4.
1 Ionic Bonding and structure
Metal : + ve ions (cations) formed by losing valence electrons
Non-metal: -ve ions (anions) formed by gaining valence electrons
Transfer of electrons occurs since atoms want to achieve a noble gas configuration.
Ionic compounds are usually solids with lattice structures
- An ionic solid consists of positive and negative ions arranged alternatively in a crystal
lattice and are held together by strong electrostatic forces of attraction.
- Giant ionic structure
- Sodium chloride - each ion is surrounded octahedrally by six oppositely charged ions (4 in
the same place and one each from the layer above and below)
Ionic bonding - due to electrostatic forces of attractions between oppositely charged ions
Polyatomic ions
● Nitrate. NO₃⁻
● Chlorate. ClO₃⁻
● Hydroxide. OH⁻
● Carbonate. CO₃⁻²
● Sulfate. SO₄⁻²
● Phosphate. PO₄⁻³
● Ammonium. NH₄⁺
Physical properties of ionic compounds
● High melting and boiling points
○ A large amount of energy is required to overcome the strong electrostatic FOA in
the solid and molten liquid. All the ionic bonds need to be broken in order to be free
to move.
● Good conductors of electricity when molten
○ In molten state, free ions can conduct electricity
● Hard and brittle
○ Hard since every ion is strongly attracted to the oppositely charged ions around it
○ Brittle since when the crystal is tapped sharply along a particular plane, it’s
possible to displace one layer relative to the next. Ions of similar charge then come
together, repelling each other, forcing apart the two portions of the crystal.
● Insoluble in non-polar solvents (CCl4, benzene and hexane)
○Non-polar molecules are held together by weak intermolecular dispersion forces, so
the ion-ion attraction is much stronger than the ion-solvent attraction. Therefore,
these molecules cannot penetrate the ionic lattice, thus insoluble.
● Soluble in polar solvents (water, ethanol, propanone)
○ Polar solvent have dipole-dipole interactions between molecules, so there is
immediate attraction of polar solvent molecules for ions in the ionic solid, so
sufficient energy is released from the ion-dipole interactions to separate the ions
from the lattice.
Θ Θ Θ
𝐻𝑠𝑜𝑙 = 𝐻ℎ𝑦𝑑 + ∆𝐻𝐿𝐷
Θ
● ∆𝐻𝐿𝐷 is the energy required to break the lattice structure (usually positive)
Θ
● 𝐻ℎ𝑦𝑑 is the energy released by the ion-dipole interactions when the lattice is broken
Strength of ionic bonds
- Charge density - The higher the charge density, the higher the ionic bond strength. The
bigger the ionic charge, the more exothermic the lattice energy and the smaller the ionic
radius, the closer the ions and their bond.
4.2 Covalent Bonding
● Covalent bonding - formed by the electrostatic attraction between a shared pair of electrons
and the positively charged nuclei
○ When difference in electronegativity is less than 1.7, a covalent bond is formed
○ Ionic if >1.7
Bond length - distance between the nuclei of two atoms joined by a covalent bond (depends on size)
Bond energy - energy required to break one mole of a covalent bond between two gaseous atoms
- The shorter the bond length, the stronger the bond
- The greater the bond energy, the stronger the bond
- Bond length decreases and bond strength increases as the no. of shared electrons increases
A polar covalent bond is form between atoms of different electronegativities. The electrons are
unequally shared and are closer to the more electronegative atom. This atom acquires a partially
negative charge. This unequal sharing of electrons is called polarization. The covalent bond has a
dipole (two separate regions of charge).
Electronegativity - the tendency of an atom in a covalent bond to attract a bonding pair of e-
“Bond polarity results from the difference in electronegativities of the bonded atoms”
Most covalent bonds have some ionic character due to the difference in electronegativity between
the two atoms. The ionic character increases as the difference in electronegativity increases.
Electronegativity values increase across the period as the effective nuclear charge increases (net
positive charge experienced by valence electrons) and decreases down a group due to decrease in
effective nuclear charge.
All ionic bonds have some covalent character due to the polarization of the ions. As the cation
attracts the negative charge of the anion, resulting in distortion of the anion charge cloud.
High degree of covalency in ionic bonds when
- Cation is small
- Anion is large
- Charge on both ions is large
4.3 Covalent structures
Graphite
Lattice particles : Carbon atoms
Lattice forces : covalent bonds within each layer, and weak dispersions forces between layers
- Has a giant molecular structure, made of flat layers of carbon atoms arranged hexagonally.
- Within the layer, each carbon atom is bonded covalently to three other carbon atoms, using
three of the valence electrons.
1. High melting and boiling points
a. Large amount of energy needed to break the strong covalent bonds between the
layers
2. Good conductor of electricity
a. Due to the delocalization of mobile electrons, can only conduct electricity in the
plane of the layers since they only move there.
3. Insoluble in all solvents
a. Solvent molecules cannot penetrate the graphite lattice due to the presence of
strong covalent bonds within the layers.
4. Slippery, used for lubricating purposes
a. Dispersion forces between layers are very weak, layers can slide over each other.
Diamond
Lattice particles : carbon atoms
Lattice forces : strong covalent bonds
Giant molecular structure consisting of a 3-D covalent network with each carbon atom being
bonded covalently to 4 other C atoms, in a continuous tetrahedral arrangement.
1. High melting and boiling points
a. Large amounts of energy needed to overcome strong covalent bonds
2. Non-conductor of heat & electricity
a. No mobile electrons to carry current as all valence electrons are involved in bonding
3. Insoluble in all solvents
a. Cannot penetrate giant molecular lattice due to strong covalent bonds
4. Hard
a. Structure is very strong and rigid due to C-C bonds and tetrahedral arrangement of
atoms
Silicon dioxide
Lattice particles : silicon and oxygen atoms
Lattice forces : strong covalent bonds
Giant molecular structure where each silicon atom is covalently bonded to 4 oxygen atoms
(tetrahedrally) while each oxygen is covalently bonded to two silicon atoms. Si/O ratio of 1:2 =
SiO2
Fullerene (i.e Buck-minster fullerene)
Spherical molecule made up of 5 or 6 membered carbon rings. C60.
4.4 Intermolecular forces
Hydrogen bonding: Only occurs between hydrogen and either oxygen,nitrogen and fluorine
4.5 Metallic Bonding
