow energy to do mechanical work which in turn converted
into electrical energy for turbines.

𝐸1 − 𝐻𝐸 − 𝐻𝐿1−2 = 𝐸2

𝒗𝟏 𝟐 𝑷𝟏 𝒗𝟐 𝟐 𝑷𝟐
+ + 𝒛𝟏 = + + 𝒛𝟐 + 𝑯𝑳𝟏−𝟐 + 𝑯𝑬
𝟐𝒈 𝜸 𝟐𝒈 𝜸

𝒊𝒏𝒑𝒖𝒕 𝒑𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 𝒇 𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒃𝒊𝒏𝒆 = 𝑸𝜸𝑯𝑬

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 ENERGY AND HYDRAULIC GRADE LINES

HYDRAULIC GRADE LINE (HGL)

Also known as pressure gradient, hydraulic grade line is the graphical representation of
the total potential energy of flow. It is the line that connects the water levels in successive
P
piezometer tubes placed at intervals along the pipe. Its distance from the datum plane is + z.
ϒ

Characteristics of HGL

• HGL slopes downward in the direction of flow but it may rise or fall due to changes in
velocity or pressure.
• For uniform pipe cross-section, HGL is parallel to the EGL.
• For horizontal pipes with uniform diameter, the drop in the pressure heads between any
two points is also equal to the head loss between these points.

ENERGY GRADE LINE (EGL)

Energy grade line is a graphical representation of the total energy of flow (the sum of
𝒗𝟐 𝑷
kinetic and potential energies). Its distance from the datum plane is + 𝜸 + 𝒛.
𝟐𝒈

Characteristics of EGL

• EGL always slope downward in the direction of flow, and it will only rise with the
presence of a pump.
• The drop of the EGL between any two points is the head loss between those points.
• For uniform pipe cross-section, EGL is parallel to the HGL.
𝑣2
• EGL is always above the HGL by an amount equal to the velocity head, 2𝑔.
• Neglecting head loss, EGL is horizontal.

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VENTURI

A venturi meter is used to measure the average velocity or flow of an incompressible

fluid through a pipe.

Energy Equation Neglecting Head Loss

𝑬𝟏 = 𝑬𝟐

ACTUAL DISCHARGE

𝑸𝒂 = 𝑪𝑸𝑻

𝑸𝒂 = 𝑪𝑨𝑻𝑽𝑻

Where:

THEORETICAL DISCHARGE

𝑸 𝑻 = 𝑨 𝑻 𝑽𝑻
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NOZZLE

A nozzle is a conveying tube attached to the end of pipe or hose which serves to increase
the velocity of issuing jet.

B.E.E. with head loss

The head loss is expressed as a percentage of the velocity head in the jet.

DISCHARGE THROUGH NOZZLE

𝑸 = 𝑪𝑨𝒏 √𝟐𝒈𝑯

Where:

H = total head at the base of the nozzle

𝐴𝑛 = area of the nozzle tip

𝑯𝑳𝒏 = 𝑯𝒊 − 𝑯𝒇 = 𝑯𝟏 − 𝑯𝟐

𝑽 𝟐
𝟏 𝑷 𝑽 𝟐 𝑷
𝑯𝑳𝒏 = [ 𝟐𝒈 + 𝜸 𝟏 ] − [ 𝟐𝒈
𝟐
+ 𝜸 𝟐]
𝒘 𝒘

𝑽𝟐 𝟐
𝑯𝑵 = 𝑯 − → 𝑽𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝒐𝒇 𝑨𝒑𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒂𝒄𝒉
𝟐𝒈

𝟏
𝑯𝑵 = [ 𝟐 − 𝟏]
𝑪𝒗

𝑪 = 𝑪𝒄 . 𝑪𝒗

Where:

C = coefficient of discharge

𝐶𝑐 = coefficient of contraction

𝐶𝑣 = coefficient of velocity

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PITOT TUBE

An L-tube with open ends one is submerged and is pointing directing directly into the
fluid flow and in that way velocity of flowing fluid can be measured as the difference between
statics and dynamics pressure.

First used by Henri Pitot (French Scientist) to measure the velocity of liquids in an open
flow.

V1

Stagnation Point V2 =0

Where:

𝑃1 = static pressure

𝑃2 = pitot pressure or total pressured stagnation pressure

𝑃 = 𝑃2 − 𝑃1 , dynamic pressure

By B.E.E. between 1 and 2

𝐸1 = 𝐸2

10 | P a g e
 𝒗𝟏 𝟐 𝑷𝟏 𝒗𝟐 𝟐 𝑷𝟐
+ + 𝒛𝟏 = + + 𝒛𝟐
𝟐𝒈 𝜸𝒘 𝟐𝒈 𝜸𝒘

Then with; v = 0

𝑯 = 𝑯𝟐 − 𝑯𝟏

𝑷𝟐 𝑷𝟏
𝑯= −
𝜸 𝜸

THEORETICAL VELOCITY OF FLOW

𝑽𝒕 = 𝑽𝟏 = √𝟐𝒈𝑯

ACTUAL VELOCITY OF FLOW

𝑽 = 𝑪𝒑 √𝟐𝒈𝑯

Where: 𝐶𝑝 = Coefficient for Pitot tube

ORIFICE

ORIFICE is any designed opening, mouth, hole or vent as of a pipe plate or a body such as tank.

According to slope:

1. Circular
2. Square
3. Triangular

According to texture:

1. Sharp
2. Rounded
3. Smooth

VENA CONTRATA is the section on the fluid jet where the diameter of the stream is the least
and fluid velocity is the maximum such as in the case of a stream issuing out of an orifice.

11 | P a g e
Device Coefficient

1. Coefficient of Contraction

𝒂
𝑪𝒄 =
𝑨𝒐
2. Coefficient of Velocity

𝑽𝒂
𝑪𝒗 =
𝑽𝒕
3. Coefficient of Discharge
𝑸𝒂
𝑪= 𝑸𝒕

4. Actual Coefficient

𝑨𝒂 = 𝑪𝒄𝑨𝒄

1. Orifice Under Constant Head

0 0 0
2 2
𝑉1 𝑃1 𝑉2 𝑃2
+ + 𝑍1 = + + 𝑍2
2𝑔 𝛾 2𝑔 𝛾

𝑉2 2 𝑃1
= + 𝑍1
2𝑔 𝛾

𝑉2 2 𝑃1
= +ℎ
2𝑔 𝛾

𝑽𝟐 𝟐
= 𝑯(𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒉𝒆𝒂𝒅)
𝟐𝒈

𝑽𝟐 = √𝟐𝒈𝑯 ; 𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒐𝒓𝒆𝒕𝒊𝒄𝒂𝒍 𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚

2. Two Chambers
a)
0 0
2 2
𝑉1 𝑃1 𝑉2 𝑃2
+ + 𝑍1 = + + 𝑍2
2𝑔 𝛾 2𝑔 𝛾

𝑃1 𝑃2
𝑉2 = √2𝑔 [ + 𝑍1 ] −
𝛾 𝛾

12 | P a g e
 𝑷𝟏 𝑷𝟐
𝑽𝟐 = √𝟐𝒈 [ + 𝒉𝟏 ] −
𝜸 𝜸

b) Submerge Orifice
0
𝑉1 2 𝑃1 𝑉2 2 𝑃2
+ + 𝑍1 = + + 𝑍2
2𝑔 𝛾 2𝑔 𝛾

𝑷𝟏 𝑷𝟐
𝑽𝟐 = √𝟐𝒈 [( + 𝒉𝟏 ) − ( + 𝒉𝟐 )]
𝜸 𝜸

DISCHARGE UNDER FALLING HEAD

As = area of liquid surface

Discharge that flow out the orifice:

𝑄𝑜 = 𝐶𝐴𝑜 √2𝑔ℎ

𝑑𝑉𝑜𝑙
= 𝐶𝐴𝑜 √2𝑔ℎ
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑉𝑜𝑙 𝐴𝑠 𝑑ℎ
𝑑𝑡 = =
𝐶𝐴𝑜 √2𝑔ℎ 𝐶𝐴𝑜 √2𝑔ℎ
13 | P a g e
 𝐴𝑠 ℎ−1/2 𝑑ℎ
𝑑𝑡 =
𝐶𝐴𝑜 √2𝑔ℎ

𝐴𝑠
∗𝐾=
𝐶𝐴𝑜 √2𝑔ℎ
ℎ1
∫ 𝑑𝑡 = 𝐾 ∫ ℎ−1/2 𝑑ℎ
ℎ2

𝒉𝟏
𝒕 = 𝟐𝑲 [𝒉𝟏/𝟐 ]𝒉
𝟐

𝒕 = 𝟐𝑲 (√𝒉𝟏 − √𝒉𝟐 ) *time elapsed from 𝒉𝟏 to 𝒉𝟐 .

A gate is an opening in other hydraulic structure to control the passage of water.

Flow through a gate:

1. Free Flow

2. Submerge Flow

By BEE neglecting HL:

14 | P a g e
 𝐸1 = 𝐸2

𝑉1 2 𝑃1 𝑉2 2 𝑃2
+ + 𝑍1 = + + 𝑍2
2𝑔 𝛾 2𝑔 𝛾
𝑃1
Where: 𝑑1 = + 𝑍1
𝛾

𝑃2
𝑑2 = + 𝑍2
𝛾

𝑉2 2
Then: 0 + 𝑑1 = + 𝑑2
2𝑔

𝒗𝟐 = √𝟐𝒈(𝒅𝟏 − 𝒅𝟐 ); Theoretical velocity

For Rectangular Opening

𝑨 = 𝒃. 𝒚

Coefficient of Contraction

𝒃𝒅𝟐
𝑪𝒄 =
𝒃𝒚

Short tube is an opening with downstream extensions not sufficiently long to be classified as
pipes.

Standard short tube is a smooth tube with a sharp internal corner and a length equal to absolute
2.5 times its internal diameter.

1.

2. Cc = 1.0

Cc = Cv = 0.82

Pa = - 0.82 H

Va = 0.82 √2gh

H = total head

15 | P a g e
Converging Tube

Where:

θ = angle of convergence

v = Cv √2gh

Q = CA √2gh

Diverging Tube

Submerge Tube

Q
16 | P a g e
The flow through orifice, tube is said to be steady only if the total head producing flow is
constant.

V = Qt

Note:

1. If Qin > Qout the head will rise.

2. If Qin < Qout the head will fall.
Assuming Qin > Qout.

𝑑𝑣
𝑑𝑡 =
𝑄𝑖𝑛 − 𝑄𝑜𝑢𝑡

Where:

𝑸𝒐𝒖𝒕 = 𝑪𝑨𝒐 √𝟐𝒈𝒉

WEIR

Weir is essentially an overflow structure extending across an open channel normal to the
direction of flow and widely used for the purpose of flow metering and control.

CLASSIFICATION OF WEIR ACCORDING TO SHAPE

1. BROAD CRESTED WEIR – may be either have a rounder or square upstream corner
so that the liquid passing over the crest comes in contact with the surface.

a. ROUNDED UPSTREAM CORNER

b. SQUARE UPSTREAM CORNER

17 | P a g e
 2. SHARP CRESTED WEIR

Where:
Nappe – downward falling stream
H – Head of water above the crest
P – Weir plate (height of weir)
D – Depth of water
Va – velocity of approach in the channel

FLOW OVER THE WEIR

1. Free Flow – when liquid surface downstream is sufficient below the crest.
2. Submerge Flow - if the surface downstream is above the crest but below the upstream
liquid surface.

SUPPRESED RECTANGULAR WEIR -its length is the same as the width of channel.

By orifice theory, neglecting losses.

𝑑𝑄𝑇 = 𝑑𝐴. 𝑉 2
𝑑𝑄𝑇 = 𝐿𝑑ℎ . 𝑉 2
𝑉1 2
𝑑𝑄𝑇 = 𝐿𝑑ℎ √ℎ + (2𝑔)
2𝑔

18 | P a g e
 𝑉1 2
𝑑𝑄𝑇 = √2𝑔𝐿√ℎ + 𝑑ℎ
2𝑔

Integrating both sides

𝑉1 2
∫ 𝑑𝑄𝑇 = ∫ √2𝑔𝐿√ℎ + 𝑑ℎ
2𝑔
3/2 𝐻
2 𝑉1 2
𝑄𝑇 = √2𝑔𝐿 [(ℎ + ) ]
3 2𝑔
0
2 3/2 3/2
2 𝑉1 𝑉1 2
𝑄𝑇 = √2𝑔𝐿 [(ℎ + ) −( ) ]
3 2𝑔 2𝑔

2
𝐶 = 𝐶′ √2𝑔
3

Actual Flow
𝟑/𝟐 𝟑/𝟐
𝑽𝟏 𝟐 𝑽𝟏 𝟐
𝑸𝑨 = 𝑪𝑳 [(𝒉 + ) −( ) ]
𝟐𝒈 𝟐𝒈
Where:
L = length of weir
V1 = Va (velocity of approach)
C’ = correction factor
= 0.622 (by Francis)

Remarks:
𝑽𝒂 𝟐 𝑯
1. If and is sufficiently small, then
𝟐𝒈 𝑷

𝑸𝒂 = 𝑪𝑳 𝑯𝟑/𝟐

2. Francis Formula
a. Consider velocity of approach
𝟑/𝟐 𝟑/𝟐
𝑽𝟏 𝟐 𝑽𝟏 𝟐
𝑸𝒂 = 𝟏. 𝟖𝟒𝑳 [(𝑯 + ) −( ) ]
𝟐𝒈 𝟐𝒈

b. Neglect velocity of approach

𝑸𝒂 = 𝟏. 𝟖𝟒 𝑳 𝑯𝟑/𝟐

3. Basin Formula

𝟎. 𝟎𝟐𝟏𝟔𝟏 𝑯 𝟐
𝑸 = 𝟎. 𝟓𝟓𝟏𝟖 [(𝟑. 𝟐𝟓 + )] [𝟏 + 𝟎. 𝟓𝟓 ( ) ] 𝑳𝑯𝟑/𝟐
𝑯 𝑯+𝒛
19 | P a g e
 z= height of weir crest above channel bottom

a. Neglect velocity of approach

𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟑
𝑸 = [𝟎. 𝟒𝟎𝟓 + ] √𝟐𝒈𝑳𝑯𝟑/𝟐
𝑯

b. Consider velocity of approach

𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟑
𝑸 = [𝟎. 𝟒𝟎𝟓 + ] √𝟐𝒈𝑳𝑯𝟏 𝟑/𝟐
𝑯

𝑽𝒂 𝟐
Where: 𝑯𝟏 = 𝑯 + 𝟏. 𝟔 𝟐𝒈
𝑽𝒂 = 𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝒐𝒇 𝒂𝒑𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒂𝒂𝒄𝒉

4. Rehbook Formula

𝑸 = [𝟏. 𝟕𝟖𝟐 + 𝟎. 𝟐𝟒𝑯]𝑳𝑯𝒆 𝟑/𝟐

Where: 𝑯𝒆 = 𝑯 + 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟏𝟏

5. Fteley and Stearn Formula

𝟑/𝟐
𝑽𝟐
𝑸 = 𝟏. 𝟖𝟐𝟔 𝑳 [𝑯+∝ ] + 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟔𝟓𝑳
𝟐𝒈

∝ = factor dependent upon crest height z

SPECIFICATION OF A STANDARD WEIR

(SUPPRESED RECTANGULAR WEIR)

1. Weir plate is vertical and upstream face is smooth.

2. The Crest is horizontal and normal to the direction of flow. It must be sharp so that the
liquid passing over the crest will spring free from the edge.
3. The pressure on the lower and upper nappe is atmospheric
4. The approach channel is uniform in section and the free surface is free from waves.
5. The sides of the channel are vertical and smooth and shall extend a short distance of the
weir crest.

Contracted Weir – is a weir where its length is less than the width of the channel.

Rectangular Sharp – Crested contracted weir

Francis Formula

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 𝑸𝑨 = 𝟏. 𝟖𝟒 𝑳′ 𝑯𝟑/𝟐

𝐋′ = 𝑳 − 𝟎. 𝟐𝟎 𝑯 (𝟐 𝒆𝒏𝒅 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒐𝒊𝒐𝒏)
𝐋′ = 𝑳 − 𝟎. 𝟏𝟎 𝑯 (𝟏 𝒆𝒏𝒅 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒐𝒊𝒐𝒏)

Triangular Weir

𝟖 𝜽
𝑸𝑨 = 𝒄 𝐭𝐚𝐧 √𝟐𝒈 𝑯𝟓/𝟐
𝟏𝟓 𝟐
Where : 𝜽 = 𝟗𝟎°
𝑸𝑨 = 𝟏. 𝟒 𝑯𝟓/𝟐

Cipolleti Weir – is a trapezoid weirs where its side slopes are equal to ¼.

Where :

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 𝜽 𝟏
𝐭𝐚𝐧 =
𝟐 𝟒

𝑸𝑨 = 𝟏. 𝟖𝟔 𝑳 𝑯𝟑/𝟐

Submerged Sharp Crested Weirs

𝑸𝒂 = 𝑸′(𝟏 − 𝑺𝒏 )𝟎.𝟑𝟖𝟓

Where:

Q’= is the flow which would result when the head is H, and the weir is not submerged
n = 1.5 for rectangular weirs
2.5 for triangular weirs
s = H2/H1, submerged ratio

FLUID FLOW IN PIPES

Pipes are closed conduit used in conveying fluid flow. (flow full or partially full)

1. Steady – laminar flow (R<2000) and turbulent flow (R>2000)

2. Unsteady

Critical Velocity

The critical velocity in pipes is the velocity in pipes is the velocity below which all turbulence is
damped out by the viscosity of the fluid. This is represented by a Reynolds number of 2000.
Reynolds’s number is the ratio of the inertia force to viscous force.

1. For pipes flowing full

𝑽𝑫𝝆
𝑹𝒆 =
𝝁

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 𝑽𝑫
𝑹𝒆 =
𝒗
𝝁
𝒗=
𝝆
Where:
V = mean velocity, m/s
D = pipe diameter, m
ѵ = kinematic viscosity of the fluid, m3 /s
μ = absolute or dynamic viscosity, Pa. s

2. For non-circular pipes, use D=4R (hydraulic radius)

𝟒𝒗𝑹𝝆 𝟒ѵ𝑹
𝑹𝒄 = =
𝝁 ѵ

𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑖𝑝𝑒 𝐴

𝐻𝑦𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑢𝑙𝑖𝑐 𝑅𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 =
𝑃𝑖𝑝𝑒 𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑃

1. Laminar Flow

𝜹𝒉𝑳
𝝁 = 𝑽𝒄 − 𝒙𝒓
𝟒𝝁𝑳
𝟏
Average velocity: 𝑽 = 𝟐 𝑽𝒄

The velocity at any distance from the center of the pipe.

Use squared property formula

𝒙 𝑽𝒄 𝒓𝟐
𝒓²
= 𝒓𝒐² : 𝒙 = 𝑽𝒄(𝒓𝒐𝟐 )

From the figure;

𝜇 = 𝑉𝑐 − 𝑥

𝑟2
𝜇 = 𝑉𝑐 − 𝑉𝑐( )
𝑟𝑜 2

𝒓𝟐
𝝁 = 𝑽𝒄[𝟏 − ( 𝟐 )]
𝒓𝒐

Where:

hL = head loss in the pipe

L = pipe length

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 ro = pipe radius
Vc = centreline or maximum velocity
μ = absolute velocity of the liquid
γ = unit weight of the fluid
u = velocity at distance from pipe center
ѵ = average velocity

2. Turbulent Flow

The velocity μ , at any point r in a pipe of radius ro

𝝉𝒐 𝒓𝒐
𝝁 = 𝑽𝒄 − 𝟓. 𝟕𝟓√ 𝒍𝒐𝒈( )
𝝆 𝒓𝒐 − 𝒓

Where:

𝝉𝒐 𝒇𝒗²
√𝝆 = √ 𝟖
or
𝒓𝒐
𝝁 = (𝟏 + 𝟏. 𝟑𝟑√𝒇)𝒗 − 𝟐. 𝟎𝟒√𝒇 𝒍𝒐𝒈( )
𝒓𝒐 − 𝒓
Centerline or maximum velocity

𝑽𝒄 = (𝟏 + 𝟏. 𝟑𝟑√𝒇)

velocity ( average or mean velocity )

𝝉𝒐
𝑽 = 𝑽𝒄 − 𝟑. 𝟕𝟓√
𝝆

where;

𝜏𝑜= maximum shearing stress in pipe

f = friction factor
v= mean velocity

SHEARING STRESS IN PIPES

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Consider a mass of fluid of length ( L ) and radius ( r ) to move the right. Due to headlost HL,
P2<P1. The shearing stress at the surface of the fluid is:
∑ 𝐹𝐻 = 0
𝐹1 − 𝐹2 − 𝐹𝑆 = 0
𝐹𝑆 = 𝐹1 − 𝐹2
𝜏𝑆 𝐴𝑆 = 𝑃1 𝐴1 − 𝑃2 𝐴2
𝜏𝑆 (2𝜋𝑥𝐿) = 𝑃1 (𝜋𝑥 2 ) − 𝑃2 (2𝜋𝑥 2 )
(𝑃1 − 𝑃2 )𝑥
𝜏𝑆 =
2𝐿

Multiplying and divide the equation by unit wt. 𝛾

𝑃1 − 𝑃2
𝜏𝑆 = (𝑥)
𝛾
𝑃1 − 𝑃2
𝐵𝑢𝑡 ∶ (𝑥 )
𝛾
𝜸𝒉𝑳
𝝉𝒔 = (𝒙)
𝟐𝑳
𝜸𝒉𝑳
𝑴𝒂𝒙. 𝝉𝒐 = (𝒓)
𝟐𝑳
Or

𝜸𝒉𝑳𝑫
𝝉𝒐 =
𝟒𝑳
𝒇 𝒗
𝝉𝒐 = 𝜸
𝟒 𝒈

Shear velocity of friction velocity

𝝉
𝑽𝒔 = √
𝜸

√𝒇
𝑽𝒔 = ѵ
𝒈

HEAD LOSSES IN PIPES FLOW

1. Major head loss

- Caused by pipe friction along straight sections of pipe of uniform diameter & uniform
roughness.
2. Minor head loss
- Caused by changes in velocity or directions of flow & are commonly expressed in
terms of kinetic energy.

Major Loss ; hf

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 A. Darcy – Weisbach formula

𝒇𝑳 𝒗²
𝒉𝒇 = .
𝑫 𝟐𝒈

Where:
f = friction factor
L = length of pipe in meter
D = diameter of pipe in meter
V = mean or average velocity of flow in m/s

For non-circular pipes

D = 4R

For circular pipes

𝒇𝑳 𝟖𝑸²
𝒉𝒇 = .
𝑫 𝝅² 𝒈 𝑫²

𝟎. 𝟎𝟖𝟐𝟔 𝒇𝑳𝑸²
𝒉𝒇 =
𝑫 . 𝟐𝒈

𝒇𝑳𝒗²
𝒉𝒇 =
𝑫 . 𝟐𝒈
Value of f:

1. Laminar Flow

𝟔𝟒 𝟔𝟒𝝁
𝒇= =
𝑹𝒆 ѵ𝑫𝝆

For Non-circular pipes

𝟑𝟐𝝁𝑳ѵ
𝒉𝒇 =
𝝆𝒈𝑫²

For Circular pipe

𝟏𝟐𝟖𝝁𝑳𝑸
𝒉𝒇 =
𝝅𝝆𝒈𝑫²

2. Turbulent Flow

a. Smooth & Rough Pipes

𝟖𝝉𝒐 𝟖ѵ²
𝒉𝒇 = =
𝝆ѵ² ѵ²
ѵs = shear velocity of friction velocity
ѵ = mean or average velocity
b. For smooth pipes, Re bet 3000 & 100,000

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 𝟎. 𝟑𝟏𝟔
𝒉𝒇 =
𝑹𝒆𝟎.𝟐𝟓

c. For smooth pipes with Re up to 3,000,000

𝟏
= 𝟐 𝐥𝐨𝐠(𝑹𝒆 √𝒇) = 𝟎. 𝟖𝟎
√𝒇

d. For rough pipes , where 𝜹<0.30∈

𝟏 𝑫
= 𝟐 𝐥𝐨𝐠 ( ) + 𝟏. 𝟏𝟒
√𝒇 𝑹𝒆
where :
∈ = absolute roughness , mm
∈/𝐷 = relative thickness of viscous
𝛿 = nominal thickness of viscous sublayer
𝟏𝟏. 𝟔𝟐𝟓
𝜹=
√𝝉𝒐/𝝆
e. For smooth & roughness pipes , turbulent
𝟏 ∈ 𝟏𝑫 𝟐. 𝟓𝟏
= 𝟐 𝐥𝐨𝐠 [ + ]
√𝒇 𝟑. 𝟕 𝑹𝒆 √𝒇
f. Haaland Formula
𝟏 𝟔. 𝟗 ∈/𝑫𝟏.𝟏𝟏
= −𝟏. 𝟖 𝐥𝐨𝐠 [ + ]
√𝒇 𝑹𝒆 𝟑. 𝟕
B. Manning Formula

𝟏 𝟐/𝟑 𝟏/𝟐
𝑽= 𝑹 𝑺
𝒏
where :
n = roughness coefficient
R = hydraulic radius
S = slope of the energy gradeline
S = hf
For Non-circular pipes , use D = 4R
For circular pipes
𝟏𝟎. 𝟐𝟗 𝒏²𝑳𝑸²
𝒉𝒇 =
𝑫𝟏𝟔/𝟑
C. Hazen William Formula
For circular pipes flowing full
𝟏𝟎. 𝟔𝟕𝑳𝑸𝟏.𝟖𝟓
𝒉𝒇 =
𝑪𝟏𝟏.𝟖𝟓 𝑫𝟒.𝟖𝟕
Where :
C1 = hazen william coefficient
D = pipe diameter
R = hydraulic radius
S = slope of the EGL

Minor Loss

- Caused by the changes in direction or velocity of flow.

If L > 1500∅ of pipes : Losses Neglected

A. Sudden enlargement

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 (𝒗𝟏 − 𝒗𝟐)𝟐
𝒉𝒇 =
𝟐𝒈

where : v1 = velocity before enlargement

v2 = velocity after

B. Gradual Enlargement
𝒌(𝒗𝟏 − 𝒗𝟐)𝟐
𝒉𝒇 =
𝟐𝒈

C. Sudden contraction

𝒌𝒄𝒗𝟐
𝒉𝒇 =
𝟐𝒈

where : kc = coefficient of sudden

contraction
v = velocity in smaller pipe

D. Bends & Standard Fittings

𝒌𝒗𝟐
𝒉𝒇 =
𝟐𝒈

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